TRANSACTION

• Why we study transaction?

o According to general computation principle (operating system) we may have partially
executed program, as the level of atomicity is instruction i.e. either an instruction is
executed completely or not
o But in DBMS view, user perform a logical work(operation) which is always atomic in
nature i.e. either operation is execute or not executed, there is no concept like
partial execution. For example, Transaction T1 which transfer 100 units from account
A to B
T1
Read(A)
A = A-100
Write(A)
Read(B)
B = B+100
Write(B)
o In this transaction if a failure occurs after Read(B) then the final statue of the system
will be inconsistent as 100 units are debited from account A but not credited in
account B, this will generate inconsistency.
o Here for ‘consistency’ before (A + B) == after (A + B)”
 What is Transaction
o To remove this partial execution problem, we increase the level of atomicity and bundle all
the instruction of a logical operation into a unit called transaction.
o So formally ‘A transaction is a Set of logically related instructions to perform a logical unit
of work’.
o As here we are only concerned with DBMS so we well only two basic operation on database
• READ (X) - Accessing the database item x from disk (where database stored data) to
memory variable also name as X.
• WRITE (X) - Writing the data item from memory variable X to disk.

Q A transaction can include following basic database access operations: (NET-JUNE-2011)

(A) Read_item(X) (B) Write_item(X)
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
Ans: c
 Desirable Properties of Transaction
o Now as the smallest unit which have atomicity in DBMS view is transaction, so if want that
our data should be consistent then instead of concentrating on data base, we must
concentrate on the transaction for our data to be consistent.
o Transactions should possess several properties, often called the ACID properties; to provide
integrity and consistency of the data in the database. The following are the ACID
properties:
o Atomicity - A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it should either be
performed in its entirety or not performed at all. It is the responsibility of recovery
control manager / transaction control manager of DBMS to ensure atomicity
o Consistency - A transaction should be consistency preserving, meaning that if it is
completely executed from beginning to end without interference from other
transactions, it should take the database from one consistent state to another. The
definition of consistency may change from one system to another. The preservation
of consistency of database is the responsibility of programmers(users) or the DBMS
modules that enforces integrity constraints.
o Isolation - A transaction should appear as though it is being executed in isolation
from other transactions, even though many transactions are executing concurrently.
That is, the execution of a transaction should not be interfered with by any other
transactions executing concurrently. The isolation property of database is the
responsibility of concurrency control manager of database.
o Durability - The changes applied to the database by a committed transaction must
persist in the database. These changes must not be lost because of any failure. It is
the responsibility of recovery control manager of DBMS.
 Transaction states

o ACTIVE - It is the initial state. Transaction remains in this state while it is executing
operations.
o PARTIALLY COMMITTED - After the final statement of a transaction has been executed, the
state of transaction is partially committed as it is still possible that it may have to be
aborted (due to any failure) since the actual output may still be temporarily residing in
main memory and not to disk.
o FAILED - After the discovery that the transaction can no longer proceed (because of
hardware /logical errors). Such a transaction must be rolled back
o ABORTED - A transaction is said to be in aborted state when the when the transaction has
been rolled back and the database has been restored to its state prior to the start of
execution.
o COMMITTED - A transaction enters committed state after successful completion of a
transaction and final updation in the database

Q if the transaction is in which of the state that we can guarantee that data base is in
consistent state
a) aborted b) committed c) both aborted & committed d) none

Q Match:
Column I Column II
1. Atomicity A. Recovery Manager
2. Durability B. Concurrency control manager
3. Isolation C. Programmer
4. Consistency
a) 1-a, 2–a, 3-b, 4–c b) 1-a, 2-b,3-b,4-c c) 1-a,2-a,3-b,4-b d) none of these
PROBLEMS DUE TO CONCURRENT EXECUTION OF TRANSACTION
Concurrent execution is necessary because-
• It leads to good database performance.
• Disk accesses are frequent and relatively slow.
• Overlapping I/O activity with CPU increases throughput and response time.

But interleaving of instructions between transactions may also lead to many problems that can
lead to inconsistent database. Sometimes it is possible that even though individual transaction
are satisfying the acid properties even though the final statues of the system will be
inconsistent.
Lost update problem / Write - Write problem

o If there is any two write operation of different transaction on same data value, and
between them there is no read operations, then the second write over writes the first
write.

T1 T2
Read(A)
Write(A)
Write(A)
Commit
Commit
 Dirty read problem/ Read -Write problem

• In this problem, the transaction reads a data item updated by another uncommitted
transaction, this transaction may in future be aborted or failed.
• The reading transactions end with incorrect results.

T1 T2
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(A)
Commit
Abort

Q The problem that occurs when one transaction updates a database item and
then the transaction fails for some reason is ________. (NET-JUNE-2012)
(A) Temporary Select Problem (B) Temporary Modify Problem
(C) Dirty Read Problem (D) None
Ans: d
 Unrepeatable read problem/phantom read problem
▪ When a transaction tries to read a value of a data item twice, and another transaction
updates the data item in between, then the result of the two read operation of the first
transaction will differ, this problem is called, Non-repeatable read problem

T1 T2
Read(A)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(A)

o Phantom read problem

T1 T2
Read(A)
Delete(A)
Read(A)
Q The following schedule is suffering from

a) Lost update problem b) Unpredictable read problem

c) Both A and B d) Neither A and B

Q Which of the following scenarios may lead to an irrecoverable error in a database system?
(GATE – 2008) (1 Marks)
(A) A transaction writes a data item after it is read by an uncommitted transaction
(B) A transaction reads a data item after it is read by an uncommitted transaction
(C) A transaction reads a data item after it is written by a committed transaction
(D) A transaction reads a data item after it is written by an uncommitted transaction
Answer: (D)
 Solution is Schedule
o When two or more transaction executed together or one after another then they can be
bundled up into a higher unit of execution called schedule, A schedule of n transactions T1,
T2, ..., Tn is an ordering of the operations of the transactions. Operations from different
transactions can be interleaved in the schedule S.
o However, schedule for a set of transaction must contain all the instruction of those
transaction, and for each transaction Ti that participates in the schedule S, the operations
of Ti in S must appear in the same order in which they occur in Ti.
o Schedule can be of two types-
o Serial schedule - A serial schedule consists of sequence of instruction belonging to
different transactions, where instructions belonging to one single transaction appear
together. Before complete execution of one transaction another transaction cannot
be started.
o For a set of n transactions, there exist n! different valid serial schedules. Every serial
schedule lead database into consistent state. Throughput of system is less.

o Non-serial schedule - A schedule in which sequence of instructions of a transaction

appear in the same order as they appear in individual transaction but the instructions
may be interleaved with the instructions of different transactions i.e. concurrent
execution of transactions takes place.
o So the number of schedules for n different transaction T1,T2,T3,---------TN where each
transaction conations n1, n2, n3, -----------,n4 respectively will be
o {(n1, n2, n3, -----------,nn)!}/ (n1! n2! n3! -----------nn!)
o Conclusion of schedules
o We do not have any method to proof that a schedule is consistent , but from the
above discussion we understand that a serial schedule will always be consistent , so if
somehow we proof that a non-serial schedule will also have same effects as of a
serial schedule that we get a proof that , this particular non-serial schedule will also
be consistent “find those schedules that are logically equal to serial schedules”.
o For a concurrent schedule to result in consistent state, it should be equivalent to a
serial schedule. i.e. it must be serializable.

On the basis of On the basis of

SERIALIZABILITY RECOVERABILITY

Conflict
Recoverable
serializable

View
Cascadeless
serializable

Result Strict
Equivalent Recoverable
 SERIALIZABILITY
Conflicting instructions - Let I and J be two consecutive instructions belonging to two different
transactions Ti and Tj in a schedule S, the possible I and J instruction can be as-
I= READ(Q), J=READ(Q) ->Non-conflicting
I= READ(Q), J=WRITE(Q) ->Conflicting
I= WRITE(Q), J=READ(Q) ->Conflicting
I= WRITE(Q), J=WRITE(Q) ->Conflicting
So, the instructions I and J are said to be conflicting, if they are operations by different
transactions on the same data item, and at least one of these instructions is a write operation.

o Conflict equivalent – if one schedule can be converted to another schedule by swapping of

non- conflicting instruction then they are called conflict equivalent schedule.
T1 T2
R(A)
A=A-50
R(B)
B=B+50
R(B)
B=B+50
R(A)
A=A+10

T1 T2
R(B)
B=B+50
R(A)
A=A-50
R(B)
B=B+50
R(A)
A=A+10
 CONFLICT SERIALIZABLE
• The schedules which are conflict equivalent to a serial schedule are called conflict
serializable schedule. If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S’ by a series of
swaps of non- conflicting instructions, we say that S and S’ are conflict equivalent.
• A schedule S is conflict serializable, if it is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.
 Procedure for determining conflict serializability of a schedule
o It can be determined using PRECEDENCE GRAPH method:
o A precedence graph consists of a pair G (V, E)
▪ V= set of vertices consisting of all the transactions participating in the schedule.
▪ E= set of edges consists of all edges Ti -> Tj, for which one of the following conditions
holds:
▪ Ti executes write(Q) before Tj executes read(Q)
▪ Ti executes read(Q) before Tj executes write(Q)
▪ Ti executes write(Q) before Tj executes write(Q)

o If an edge Ti -> Tj exists in the precedence graph, then in any serial schedule S’ equivalent to
S, Ti must appear before Tj.

o If the precedence graph for S has no cycle, then schedule S is conflict serializable, else it is
not. This cycle detection can be done by cycle detection algorithms, one of them based on
depth first search takes O(n2) time.

o The serialializibility order of transactions of equivalent serial schedule can be determined

using topological order in a precedence graph.
Q Consider the following schedule for transactions T1, T2 and T3: (GATE – 2010) (2 Marks)

Which one of the schedules below is the correct serialization of the above?
(A) T1->>T3->>T2 (B) T2->>T1->>T3 (C) T2->>T3->>T1 (D) T3->>T1->>T2
Answer: (A)

Q Consider two transactions T1 and T2 which form schedules S1, S2, S3 and S4 as follows: -
T1: R1 [A], W1 [A], W1 [B] T2: R2 [A], R2 [B], W2 [B]
S1: R1[A], R2 [A], R2[B], W1[A], W2[B], W1[B]
S2: R1[A], R2 [A], R2[B], W1[A], W1[B], W2 [B]
S3: R2[A], R1 [A], R2[B], W1[A], W1[B], W2[B]
S4: R1[A], W2 [A], R2[A], W1[B], R2[B], W2[B]
Which of the above schedules is conflicts serializable? (GATE - 2009) (2 Marks)
a) Only S1 b) Both S1 and S2 c) Both S1 and S4 d) Both S3 and S4

Q (GATE - 2009) (2 Marks)

a) S1 and S2 b) S2 and S3 c) S3 only d) S4 only

Ans: b
Q Consider the following four schedules due to three transactions (indicated by the subscript)
using read and write on a data item x, denoted by r(x) and w(x) respectively. Which one of
them is conflict serializable. (GATE - 2014) (2 Marks)
(a) r1 (x); r2 (x); w1 (x); r3 (x); w2 (x) (b) r2 (x);r1 (x);w2 (x);r3 (x);w1 (x)
(c) r3 (x);r2 (x);r1 (x);w2 (x);w1 (x) (d) r2 (x);w2 (x);r3 (x);r1 (x);w1 (x)
Ans: d

Q Consider the transactions T1, T2, and T3 and the schedules S1 and S2 given below. (GATE -
2006) (2 Marks)
T1: r1(X); r1(Z); w1(X); w1(Z)
T2: r2(Y); r2(Z); w2(Z)
T3: r3(Y); r3(X); w3(Y)
S1: r1(X); r3(Y); r3(X); r2(Y); r2(Z);w3(Y); w2(Z); r1(Z); w1(X); w1(Z)
S2: r1(X); r3(Y); r2(Y); r3(X); r1(Z);r2(Z); w3(Y); w1(X); w2(Z); w1(Z)
Which one of the following statements about the schedules is TRUE?
(A) Only S1 is conflict-serializable. (B) Only S2 is conflict-serializable.
(C) Both S1 and S2 are conflict-serializable. (D) Neither S1 nor S2 is conflict-serializable.
Answer: (A)

Q Consider three data items D1, D2 and D3 and the following execution schedule of
transactions T1, T2 and T3. In the diagram, R(D) and W(D) denote the actions reading and
writing the data item D respectively. (GATE – 2003) (2 Marks)
Which of the following statements is correct?
(A) The schedule is serializable as T2; T3; T1 (B) The schedule is serializable as T2; T1; T3
(C) The schedule is serializable as T3; T2; T1 (D) The schedule is not serializable
Answer: (D)

Q Consider following schedules involving two transactions : S 1 : r1(X); r1(Y); r2(X); r2(Y);
w2(Y); w1(X) S 2 : r1(X); r2(X); r2(Y); w2(Y); r1(Y); w1(X) Which of the following statement is
true ? (NET-JAN-2017)
(1) Both S1 and S2 are conflict serializable.
(2) S1 is conflict serializable and S2 is not conflict serializable.
(3) S1 is not conflict serializable and S2 is conflict serializable.
(4) Both S1 and S2 are not conflict serializable.
Ans: c

Q Consider the following four schedules due to three transactions (indicated by the subscript)
using read and write on a data item X, denoted by r(X) and w(X) respectively. Which one of
them is conflict serializable? (NET-NOV-2017)
S1: r1(X); r2(X); w1(X); r3(X); w2(X) S2: r2(X); r1(X); w2(X); r3(X); w1(X)
S3: r3(X); r2(X); r1(X); w2(X); w1(X) S4: r2(X); w2(X); r3(X); r1(X); w1(X)
(1) S1 (2) S2 (3) S3 (4) S4
Ans: d

Q Consider the following transactions with data items P and Q initialized to zero: (GATE-2012)
(2 Marks)
T1: read (P);
read (Q);
if P = 0 then Q: = Q + 1;
write (Q);

T2: read (Q);

read (P);
if Q = 0 then P: = P + 1;
write (P);

Any non-serial interleaving of T1 and T2 for concurrent execution leads to

(A) A serializable schedule
(B) A schedule that is not conflict serializable
(C) A conflict serializable schedule
(D) A schedule for which a precedence graph cannot be drawn
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the following transaction involving two bank accounts x and y. (GATE - 2015) (1
Marks)

read(x);
x: = x – 50;
write(x);
read(y);
y: = y + 50;
write(y)

The constraint that the sum of the accounts x and y should remain constant is that of
(A) Atomicity (B) Consistency (C) Isolation (D) Durability
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the following schedule S of transactions T1, T2, T3, T4 (GATE - 2014) (2 Marks)

Which one of the following statements is CORRECT?

(A) S is conflict-serializable but not recoverable
(B) S is not conflict-serializable but is recoverable
(C) S is both conflict-serializable and recoverable
(D) S is neither conflict-serializable nor is it recoverable
Answer: (C)

Q Consider the following partial Schedule S involving two transactions T1 and T2. Only the
read and the write operations have been shown. The read operation on data item P is denoted
by read(P) and the write operation on data item P is denoted by write(P).

Suppose that the transaction T1 fails immediately after time instance 9. Which one of the
following statements is correct? (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)
(A) T2 must be aborted and then both T1 and T2 must be re-started to ensure transaction
atomicity
(B) Schedule S is non-recoverable and cannot ensure transaction atomicity
(C) Only T2 must be aborted and then re-started to ensure transaction atomicity
(D) Schedule S is recoverable and can ensure atomicity and nothing else needs to be done
Ans: b

Q Consider a simple checkpointing protocol and the following set of operations in the log.

(start, T4);
(write, T4, y, 2, 3);
(start, T1);
(commit, T4);
(write, T1, z, 5, 7);
(checkpoint);
(start, T2);
(write, T2, x, 1, 9);
(commit, T2);
(start, T3);
(write, T3, z, 7, 2);

If a crash happens now and the system tries to recover using both undo and redo operations,
what are the contents of the undo list and the redo list (GATE - 2015) (2 Marks)

(A) Undo: T3, T1; Redo: T2 (B) Undo: T3, T1; Redo: T2, T4
(C) Undo: none; Redo: T2, T4, T3; T1 (D) Undo: T3, T1, T4; Redo: T2
Answer: (A)
 VIEW SERIALIZABLE

• If a schedule is not conflict serializable, still it can be consistent, so let us study a weaker
form of serializability called View serializability, and even if a schedule is view serializable
still it can be consistent.
• If a schedule is conflict serializable then it will also be view serializable, so we must check
view serializability only if a schedule is not conflict serializable.
• If a schedule is not conflict serializable then it must have at least one blind write to be
eligible for view serializable. i.e. if a schedule is not conflict serializable and it does not
contain any blind write then it can never be view serializable, but if not conflict serializable
and have blind write then may or may not be view serializable.
• If a schedule is not conflict serializable and if there exist a blind write. First tabulate all
serial schedules possible. Then check one by one whether given schedule is view equivalent
to any of the serial schedule. If yes then schedule is view serializable otherwise not.
• Two schedules S and S’ are view equivalent, if they satisfy following conditions –
o For each data item Q, if the transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q in schedule S ,
then then the transaction Ti must, in schedule S’ ,also read the initial value of Q.
o If a transaction Ti in schedule S reads any data item Q, which is updated by
transaction Tj, then a transaction Ti must in schedule S’ also read data item Q updated
by transaction Tj in schedule S’.
o For each data item Q, the transaction (if any) that performs the final write(Q)
operation in schedule S, then the same transaction must also perform final write(Q)
in schedule S’.
• Complexity wise finding the schedule is view serializable or not is a NP- complete problem.
 View Serializable
A schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.
E.g.

In above example schedule A is view equivalent to serial schedule <T3 T4 T6>,

But the schedule A is not conflict equivalent to any serial schedule.
Hence the schedule A is VIEW SERIALIZABLE, but not CONFLICT SERIALIZABLE.

• BLIND WRITES- In the above example, transaction T4 and T6 perform write operation on
data item Q without accessing (reading the data item), such updation without
knowing/accessing previous value of data item, are called Blind updation or BLIND WRITE.
• Every view serializable that is not conflict serializable has a BLIND WRITE

Q Which of the following statements (s) is/are TRUE?

S1: All view serializable schedules are also conflict serializable.
S2: All conflict serializable schedules are also view serializable.
S3: If a schedule is not conflict serializable then it is not view serializable
S4: If a schedule is not view serializable then it is not conflict serializable.
a) S1 and S2 only b) S2 and S3 only c) S2 and S4 only d) S1 and S3 only
Q Consider the following schedule ‘S’ with three transactions.
S: R1(B); R3(C); R1 (A); W2 (A); W1(A), W2 (B); W3 (A); W1 (B); W3 (B), W3 (C)
Which of the following is TRUE with respect to the above schedule?
a) It is conflict serializable with sequence [T1, T2 T3]
b) It is conflict serializable with sequence [T2, T1 T3]
c) It is view serializable but not conflict serializable
d) It is neither conflict serializable nor view serializable

Q The following schedule S is having 4 transactions and is executed concurrently. The order of
their operations is given below.
S: R1 (x); R2 (y); W2 (x); W3 (z); R4 (z); R3 (x); W3 (y); W1 (x); W2 (y) W3 (x); R4(x); W4 (y); commit
1; commit 2; commit 3; commit 4;
The schedule is
a) Conflict serializable with sequence [T1 T2 T3 T4]
b) Conflict serializable with sequence [T2 T1 T3 T4]
c) View serializable but not conflict serializable
d) Neither conflict serializable nor view serializable
 RECOVERABILITY
RECOVERABLE SCHEDULE-
A schedule in which for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj , such that if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti, then the commit or abort of Ti must appear before Tj. Such a schedule
is called Recoverable schedule.
E.g. –
Sa: r1(X); r2(X); w1(X); r1(Y); w2(X); c2; w1(Y); c1; is recoverable
Sc: r1(X); w1(X); r2(X); r1(Y); w2(X); c2; a1; is not recoverable

NON- RECOVERABLE SCHEDULE-

A schedule in which for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj , such that if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti, then the commit or abort operation of Ti appears before Tj. Such a
schedule is called Non- Recoverable schedule.
 CASCADING ROLLBACK

▪ It is a phenomenon, in which a single transaction failure leads to a series of transaction

rollbacks, is called cascading rollback.
▪ Even if the schedule is recoverable the, the commit of transaction may lead lot of
transaction to rollback.
▪ Cascading rollback is undesirable, since it leads to undoing of a significant amount of work.
▪ Uncommitted reads are not allowed in cascade less schedule.
▪ E.g.

In above schedule T11 reads a data item written by T10 and T12 reads a data item written by
T11. So aborting of T10 may lead T11 and so T12 to roll back.

CASCADELESS SCHEDULE-
▪ To avoid cascading rollback, cascade less schedule are used.
▪ A schedule in which for each pair of transactions Ti and Tj, such that if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti then the commit or abort of Ti must appear before read operation
of Tj. Such a schedule is called cascade less schedule.
 STRICT

SCHEDULE
A schedule in which for each pair of transactions Ti and Tj , such that if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti then the commit or abort of Ti must appear before read and write
operation of Tj.
Q Consider the following schedules:
S1: R1(x) W1(x)R1(y)R2(x)W2(x)C2, C1;
S2: R2(x) W2(x)R1(y)R1(x)W2(x)C2, C1;
Which of the following is true?
a) Both S1 and S2 are recoverable b) S1 is recoverable but S2 is not
c) S2 is recoverable but S1 is not d) Both schedule are not Recoverable

Q Consider the following schedule ‘S’.

S: r1 (X); r2 (Z); r3 (X); r1 (Z); r2 (Y); r3 (Y); w1 (X); c1; w2 (Z); w3 (Y); w2 (Y); c3; c2; The
schedule ‘S’ is
a) Recoverable b) Cascade less c) recoverable and cascade-less d) None

Q Consider the given schedule

R1 (X), R2 (Z), R1 (Z), R3 (X), R3 (Y), W1 (X), Commit1, W3 (Y), Commit3, R2 (Y), W2 (Z), W2 (Y),
Commit2. The given schedule is
a) Recoverable only b) Cascade less only c) recoverable and cascade-less d) None

Q Which of the following statement is/are correct

a) Every view serializable schedule is conflict serializable
b) Every strict schedule is conflict serializable
c) Every conflict serializable schedule is cascade less
d) None of the above

Q A Schedule that is not conflict serializable and contains at least one blind write then the
schedule is
a) Always view serializable b) Always non-serializable
c) May be serializable d) None of the above

Q Consider the following schedule

S; R2 (x), w2 (x), R3 (y), R1(x), R1(y), w1(x), w3(y), R3(x),R1(y), C3, C2, C1;
The above schedule is
a) Recoverable but not cascade less b) Recoverable and cascade less but not strict
c) Recoverable, cascade less and also strict d) Not recoverable

Q Two transactions T1 and T2 are given as:

T1: r1(X)w1(X)r1(Y)w1(Y)
T2: r2(Y)w2(Y)r2(Z)w2(Z)

where ri(V) denotes a read operation by transaction Ti on a variable V and wi(V) denotes a
write operation by transaction Ti on a variable V. The total number of conflict serializable
schedules that can be formed by T1 and T2 is ______(GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
Answer: 54

Q Suppose a database schedule S involves transactions T1, T2, .............,Tn. Consider the
precedence graph of S with vertices representing the transactions and edges representing the
conflicts. If S is serializable, which one of the following orderings of the vertices of the
precedence graph is guaranteed to yield a serial schedule? (NET-NOV-2017)
(1) Topological order (2) Depth - first order
(3) Breadth - first order (4) Ascending order of transaction indices
Ans: a
 System log /transaction log
• To be able to Recover from failures, recovery subsystem of database maintains transaction
log to keep track of all operations of a transaction that effects database items, as well as
other information that may be needed in recovery operation until the commit/abort point
of a transaction.
• Log records can be used to trace out the transaction steps in the event of failure where the
transaction need to be rolled back and all the operations of a transaction either need to be
redone/ undone.
• A log file is written on the disk to avoid hardware/logical failures.
• A log record for a transaction has following syntax-

▪ [start_transaction, T] - Indicates that transaction T has started execution.

▪ [write_item, T, X, old_value, new_value] - Indicates that transaction T has
changed the value of database item X from
old_value to new_value.
▪ [read_item, T, X]- Indicates that transaction T has read the value of database
item X.
▪ [commit, T]- Indicates that transaction T has completed successfully, and affirms
that its effect can be committed (recorded permanently) to the
database.
▪ [Abort, T]. - Indicates that transaction T has been aborted.
▪ Following operation may be taken at time of failure-
▪ a.)Undo operation-We can undo the effect of each WRITE operation of a
transaction T by tracing backward through the log and resetting all items changed by
the WRITE operation of T to their old values.
▪ b.)Redo operation-We can also redo the effect of the WRITE operations of a
transaction T by tracing forward through the log and setting all items changed by
a WRITE operation of T to their new values.
▪ Commit Point of a Transaction- A transaction T reaches its commit point when all its
operations that access the database have been executed successfully and the effect of
all the transaction operations on the database has been recorded in the log.
Beyond the commit point, the transaction is said to be committed, and its effect is
assumed to be permanently recorded in the database.
The transaction then writes an entry [commit,T] into the log. No entry is made in the log
after the commit entry, so a transaction cannot be aborted after it is committed.
Q Usage of Pre-emption and Transaction Rollback prevents ______. (NET-SEP-2013)
(A) Unauthorized usage of data file (B) Deadlock situation
(C) Data manipulation (D) File pre-emption
Ans: b

Q (NET-DEC-2018)
 Topological order in a precedence graph
• Visit the vertex V in a graph G with in degree zero and delete it from the graph.
• Repeat the step 1 till the graph is empty.
• The order in which the vertex is deleted is the serializability order of the equivalent serial
schedule. The number of conflict equal schedules is equal to no. of topological orders
possible in given acyclic precedence graph

Precedence Graph- Equivalent serial schedules

T1->T2->T3->T4->T5 T1->T2->T3->T4->T5
T1->T3->T2->T4->T5
T5->T1->T2->T3->T4
T5->T1->T3->T2->T4
` T1->T5->T2->T3->T4
T1->T2->T5->T3->T4
T1->T2->T3->T5->T4
T1->T5->T3->T3->T4
T1->T3->T2->T5->T4
Q (GATE - 2007) (2 Marks)

a) Both S1 and S2 are conflict serializable

b) S1 is conflict serializable and S2 is not conflict serializable
c) S1 is not conflict serializable and S2 is conflict serializable
d) Both S1 and S2 are not conflict serializable.
Ans: C

Q Two transactions T1 and T2 are given as

T1: r1(X)w1(X)r1(Y)w1(Y)
T2: r2(Y)w2(Y)r2(Z)w2(Z) where ri(V) denotes a read operation by transaction Ti on a variable V
and wi(V) denotes a write operation by transaction Ti on a variable V. The total number of
conflict serializable schedules that can be formed by T1 and T2 is ___________ (GATE-2017) (1
Marks)
Ans: 54

Q NOT a part of the ACID properties of database transactions? (GATE- 2016) (1 Marks)
(a) Atomicity (b) Consistency
(c) Isolation (d) Deadlock-freedom
Ans: d

Q Consider the following database schedule with two transactions, T1 and T2.
S = r2(X); r1(X); r2(Y); w1(X); r1(Y); w2(X); a1; a2
where ri(Z) denotes a read operation by transaction Ti on a variable Z, wi(Z) denotes a write
operation by Ti on a variable Z and ai denotes an abort by transaction Ti.
Which one of the following statements about the above schedule is TRUE? (GATE- 2016) (1
Marks)
(a) S is non-recoverable (b) S is recoverable, but has a cascading abort
(c) S does not have a cascading abort (d) S is strict
Ans: c
(GATE – 2015) (1 Marks)
(a) Atomicity (b) Consistency (c) Isolation (d) Durability
Ans: b

Q Suppose a database schedule S involves transactions T1, ..., Tn. Construct the precedence
graph of S with vertices representing the transactions and edges representing the conflicts. If S
is serializable, which one of the following orderings of the vertices of the precedence graph is
guaranteed to yield a serial schedule? (GATE- 2016) (1 Marks)
(a) Topological order (b) Depth-first order
(c) Breadth-first order (d) Ascending order of transaction indices
Ans: a

Q Consider the following schedules involving two transactions.

S1: r1(X); r1(Y); r2(X); r2(Y); w2(Y); w1(X) S2: r1(X); r2(X); r2(Y); w2(Y); r1(Y); w1(X) Which one
of the following statements is correct with respect to above? (NET-JULY-2018)
(1) Both S1 and S2 are conflict serializable.
(2) Both S1 and S2 are not conflict serializable.
(3) S1 is conflict serializable and S2 is not conflict serializable.
(4) S1 is not conflict serializable and S2 is conflict serializable
Ans: 3

Q In a certain database there are 2 transactions, one contains 5 instructions and another
contains 3 instructions. Then number of concurrent schedules possible is ______.