CHEMISTRY

INVETIGATORY PROJECT
ON:
"STUDY OF QUANTITY OF
CASEIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT
SAMPLES OF MILK"
SUBMITTED BY: SAKSHAM TRIPATHI
CLASS:XII

TEACHERS SIGNATURE:
EXTERNAL EXAMINER:
 CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT, ABHAY
KUMAR GUPTA STUDENT OF
MANBODHAN PRASAD PUBLIC
SCHOOL HAS SUBMITTED THE
CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT
ENTITLED " STUDY OF QUANTITY OF
CASEIN PROTEIN IN DIFFERENT
SAMPLES OF MILK" FOR PARTIAL
FULLFILMENT AND PRACTICAL
EXAMINATION TO THE DEPARTMENT
OF CHEMISTRY, EMBODIES A
DETAILED STUDY UNDER MY
SUPERVISION . THIS PROJECT IN MY
OPINION IS COMPLETE AND SUITABLE
FOR PRESENTATION.
SUBMITTED TO: TAPASYA
SUBMITTED BY: SAKSHAM TRIPATHI
 ACKNOWLEGEMENT
I wish to express my gratitude and sincere thanks
to the Principal Mrs. Ragni Agrarwal,
Manbodhan Prasad Public School for her
encouragement and for all the facilities that she
provided for this project work. I extend my
heartly thanks to my chemistry teacher Mr.
Nandan Pandey , who guided me to the successful
completion of this project .I take this opportunity
to express my deep sense of gratitude ,constant
encouragement , constructive comments ,
sympathetic attitude and immense motivation ,
which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this
project work.

SAKSHAM TRIPATHI
 INDEX
 INTRODUCTION
 DATA COLLECTION
 CHARACTERISITICS
 USES
 ADVANTAGES
 PRINCIPLES
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
 OPTIMAL SOLUTION
 APPLICATION OF LINEAR
PROGRAMMING

INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is the queen of science. In our
daily life, planning is required on various
occasions, especially when the resources are
limited. Any planning is meant for attaining
certain objectives. The best strategy is one that
gives a maximum output from a minimum input.
The objective which is in the form of output
may be to get the maximum profit, minimum
cost of production or minimum inventory cost
with a limited input of raw material, manpower
and machine capacity. Such problems are
referred to as the problems of constrained
optimization. Linear programming is a
technique for determining an optimum schedule
of interdependent activities in view of the
available resources. Programming is just another
word for 'planning' and refers to the process of
determining a particular plan of action from
amongst several alternatives.
Linear programming applies to optimization
models in which objective and constraint
functions are strictly linear. The technique is
used in a wide range of applications, including
agriculture, industry, transportation, economics,
health systems, behavioral and social sciences
and the military. It also boasts efficient
computational algorithms for problems with
thousands of constraints and variables. Indeed,
because of its tremendous computational
efficiency, linear programming forms the
backbone of the solution algorithms for other
operative research models, including integer,
stochastic and non-linear programming. The
graphical solution provides insight into the
development of the
general algebraic simplex method. It also gives
concrete ideas for the development and
interpretation of sensitivity analysis in linear
programming.
Linear programming is a major innovation since
World War II in the field of business decision
maki2ng, particularly under conditions of
certainty. The word 'linear' means the
relationships handled are those represented by
straight lines, i.e. the relationships are of the
form y = a + bx and the word 'programming'
means taking decisions systematically. Thus,
linear programming is a decision making
technique under given constraints on the
assumption that the relationships amongst the
variables representing different phenomena
happen to be linear.
A linear programming problem consists of three
parts. First, there objective function which is to
be either maximized or minimized. Second,
there is a set of linear constraints 4which
contains thee technical specifications of the
problems in relation to the given resources or
requirements. Third, there is a set of non
negativity constraints - since negative
production has no physical counterpart.
AIM
 1. To find and know more about the
importance and uses of 'linear
programming'.8
2. To formulate a linear programming
problem and solve in simplex method and
dual problem

DATA COLLECTION
Mathematical technique in operations research
and a plan of action to solve a given problem
involving linearly related variables in order to
achieve the laid down objective in the form of
minimizing or maximizing the objective
function under a given set of constraints.

CHARACTERISTICS
 Objectives can be expressed in a standard
form viz. maximize/minimize z = f(x)where
 z is called the Linear programming is a
versatile objective function.5
Constraints are capable of being expressed in
the form of equality or inequality viz. f(x) = or
less than equal to or greater than equal to k
where k=constant and x is greater than equal to
0
 Resources to be optimized are capable of
being quantified in numerical terms.
 The variables are linearly related to each
other.
 More than one solution exist, the objectives
being to select the optimum solution.
 The linear programming technique is based
on simultaneous solutions of linear
equations.

USES
There are many uses of L.P. It is not possible to
list them all here. However L.P is very useful to
find out the following:

 Optimum product mix to maximize the

profit.
 Optimum schedule of orders to minimize the
total cost.
 Optimum media-mix to get maximum
advertisement effect.
 Optimum schedule of supplies from
warehouses to minimize transportation
costs.
 Optimum line balancing to have minimum
idling time.
 Optimum allocation of capital to obtain
maximum R.O.I
  Optimum allocation of jobs between
machines for maximum utilization of
machines.
 Optimum assignments of jobs between
workers to have maximum labor
productivity.
 Optimum staffing in hotels, police stations
and hospitals to maximize efficiency.
 Optimum number of crew in buses and
trains to have minimum operating costs.
 Optimum facilities in telephone exchange to
have minimum break downs.
The above list is not an exhaustive one; only an
illustration.
ADVANTAGES
 Provide the best allocation of available
resources.
 meet overall objectives of the management.
 Assist management to take proper decisions.
  Provide clarity of thought and better
appreciation of problem.
 Improve objectivity of assessment of the
situation.
The above list is not an exhaustive one; only an
illustration

ADVANTAGES

 Provide the best allocation of available

resources.
 Meet overall objectives of the management.
 Assist management to take proper decisions.
 Provide clarity of thought and better
appreciation of problem
 Improve objectivity of assessment of the
situation
  Put across our view points more successfully
by logical argument supported by scientific
methods.

PRINCIPLES
Following principles are assumed in L.P.P
 Proportionality: There exist proportional
relationships between objectives
and constraints.
 Additivity: Total resources are equal to
the sum of the resources used in individual
activities.
 Divisibility: Solution need not be a whole
number viz decision variable can be in
fractional form.
 Certainty: Coefficients of objective function
and constraints are known constants and do
not change viz parameters remain unaltered.
  Finiteness: Activities and constraints
are finite in number.
 Optimality: The ultimate objective is to
obtain an optimum solution viz
'maximization' or 'minimization'.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
a) Basic solution:
There are instances where number of unknowns
(p) are more than the number of linear equations
(q) available. In such cases we assign zero
values to all surplus unknowns. There will be
(p–q) such unknowns. With these values we
solve ‘q’ equations and get values of ‘q’
unknowns. Such solutions are called Basic
Solutions.
b) Basic variables:
The variables whose value is obtained from the
basic solution is called basic variables.
c) Non-basic variables:
The variables whose value are assumed as zero
in basic solutions are called non-basic variables.
d) Solution:
A solution to a L.P.P is the set of values of the
variables which satisfies the set of constraints
for the problem.
e) Feasible solution:
A feasible solution to a L.P.P the set of values of
variables which satisfies the set of constraints as
well as the non-negative constraints of the
problem.
f) Basic feasible solution:
A feasible solution to a L.P.P in which the
vectors associated with the non-zero variables
are linearly independent is called basic feasible
solution.
Note:
Linearly independent variables x₁, x₂, x₃, ........
are said to be linearly independent if k₁x₁ +
k₂x₂ + ........ + kₙxₙ = 0, implying k₁ = 0, k₂ =
0……
g) Optimum (optimal) solution:
A feasible solution of a L.P.P is said to be the
optimum solution if it also optimizes the
objective function of the problem.
h) Slack variables:
Linear equations are solved through equality
form of equations. Normally, constraints are
given in the "less than or equal" (≤) form. In
such cases, we add appropriate variables to
make it an "equality" (=) equation. These
variables added to the constraints to make it an
equality equation in L.P.P is called slack
variables and is often denoted by the letter 'S'.
Eg:
2x₁ + 3x₂ ≤ 500
2x₁ + 3x₂ + S₁ = 500, where S₁ is the slack
variable
i) Surplus variables:
Sometimes, constraints are given in the "more
than or equal" (≥) form. In such cases, we
subtract an approximate variable to make it into
"equality" (=) form. Hence, variables subtracted
from the constraints to make it an equality
equation in L.P.P is called surplus variables and
often denoted by the letter 's'.
Eg:
3x₁ + 4x₂ ≥ 100
3x₁ + 4x₂ - S₂ = 0, where S₂ is the surplus
variable.
j) Artificial variable:
Artificial variables are fictitious variables.
These are introduced to help computation and
solution of equations in L.P.P. They are used
when constraints are given in (≥) "greater than
or equal" form. As discussed, surplus variables
are subtracted in such cases to convert
inequality to equality form. In certain cases,
even after introducing surplus variables, the
simplex tableau may not contain an 'Identity
matrix' or unit vector. Thus, in a L.P.P artificial
variables are introduced in order to get a unit
vector in the simplex tableau to get feasible
solution. Normally, artificial variables are
represented by the letter 'A'.
k) Big-M method:
Problems where artificial variables are
introduced can be solved by two methods viz.
 Big-M method and
 Two phase method.
Big-M-method is a modified simplex method
for solving L.P.P when high penalty cost (or
profit) has been assigned to the artificial
variable in the objective function. This method
is applicable for minimizing and maximizing
problems.
l) Two Phase method:
L.P.P where artificial variables are added can be
solved by two phase method. This is a modified
simplex method. Here the solution takes place in
two phases as follows:
 Phase I – Basic Feasible solution:
Here, simplex method is applied to a
 specially constructed L.P.P called Auxiliary
L.P.P and obtain basic feasible solution.
 Phase II – Optimum Basic solution:
From basic feasible solution, obtain
optimum feasible solution.
Simplex Tableau1
This is a table prepared to show and enter the
values obtained for basic variables at each
stage of Iteration. This is the derived values at
each stage of calculation.2

Optimal Solution3
An optimal solution of a linear programming
problem is the set of real values of the decision
variables which satisfy the constraints
including the non-negativity conditions, if any
and at the same time optimize the objective
function.4
 A vector 5$(x1, x2... xn)$ which satisfies the
constraints6 $A x \leq$ or $\geq b$ is called
a solution.7
 And a solution which satisfies all the
constraints including the nonnegativity
condition is called a feasible solution.8
 The set of all feasible solutions is called
feasible space.9

APPLICATION OF LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
The primary reason for using linear
programming methodology is to ensure that
limited resources are utilized to the fullest
extent without any waste and that utilization is
made in such a way that the outcomes are
expected to be the best possible.
 Some of the examples of linear programming
are:
a) A production manager planning to produce
various products with the given resources of raw
materials, man-hours, and machine-time for
each product must determine how many
products and quantities of each product to
produce so as to maximize the total profit.
b) An investor has a limited capital to invest in a
number of securities such as stocks and bonds.
He can use linear programming approach to
establish a portfolio of stocks and bonds so as to
maximize return at a given level of risk. c) A
marketing manager has at his disposal a budget
for advertisement in such media as newspapers,
magazines, radio and television. The manager
would like to determine the extent of media mix
which would maximize the advertising
effectiveness.
d) A Farm has inventories of a number of items
stored in warehouses located in different parts
of the country that are intended to serve various
markets. With in the constraints of the
demand for the products and location of
markets, the company ( would like to determine
which warehouse should ship which
product and how much of it to each market so
that the total cost of shipment is minimized.
e) Linear programming is also used in
production smoothing. A manufacturer has to
determine the best production plan and
inventory policy for future demands which are
subject to seasonal and cyclical fluctuations.
The objective here is to minimize the motal
production and inventory cost
A marketing manager wants to assige territories
to be covered by salespersons. The objective is
to determine the shortest route for each
 salesperson starting from his base, visiting
clients in various places and then returning to
the original point of departure. Linear
programming can be used to determine the
shortest route
g) in the area of personnel management, similar
to the travelling salesperson problem, the
problem of assigning a given number of
personnel to different jobs can be solved by this
technique. The objective here is to minimize the
total time taken to complete all jobs.
h) Another problem in the area of personnel
management is the problem of determining the
equitable salaries and sales-incentive
compensation. Linear programming has been
used successfully in much problems.