Question 1:

A) Explain Static VAR Compensator (SVC) with neat sketch?

B) Explain about Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)?
Question 2:
A) Explain the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) for generator excitation control?
B) Briefly explain about any three types FACTS controllers?
Question 3:
A) Explain about High voltage testing methods?
B) Explain about sphere gaps?
Question 4:
A) Explain various constraints in thermal unit commitment problem?
B) Explain Load frequency control of Single power systems?
Answer 1:
A) Explain (Static VAR Compensator) (SVC) with neat sketch?
Static VAR compensators (svc):
SVC is a shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to
exchange capacitive or inductive current to maintain or control specific parameters of the
electrical power system. SVC are mainly used in AC/AC conversion to improve power
efficiency. The way they are connected to the network is shown in Figure 3.
Using an appropriate control of SVC, the following results can be obtained:
• Damping of system swings
• Non-linear gain – to increase response during large disturbances
• TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) winding DC elimination
• TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) overcurrent protection
• Negative sequence balancing
• Secondary overvoltage protection

FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System)

B) Explain the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)?
Unified power flow controller (UPFC):
A combined connection of a STATCOM and SSSC in the DC side and a presence of a
capacitor allow bidirectional transferring of energy between the outputs of the STATCOM
and SSSC.
UPFC includes two voltage source inverters (VSI) connected to the line through
transformers – the first inverter via shunt transformer, and, the second inverter via series
transformer.
Converter 2 operates in so-called “Automatic Power Flow Control Mode”. The inverter
injects a symmetrical three-phase voltage system VC2 with probability to vary voltage
magnitude and voltage phase angle in series with the line to regulate reactive power and
active power flows in it. Therefore, active power P and reactive power Q are required as
reference values to inverter control system.
Converter 1 operates in so-called “Automatic Voltage Control Mode”. Current I C1
consists of two components – active one, which is in phase to or displaced with angle π to
the line voltage, and reactive component, which leads behind or lags with angle π/2 to the
line voltage.
If the Converter 2 is required to supply active power, then the voltage across the capacitor
will be decreasing. The control system of the Converter 1 maintains the value of the
capacitor voltage stable, i.e., in this case the active component of the current I C1 will be in
phase to the line voltage and active power will be transferred toward the capacitor C.
If the Converter 2 has to take active power, then the capacitor voltage will be increasing.
In this case the active component of the current I C1 will be displaced with angle π to the
line voltage and active power will be transferred from the capacitor toward the line. The
reactive component of the current I C1 is regulated undependably and in conformity with
the reference value – inductive or capacitive values, to supply reactive power to or to
absorb reactive power from the transmission line with a maintenance of the voltage value.
From the above-stated it is seen that a typical operational mode for Converter 2 is as a
SSSC, and for Converter1 as a STATCOM. As an additional task, the control system of
Converter1 maintains also the capacitor voltage V dc unchangeable corresponding to the
active power flow. There are additional losses of active power in the system consisting of
two converters, operating according the describe method. These losses are mainly from
losses in the power converter schematics and the transformers.
 Figure 7 depicts a schematic illustrating the operation of UPFC.
Answer 2:
A) Explain the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) for generator excitation control?
An Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is an automatic control device used to maintain a
constant terminal generator voltage. The Generator terminal voltage is fed to the AVR, which
compares it with a reference value, and an error signal is generated.
The function of AVR is as follows:

1. The AVR compares the Generator terminal voltage with a preset reference voltage.

2. If the Generator terminal voltage is less than the reference voltage, the AVR increases
D.C. voltage across the Generator field.
Two conditions occur in regulating the voltage, which are listed below:
Under Excitation:
Under excitation condition is a condition of the generator whose gain is less (less
reinforced), so that it will supply the current to the system. This can be reviewed according
to the GGM/flux of the anchor reaction. When the generator is less amplified, it must
provide an overdue current to the system because the overdue current will produce an anchor
flux that will strengthen the rotor flux.
Over Excitation:
The condition of overexcitation is a condition of the generator whose gain is too large (too
amplified) so that it will supply a lagging current to the system. When the generator is too
amplified, it must provide a lagging current to the system because the lagging current will
produce an anchor flux that counteracts the rotor flux, reducing reinforcement that is too
large.

B) Briefly explain about any three types of FACTS controllers?

According to the type of connection FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System)
Controller with the power system, it is classified as
 Series Connected Controller
 Shunt Connected Controller
 Combined Series-Series Controller
 Combined Shunt-Series Controller
Series Connected Controller:
  The series controllers are used to introduce voltage in series with the line voltage. It
consists of a capacitor or reactor. This type of controller is used to supply as well as
consume variable reactive power.
 When the load of the transmission line is higher, it requires extra reactive power. In
this case, with the help of a capacitor, it supplies reactive power. When the
transmission line operates on extremely light load, because of less demand for reactive
power, the receiving end voltage increases than that of the sending end voltage. In this
condition, it is used to consume reactive power with the help of an inductor.
 In most cases, the capacitors are installed at the end of the line to compensate for
demand for reactive power.
 Examples for series controllers are SSSC, TCSC, TSSC, etc

Shunt Connected Controller:

 Shunt controllers are connected in shunt with the line to inject current into the system
at the point of connection. It consists of a variable capacitor and an inductor.
 When a capacitor is used to connect in parallel with the power system, that method is
known as shunt capacitive compensation. When the transmission line consists of a
more inductive load, it operates on a lagging power factor. This method is used to
draw current leading to the source voltage with the help of a shunt-connected capacitor
to compensate for the lagging load.
 When an inductor is used to connect in shunt with the power system, that method is
known as shunt inductive compensation. Usually, this method is not useful in the
transmission network. But in the case of a very large transmission line, the load is
disconnected or it operates on no-load or less load condition, due to the Ferranti effect
i.e the receiving end voltage is more than the sending end voltage. To avoid such
conditions, the shunt inductive compensator is used.
 The example of Shunt controllers is SVC (Static VAR compensator) and Static
Synchronous Compensator.

Combined Series-Series Controller:

 These controllers consist of a combination of series controllers, with each controller
providing series compensation and also transferring
real power along the line.
Combined Shunt-Series Controller:
 These controllers introduce current in series using the series controllers and voltage in
shunt using the shunt controllers.
 Example for Combined Shunt-Series Controller is UPFC.

Answer 3:
A) Explain the high-voltage testing methods.
In order to ensure an economic power-supply system with a high level of reliability, it is
important to be able to monitor the dielectric parameters of the various insulations being
utilized, when new and in service. Present power systems are ageing significantly, and in
many cases, 40 percent of the equipment is older than the conventional ‘design life’ of 25
years.
The condition of high-voltage electrical insulation systems used in power cables, power
transformers, and generators is influenced by a number of manufacturing and operating
variables that affect performance and failure. Non-destructive testing - NDT - uses test
methods to examine an object, material, or system without impairing its future usefulness.
Non-destructive testing is often required to verify the quality of a product or a system.
Commonly used techniques are:
AET - Acoustic Emission Testing
ART - Acoustic Resonance Testing
ET - Electromagnetic Testing
IRT - Infrared Testing
LT - Leak Testing
MT - Magnetic Particle Testing
PT - Dye Penetrant Testing
RT - Radiographic Testing
UT - Ultrasonic Testing
VT - Visual Testing (VI - Visual Inspection)
Impedance measurements are a basic means of evaluating electronic components and
materials. Every material has a unique set of electrical characteristics that are dependent
on its dielectric or insulation properties. Accurate measurements of these properties can
provide valuable information to ensure an intended application or maintain a proper
manufacturing process.
 B) Explain about sphere gaps?
Sphere gaps:
The sphere gap method of measuring high voltage is the most reliable and is used as the
standard for calibration purposes.
The breakdown strength of a gas depends on the ionisation of the gas molecules and on
the density of the gas. As such, the breakdown voltage varies with the gap spacing, and
for a uniform field gap, a high consistency could be obtained, so that the sphere gap is
very useful as a measuring device.
By precise experiments, the breakdown voltage variation with gap spacing, for different
diameters and distances, has been calculated and represented in charts.
In the measuring device, two metal spheres are used, separated by a gas gap. The
potential difference between the spheres is raised until a spark passes between them. The
breakdown strength of a gas depends on the size of the spheres, their distance apart, and
some other factors.
A spark gap may be used for the determination of the peak value of a voltage wave, and
for checking and calibrating voltmeters and other voltage-measuring devices. The density
of the gas (generally air) affects the spark-over voltage for a given gap setting. Thus, the
correction for any air density change must be made.
Answer 4:
A) Explain various constraints in the thermal unit commitment problem.
Ø Thermal units usually require a crew to operate them, especially when turned on and
off.
Ø A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature changes, and this translates
into a time period of some hours required to bring the unit online.
Ø As a result of such restrictions in the operation of a thermal plant, various
constraints arise, such as:
1. Minimum uptime: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately
2. Minimum downtime: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it
can be recommitted.
Cc = cold-start cost (MBtu)
F = fuel cost
Cf= fixed cost (includes crew expense, maintenance expenses) (in R)
α = thermal time constant for the unit
t = time (h), the unit was cooled
Start-up cost when banking = Ct x t x F+Cf
Where:
Ct = cost (MBtu/h) of maintaining unit at operating temperature
Up to a certain number of hours, the cost of banking will be less than the cost of cooling, as
is illustrated in the Figure.
Finally, the capacity limits of thermal units may change frequently, due to maintenance or
unscheduled outages of various equipment in the plant; this must also be taken.
B) Explain the Load frequency control of Single power systems?
In an interconnected power system, if a load demand changes randomly, both frequency and
tie line power varies. The main aim of load frequency control is to minimise the transient
variations in these variables and also to make sure that their steady state errors is zero. Many
modern control techniques are used to implement a reliable controller. The objective of these
control techniques is to produce and deliver power reliably by maintaining both voltage and
frequency within a permissible range. When real power changes, the system frequency gets
affected, while reactive power is dependent on the variation in voltage value. That’s why real
and reactive power are controlled separately. Control of load frequency controls the active
power. The role of automatic generation control (AGC) in power system operations with
reference to tie line power under normal operating conditions is analysed.
A power system is used for the conversion of natural energy to electric energy. For the
optimization of electrical equipment, it is necessary to ensure the electric power quality. It is
known that phase AC is used for the transportation of electricity. During the transportation,
both the active and reactive power balance must be maintained between the generation and
utilization of AC power. When either frequency or voltage changes, the equilibrium point
will shift. A good quality of an electrical power system means both the voltage and
frequency are fixed at desired values, irrespective of change in loads that occurs randomly. It
is, in fact, impossible to maintain both active and reactive power without control, which
would result in variation of voltage and frequency levels. To cancel the effect of load
variation and to keep frequency and voltage level constant, a control system is required.
Though the active and reactive powers have a combined effect on the frequency and voltage,
the control problem of the frequency and voltage can be separated. Frequency is mostly
dependent on the active power, and voltage is mostly dependent on the reactive power. Thus,
the issue of controlling power systems can be separated into two independent problems. The
active power and frequency control is called load frequency control (LFC). The most
important task of LFC is to maintain the frequency constant against the varying active power
loads, which is also referred to as a known external disturbance. Power exchange error is an
important task of LFC. Generally, a power system is composed of several generating units.
To improve the fault tolerance of the whole power system, these generating units are
connected through tie-lines. This use of tie-line power creates a new error in the control
problem, which is the tie-line power exchange error. When a sudden change in active power
load occurs in an area, the area will get its energy through tie-lines from other areas.
Eventually, the area that is subject to the change in load should balance it without external
support. Or else there will be economic conflicts between the areas. This is why each area
requires a separate load frequency controller to regulate the tie line power exchange error so
that all the areas in an interconnected system can set their set points differently. In short, the
LFC has two major duties, which are to maintain the desired value of frequency and also to
keep the tie line power exchange under schedule in the presence of any load changes. Also,
the LFC has to be unaffected by unknown external disturbances and system model and
parameter variation.