CHAPTER 8
MATRICES AND APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS
1. MATRICES ➤
2. TYPES OF MATRICES ➤
3. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX ➤
4. PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSPOSE MATRIX ➤
5. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX ➤
6. SYMMETRIC MATRIX ➤
7. SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX ➤
8. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES ➤
9. ZERO-ONE MATRICES ➤
10. GRAPH THEORY ➤
11. DEGREE OF THE GRAPH ➤
12. SPECIAL GRAPHS ➤
MATRICES AND APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR
EQUATIONS
1. MATRICES ➤
In general we shall denote the elements of the matrix by a i j , where i denote the
number of the row and j denote the number of the column.
2. TYPES OF MATRICES ➤
2.1. ROW MATRIX ➤ 2.2. COLUMN MATRIX ➤
If the matrix consists of only one If the matrix consists of only
row and any number of columns, it
One column and any number of
is called a row matrix, and written
rows, it is called a column matrix,
in the form and written in the form
2 7 ........................4 9 1
3
.
7
2.3. SQUARE MATRIX ➤ 2.4. RECTANGULAR
MATRIX ➤
If the number of rows is equal to
the number of columns in the If the number of rows is not equal to
matrix it is called a square matrix the number of columns in the matrix
and can be written in the form it is called a rectangular matrix and
1 2 3 can be written in the form
4 2 5
1 2 3 5
4 2 5 7
3 4 2
3 4 2 6
2.5. ZERO MATRIX OR NULL MATRIX ➤
If all the elements of the matrix of any shape are zeros, the matrix is called
the zero matrix
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 , [ 0 0 0] , 0 , 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.6. TRIANGULAR MATRIX ➤
In the square matrix, if all the elements above the principal diagonal are zeros, we
call it " lower triangular matrix" as in Fig 1.a, and is called an upper triangular
matrix", if all the elements below the principal diagonal are zeros as in Fig 1.b
1 0 0 1 2 3
4 2 0 0 2 5
3 4 2 0 0 2
lower triangular matrix upper triangular matrix
Fig .1.a Fig .1.b
2.7. UNIT MATRIX ➤
In square matrix, if all the elements of the principal diagonal are unity and the rest
of the elements are zeros, the matrix is called the unit matrix, and we shall denote
it I.
1 0 0
I = 0 1 0 = unit matrix
0 0 1
3. TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX ➤
The matrix obtained by interchanging its rows as columns of the given matrix A,
is called the transpose of A , denoted by AT , i.e.
1 2 6 1 4 3
A = 4 2 5 A = 2 2 4
T
3 4 2 6 5 2
4. PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSPOSE MATRIX ➤
4.1. THE TRANSPOSE OF THE TRANSPOSE OF
A MATRIX ➤
is the matrix itself.
(A )
T T
=A
4.2. THE TRANSPOSE OF A PRODUCT OF A SCALAR BY
A MATRIX ➤
equals the product of the scalar by the transpose of the matrix, i.e.
(kA)T = K AT
4.3. THE TRANSPOSE OF THE SUM. (OR SUBTRACTION)
OF TWO MATRICES ➤
equals the sum (or subtraction) of their transpose.
( A B)T = AT BT
4.4. THE TRANSPOSE OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO
MATRICES ➤
equals the product of their transpose in a reverse order, i.e.
( A B )T = BT AT
5. ORTHOGONAL MATRIX ➤
A matrix is called orthogonal if the product by its transpose is the unit matrix, i.e.
A A T = I
6. SYMMETRIC MATRIX ➤
In the square matrix if the values of the elements are unaltered when we
interchange their indices, i.e.
ai j = a j i , i j
The matrix is called symmetric matrix,
1 4 6
A = 4 7 3 = symmetric matrix
6 3 8
7. SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX ➤
In the square matrix if the values of the elements change their signs but not values
when we interchange their indices, i.e.
ai j = − a j i , i j
The matrix is called skew symmetric matrix, and denoted by A
1 4 6
A = − 4 7 − 3 = skew symmetric matrix
− 6 3 8
8. ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON MATRICES ➤
8.1. EQUAL MATRICES ➤
Two Matrices A = [aij ] , B = [bij ] are called equal if their corresponding elements are
equal
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13
A = a 21 a 22
a 23 B = b21 b22 b23
a31 a32 a33 b31 b32 b33
A=B
if
ai j = bi j i , j = 1,2,3
8.2. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION ➤
Two Matrices
A = [ aij ] , B = [bij ]
can be added or subtracted if they are of the same number of rows and columns,
and the resultant matrix C = [Cij ] , is written as:
ci j = ai j b ij i, j
EXAMPLE ➤
Find A B , for the following matrices:
4 2 5 1 0 2
A= , B=
1 3 − 6 3 1 − 4
SOLUTION ➤
(4 + 1) (2 + 0) (5 + 2) 5 2 7
A+ B = =
(1 + 3) (3 + 1) (−6 − 4) 4 4 − 10
(4 − 1) (2 − 0) (5 − 2) 3 2 3
A− B = =
(1 − 3) (3 − 1) (−6 + 4) − 2 2 − 2
8.3. MULTIPLICATION OF A MATRIX BY A SCALAR ➤
When a matrix is multiplied by a number k , this is the same as if we multiply each
element by the same number k, i.e.
4 2 5 4 k 2 k 5k
A= k.A=
1 3 − 6 1k 3k − 6k
8.4. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION ➤
Two matrices can be multiplied A and B iff the number of columns of the first matrix
A equals the number of rows of the second matrix B.
Let A = [aij ] , be of order m × n and B = [bi j ] of order n × p . Then the product of A ×
B is a matrix of order m× p, and denoted by C = [ ci j ] , where
ci j = ai1 b1 j + ai 2 b2 j + ai 3 b3 j + ....... + ai n bn j
Thus if
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12
A= , B = b21 b22
a 21 a 22 a 23 b31 b32
23 3 2
Then
a11 b11 + a12 b21 + a13b31 a11 b12 + a12 b22 + a13b32
AB =
a 21 b11 + a 22 b21 + a 23b31 a 21b12 + a 22 b22 + a 23b32
2 2
8.5. PROPERTIES OF MATRIX MULTIPLICATION ➤
8.5.1. Matrix multiplication is not commutative ➤
AB B A
8.5.2. Matrix multiplication obeys the associative law of ➤
A ( B C ) = ( A B) C
8.5.3. Matrix multiplication obeys the law of distribution ➤
with respect to Addition, i.e.
A(B + C) = A B + A C
EXAMPLE ➤
If
1 − 2
1 0 2
A = 2 3 , B=
− 3 1 0 1 3
Find A ×B, B × A, and show that A B B A .
SOLUTION ➤
the number of columns of A = the number of rows of B. Hence
1 + 0 0 − 2 2 − 6 1 − 2 − 4
A . B = 2 + 0 0 + 3 4 + 9 = 2 3 13
− 3 + 0 0 + 1 − 6 + 3 − 3 1 − 3
3 3
Also,
− 5 0
B. A=
− 7 6
2 2
It is clear that A. B B. A .
EXAMPLE ➤
1 2 − 1 1 0 0
Let A = 3 0 2 , B = 2 1 0
4 5 0 0 1 3
Show that:
( A B ) T = B T AT
SOLUTION ➤
1 2 − 1 1 0 0 5 1 − 3
A B = 3 0 2 2 1 0 = 3 2 6
4 5 0 0 1 3 14 5 0
5 3 14
(A B) = 1 2 5
T
(i)
− 3 6 0
1 3 4 1 2 0
AT = 2 0 5 , B T = 0 1 1
− 1 2 0 0 0 3
1 2 0 1 3 4 5 3 14
B T AT = 0 1 1 2 0 5 = 1 2 5 (ii)
0 0 3 − 1 2 0 − 3 6 0
From (i), (ii) we conclude that:
( A B ) T = B T AT
EXAMPLE ➤
If
− 8 1 4
1
A= 4 4 7 ,
9
1 − 8 4
Prove that A A = I , where AT is the transpose of A.
T
SOLUTION ➤
− 8 1 4 − 8 4 1
1
4 7 A = 1 4 − 8
1
A= 4 , T
9 9
1 − 8 4 4 7 4
−8 1 4 −8 4 1
A A T = 4 4 7 1 4 −8
1 1
9 9
1 −8 4 4 7 4
81 0 0 1 0 0
= 0 81 0 = 0 1 0 = I
1
81
0 0 81 0 0 1
9. ZERO-ONE MATRICES ➤
All elements of a zero-one matrix are 0 or 1, representing False & True
respectively.
9.1. THE JOIN ➤
of A and B (both 𝑚 × 𝑛 zero-one matrices) is
𝐴 ∨ 𝐵 ≡ [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∨ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ].
9.2. THE MEET ➤
of A and B is
𝐴 ∧ 𝐵 ≡ [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∧ 𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]
EXAMPLE ➤
Evaluate the join and the meet for
SOLUTION ➤
The join between A and B is
1 1 1
𝐴∨𝐵 =[ ]
1 1 0
The meet between A and B is
0 0 0
𝐴∧𝐵 =[ ]
0 1 0
9.3. BOOLEAN PRODUCTS ➤
Let A be an 𝑚 × 𝑘 zero-one matrices and B be a 𝑘 × 𝑛 zero-one matrices,
The Boolean product 𝐴⨀𝐵 of A and B is like normal matrix product, but using
∨ instead + and using ∧ instead ×.
EXAMPLE ➤
Find the Boolean product of:
1 0
1 1 0
𝐴 = [0 1] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵=[ ]
0 1 1
1 0
SOLUTION ➤
9.4. BOOLEAN POWERS ➤
For a square zero-one matrix A, and any 𝑘 ≥ 0, the kth Boolean power of A is
simply the Boolean product k copies of A.
EXAMPLE ➤
1 1 0
Let 𝐴 = [0 1 0], Find A[2].
1 0 1
SOLUTION ➤
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
[2]
𝐴 = 𝐴⨀𝐴 = [0 1 0] ⨀ [0 1 0] = [0 1 0]
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
10. GRAPH THEORY ➤
If G is a digraph that has n vertices, then the 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix A(G), whose i, jth
elements is 1 if there is a directed edge from Pi to Pj and zero otherwise, is called
the adjacency matrix of G. Note that A(G) need not be a symmetric matrix.
EXAMPLE ➤
FIG. 2-1
SOLUTION ➤
The matrices A, B, C, and D are the adjacency matrices of the digraphs in Figures
2-1, respectively
EXAMPLE ➤
11. DEGREE OF THE GRAPH ➤
Let G be a graph and a vertex of G. The degree of , denoted deg( ), equals the
number of edges that are incident , with an edge that a loop counted twice.
EXAMPL➤
Find the degree of each vertex of the graph G shown below
deg(v1)=0 since no edge is incident on v1 (v1 is isolated).
deg(v2)=2 since both e1 and e2 are incident on v2.
deg(v3)=4 since both e1 and e2 are incident on v3 and the loop e3 is also incident on
v3 (and contributes 2 to the degree of v3).
So, the degree of the graph equals 6.
12. SPECIAL GRAPHS ➤
12.1. SIMPLE GRAPH ➤
A simple graph is a graph does not have any loops or parallel edges.
12.2. COMPLETE GRAPH ➤
Let n be a positive integer. A complete graph on n vertices, denoted Kn, is a simple
graph with n vertices and exactly one edge connecting each pair of distinct
vertices.
The complete graphs K1, K2, K3, K4, K5 can be drawn as follows:
12.3. COMPLETE BIPARTITE GRAPH ➤
Let m and n be positive integers. A complete bipartite graph on (m, n) vertices,
denoted Km, n, is a simple graph whose vertices are divided into two distinct subset,
V with m vertices and W with n vertices, in such a way that
