INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

What is a Computer?
A Computer is a high-speed electronic device which when given data and instructions
from an input device will process the data in accordance with the predefined program
to produce the required results- the output

It can also be defined as an electronic device that accept data and instructions, stores
them temporarily in its memory awaiting processing, automatically executes/obeys
the sets of the issued instructions to produce information from the input raw data.

What is a system?
A system is the entire set of components, both computer related, and non-computer
related, that provides a service to a user. Or a system is a group of related
parts/components that work together as a unit to realize a common goal/function.

What is data?
Data is simply the basic facts or raw facts including numbers and words, given to a
computer during the input operation.

What is information?
Information refers to data that has been processed into a form that has meaning and
is useful in decision-making.

What does a computer do?

Computers perform four major operations:
They are input, process, output and storage. In the processing phase, the
computer manipulates the data in a predetermined manner to create information.

The Main Stages of Data Processing

Data processing is the manipulation of data into a more useful form.

Stages of data processing

1) Collection -: For the data to be available it should be collected from the relevant
sources either from internal or external sources.
2) Preparation -: After data is collected, it should be prepared for processing.
Computers are the main tools of data processing.
3) Input -: in this stage, data input speed and accuracy should be increased.
4) Processing: - at this stage, various means and methods are used to manipulate the
inputted data
5) Output and interpretation -: The importance of data processing is to provide
information that will guide future company policies. When the output is available, it
should be interpreted in a way that makes it useful for the company. Without
interpretation the company does not benefit from the data processing process.
6) Storage -: This is the last stage in data processing. The data inputted, and the result
of the process must be stored in a safe manner. This will enable it to be used another
time. If the process is not stored, there will not be a good ground for future
comparison.

Characteristics of a Computer

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Speed
Computer is very fast and accurate device. It can process millions of instruction within
a few seconds.

Accuracy
Computer gives consistent and accurate results. Computer results are accurate
because it performs an action according to a given instruction.

Memory
Computers have enormous amount of memory to hold a very large amount of data.
We can store large amount of date information in the secondary storage device.

No intelligence
Computers do not have any intelligence. They perform only those operations, which
are already fed into them by the external sources.

Diligence
Computer is free from problems like lack of concentration, and confusion etc. It
can work hours and hours without feeling tiredness.

Versatility
We can perform much different types of tasks on computer, one movement it might
be busy in calculating the statistical data for annual performance evaluation of a
business organization and next movement it might be working on weather forecast.

Computer Application Areas:

a) Business Applications
Computers are used to reduce inventory costs, analyze new markets, analyze the
performance of sales people, make sophisticated financial analysis, determine
production costs, forecast labor needs, and eliminate production bottlenecks.

The typical business procedures that utilize computers include the following:
(i.) Accounts Receivables: To maintain and process records on money owed to a
company by customers or clients.
(ii.) Accounts payable: To maintain and process records on money owed by the
company to vendors.
(iii.) Payroll: To maintain employee payroll records and process payroll checks.
(iv.) Inventory control: To maintain records on items or goods on hand, on
quantities ordered, and in general to maintain inventory files by producing
purchase orders on out-of –stock items, o determine economic order
quantities

Computers are widely applicable in the following Business areas:

(i.) Banks:
 Banks use computers to process the huge amount of checks and credit cards
transactions that take place daily.
 The Automated teller machines allow the banking transactions to be carried out
day and night. The customer uses a plastic card and selects the transactions by
pressing a series of buttons.

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  Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT): This is the automatic recording of account
transactions and money transfers. However, no money actually exchanges
hands.

(ii) Retailing:
 By use of the Universal Product Code (UPC), and Point –of- Sale (POS) terminals,
computers can greatly enhance the performance of retail stores. The UPC is a
standardized bar code found on most products in retail outlets. POS terminals
are used to record product sales. The sales person using POS terminal passes
the product’s UPC by using an optical scanner programmed to read the code.
The scanner interprets the code, looks it up on the computer files, and retrieves
the product name and price. The computer then records the transaction and a
customer is provided with a receipt.
 Retail computers using POS terminals are also used to update inventory levels
and calculate the sales figures.
 In addition, these systems allow determination of the customer’s credit status.
A credit card number can be entered into the system and the computer checks
the customer’s account and determines if the transaction is acceptable.

(iii) Manufacturing.
 Many programs are available to manufacturing facilities. Inventory control is
handled by a complex system called Materials Requirement Planning (MRP).
This system allows the manufacturers to enter future demands into computer
and receive a report that lists the scheduling dates and raw materials needed to
manufacture the product to meet the demands.
 Computer assisted design and computer assisted manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
have greatly assisted the manufacturing jobs.
 Process control: Computers are used to process continuous flow materials such
as chemicals, petrol, energy etc. Which are complex activities in nature.
Computer equipment is used in these industries to measure continuously the
key variables such as flow of fluid, pressure and temperature. If the measured
quantities deviate from a prescribed standard, the computer will either notify
the supervisor via a terminal of the discrepancy or automatically make the
necessary adjustments.

b) Office Automation
Computers perform word processing, electronically handles mails and messages and
handles electronic voice storage and forwarding (using telephone to dial up a
computer to leave messages for other people).

c) Science and Engineering

Computers are used to make millions of complex calculations in seconds. They are
also used in earthquake detection, image processing (using the computer to enhance
better understanding of images or pictures) etc.

d) Healthcare
 Computers are used in hospitals for clerical and administrative functions.
 Personal computers have been used to diagnose potential problems and
prescribe their remedies at the scene of an accident. They have also been used
in ambulances to locate invalids quickly.

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  Information retrieval functions: many hospitals automated their operations. The
patient sits in front of a television like terminal, where questions are displayed
on the screen. The patient answers the questions by using a pointing device to
point to the correct answer on the screen. Depending on the answer, the
computer can ask more questions. The use of this automated system has
greatly reduced the amount of time required of the patient and the doctor.
 Computer Assisted Diagnosis: One of the latest innovations in medical care is
the concept of multiphasic testing. Multiphasic testing occurs when computer
equipment is used to perform a series of tests, store the results of the test, and
report the result to the doctor.
 Trained technicians and paramedics use the computer equipment to perform
physical examinations.
 Multiphasic centers use computer equipment to perform electrocardiograms, X-
rays, blood tests vision and hearing tests blood pressure tests and height and
weight measurements.
 CA scan has provided doctors with the ability to obtain information about
organs that were previously obtainable only through surgery. The CA scanning
technique basically involves rotating an X-ray tube around a specific area of the
body, thereby producing a detailed photographic slice of the anatomy. Many
hospitals use the computer to develop colorful and graphic scans that can show
slices through the brain or any other part of the body.

e) Sports
Used to analyze and design new plays, make draft picks, scheduling competitors etc.

f) Entertainment and Leisure e.g. Musical sounds, compute games etc.

g) Education
Computer aided instructions (CAI) is used to help the students learn other subjects.
Multiple-choice questions appear on the screen for a student to answer .If the student
answers correctly the computer responds appropriately and asks another question.
CAI helps in teaching in all the subjects.

h) Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems

Using sophisticate programs and computer systems artificial intelligence makes the
computer act like a person making intelligence decisions and judgments.

i) Government and Military

 In military, computers are being used to design both conventional and strategic
weapons.
 Military Every branch of the armed forces is involved in the military planning
and decision-making. Many of the decisions are made by high-level officials with
the use of computer-generated information. Computers are also used by
military planners to simulate wars. Military commanders can practice making
decisions based on the lifelike situation that the computer presents. This allows
them to gain experience without engaging in real battles..
 Law enforcement agencies and intelligence gathering agencies use the
computer systems to store information plan their operations, and track
criminals.

k) Computers in the arts and the humanities.

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  Arts: Computers are used by artists to produce art forms.
 Music: Computer generated music is made possible with the use of music
synthesizers.

Benefits of Computers

The following are the features that make a computer a good tool for information
processing.

a) Types of information: Computers can process many types of information e.g.

Data, texts, voice, pictorial etc.

b) Speed: It works at a very high speed in taking in data and outputting the
information.

c) Storage: It is able to store large amount of information in manageable form.

d) Communications: Advances in telecommunications has made it possible for

computers to communicate with one another over long distances to exchange
information with seconds.

e) Accuracy: It is very accurate in its processing.

f) Retrieval: The information stored in the computer can be retrieved by more than
one person.

g) Updating of information: It is possible to change stored information without

having to retype.

The following are other advantages of a computer

h) Information analysis is very easy using computers.

i) Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
j) They can operate in risky environments such as volcanic sites, lethal chemical
plants, where human life is feared.
k) Using a computer system will reduce the number of persons required for
performing various organizational activities.

Negative impacts of Computers to the society

 Social activities: A high percentage of people who sit at their computer for too
long and some people lose reality as far as social activities and learning social
skills.

 Computers can distract a person so much they lose contact with the reality
around them such as taking time with family, friends and children.

 Health: Sitting behind a computer all day strains the eyes.

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 Creativity: Being on the computer too much takes away the imagination,
though some gain more imaginations as used in advertising, simulations and
digital imagery.

 Immorality: the internet opens up to pornographic sites and other information.

 Crime: Internet crime has been reported to be on the increase and every day
more crime is committed through the Internet.

 Misinformation: More misinformation by SOME people on the Internet can

cause problems for the younger generation.

 Privacy: - It's possible to know someone well over the Internet. E.g on
[Link]

 Spam mail: - this is unsolicited mail which are often annoying.

 Hackers can ruin your computer system and data over the internet.

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TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There are several methods of classifying computers:

a) By the type of data accepted for processing and form in which output
data/information appears (i.e. Digital, Analogue & Hybrid computers).
b) Classification by purpose.
c) Classification by generation/age of technology.
d) Classification by size and capabilities.
e) Classification by use.

1. CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA ACCEPTED

a) Digital Computers
They process data that is represented in the form of discrete numbers or digits
such as 0 and 1. Their arithmetic operations and logical comparisons are based
on digits and on other characters that have been numerically coded.
b) Analogue Computers
They are computers that deal with variable/continuous data/quantities such as
temperature, pressure, humidity etc. The output from them is often in form of
graphs or smooth curves from which the information can be read. They perform
arithmetic operations and logical comparisons by measuring changes in physical
magnitudes such as electronic voltage, pressure changes.
c) Hybrid
These are the computers that have the combined features of digital and analogue
computers. Both the digital and the analogue features are built within the sane
processor.

2. CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

1. Special purpose; These are computers designed for a particular job only.
They solve problems of a restricted nature e.g. Weapon guidance systems or
the ones used in digital watches.
2. General Purpose; These are computer designed to solve a wide variety of
problems.

3. CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE

a) Mainframe
These are large general-purpose computers with extensive processing, storage and
input/output capabilities. A large number of peripherals can be attached to them.
Atypical application is the airline reservation system. The airlines have a
mainframe computer at their head office where information of all the flights is
stored. Small computers, installed at the booking offices, are attached to the
central data bank so that up to date information of all flights is always available.
b) Mini – Computers
These are physically smaller computers as compared to mainframes. They are
used for special purpose or small-scale general-purpose work.
c) Micro – computers
Various integrated circuits are replaced by a single integrated one. They can be
categorized by size and relative capabilities into workstations, desktops and
laptops.

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 d) Super Computers;
They are the largest and the fastest machines.

4. CLASSIFICATION BY USE

a) A personal computer (PC) - a microcomputer designed for independent use by

an individual at work or in the home. Some PC’s are portable.
b) A Home Computer - A low cost microcomputer of limited capabilities designed
for domestic use with programs such as playing games on controlling family
finances.

c) Embedded Computers - These computers are within some other

devices/systems but are not accessed directly e.g. Small computers found in
digital watches, video recorder, washing machines etc.

5. CLASSIFICATION BY GENERATION

The first electronic computers were made in 1940’s. Since then a series of radical
breakthroughs in electronics have occurred. The computer generations are the
stages in the evolution of electronic circuitry, hardware, software, programming
languages and other technological developments.

These include:
1) First Generation.(1940- 1956) – Vaccum Tubes
2) Second Generation (1956 - 1964) - Transistors
3) The Third Generation (1964-1971) – Integrated circuits
4) The Fourth Generation (1971 - 1988) - Microprocessors
5) The Fifth Generation (1983 .................) – Artificial Intelligence

First generation
 They were for general purpose and produced a lot of heat as a result of
large power consumption.
 Their circuits incorporated vacuum tubes as a major logic element.
 They could only run one program at a time.
 First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they
could only solve one problem at a time.

Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on
printouts.
 Mainly used for scientific computations
 Magnetic tapes and magnetic drum were used as secondary memory

Second generation
 They used transistors which were relatively smaller than the valves.
 Their internal storage was higher than that of first generation and the core
memory replaced the delay lines and the magnetic drums internal memory of
first generation computers.
 Magnetic disc packs were used for storage. Second-generation computers
moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.

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 High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time,
such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first
computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Third generation
 They were smaller and used integrated circuits in the medium scale
integration.
 The small circuitry improved the processing speed for pulses.
 They have a higher main memory capacity and are reliable than the second
generation computers.
 They supported multitasking and used magnetic discs for storage.

Fourth generation
 They are a modification of the third generation computers technology.
 Their design is based on the large scale integration (LSI) and very
large scale integration (VLSI) of IC circuitry.
 The microprocessor combined all the circuitry of the control unit and Arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) on a single chip. Input and output devices allowed data to
be entered directly through the keyboard.
 As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together
to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
 Fourth generation computers also saw the development of graphical user
interfaces (GUIs), the mouse and handheld devices.
 Database management, multi-user application, online systems like closed
loop process control, airline reservation, interactive query systems,
automatic industrial control etc emerged during this period.
 Parallelism, pipelining cache memory and virtual memory were applied in a better
way

Fifth generation
 Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition,
that are being used today.
 The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. This generation brought about the introduction of
machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working on different
parts of a single program.
 The scale of integration in semiconductors continued at a great pace and by
1990 it was possible to build chips with a million components - and
semiconductor memories became standard on all computers. Parallel processing
started in this generation.
 Their circuitry is based on gallium arsenide instead of silicon.
 They are computers with faster operation speed, greater processing capacity
and unlimited memory.

Computer System Components

A computer system is made up of:

a) Hardware - physical components of a computer

b) Software - programs that allows the hardware to function.

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A Program is a set of instructions and raw facts written in a computer language and
used to make it perform specific tasks

Hardware Components
The major elements:-
 Input devices
 Output devices
 The processors (CPU)
 The storage devices

N.B: Peripheral devices

These are equipment that are used with the computer but are not integral part of it.
They include printers, keyboards, monitors, mice, disk drives.

Input Devices
Input refers to the process of entering programs, commands, user responses and data
into main memory. The most common input devices are:

a) Keyboard:
Users input data to a computer by pressing the keys on the keyboard. As the user
enters the data on the Keyboard it displays on the screen. It has several keys such
as:-

 The function keys labeled with letters F1 - F12. Which perform different tasks
depending on the software program you are using.
 The arrow keys/cursor control keys used to move the cursor.
 The Data Keys used to enter the letters, numbers and symbols.
 Special purpose keys e.g. Backspace, Del. Shift, Alt., Ctrl, Enter ,Esc., Pause etc.
b) Mouse
This is a small lightweight device that easily fits in the palm of your hand. Software
programs designed to use mouse display a mouse pointer on the screen. The pointer
may be an arrow, small rectangle, an I-beam or even a hand with a pointed finger.

To move the pointer, you gently slide the mouse around the mouse pad. Mouse has a
language of its own.
c) Trackball
It is a pointing device that is used as an alternative to a mouse. You roll the ball to
position the pointer on the screen. Unlike the mouse, a trackball doesn’t move on the
desk and therefore requires less space.

d) Scanners
Scanners convert texts, characters or images into a form that can be processed by the
computer.

Other input devices include

e) Touch screens
f) Graphic input
g) Optical character reader (OCR)
h) Optical mark reader (OMR)
i) Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

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Memory
Memory is electronic circuitry that holds the data and program instruction. It is
sometimes called primary storage. There are four major types of memory, namely
random access memory (RAM), virtual memory, CMOS memory and read-only memory
(ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

This is an area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds data before and
after it is processed. For example, when you enter a document, the characters you
type usually are not processed right away. They are held in RAM until you tell the
software to carry out process such as printing.

In RAM, the microscopic electronic parts called capacitor hold the electronic signals for
the binary codes that represent the data. RAM is volatile i.e. if the computer is turned
off or the power goes out, all the data stored in RAM instantly and permanently
disappears.

Functions of the RAM

The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process any data. The CPU
receives instructions from RAM, uses the data in RAM for processing and keeps the
results of processing temporarily in RAM until they are needed again or stored on disk.

RAM stores user data, operating system instructions and program instructions
temporarily. Every time you turn on your computer, it copies a set of operating
system instructions from disk into RAM. These instructions, which help control basic
computer functions, remain in RAM until you turn the computer off.
RAM also holds program instructions. When you use a word processing program, the
computer copies the instructions that turn your computer into a word processor from
disk into RAM.

Virtual Memory
The computer sometimes uses space on the computers hard disk as an extension of
RAM. A computer’s ability to use disk storage to simulate RAM is called virtual
memory.

Virtual memory allows computers without enough real memory to run large programs,
manipulate large data files and run more than one program at a time. One
disadvantage of a virtual memory is reduced performance.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a set of chips containing instructions that help a computer prepare for
processing tasks. These instructions also called firmware are permanent, and the only
way to change them is to remove the ROM chips from the main board and replace
them with another set.

When you turn on your computer, the CPU receives electrical power and is ready to
begin executing instructions. But because the computer was turned on, RAM is empty
with no instructions for CPU to process. This is when ROM finds its use.

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When you turn on your computer, the CPU performs a series of steps by following
instructions stored in ROM. This series of steps is called the boot process.

 Programmable read-only memory (PROM) - acts the same as ROM when it is part of
the computer. I.e. it can only be read but its contents cannot be altered. However
the data or programs are not stored in the memory when they are manufactured.
Instead it can be loaded with special programs during installation.

 Erasable Prom (EPROM) - their data can be erased using special ultraviolet light
device that destroys the bit settings within the memory.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

This is the circuitry in a computer that executes instructions to process data. CPU is
the heart of the computer system. It retrieves instructions and data from RAM,
processes them and places the result back into RAM so they can be displayed or
stored.

CPU Architecture
The CPU consists of one or more integrated circuits. In microcomputer the CPU is a
single integrated circuit called a micro-processor.

The CPU has two main parts; the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU).

The ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. It also performs logical operations such as comparing two numbers. It
uses registers to hold the data that is being processed. In ALU, the results of an
arithmetic or logical operation is held temporarily in the accumulator.

The CU (Control Unit) - directs and coordinates processing and places it in a special
instruction register. The CU then interprets the instruction to find out what needs to
be done. According to its interpretation, the control unit sends signals to the data bus
to fetch data from RAM, and to the ALU to perform a process.

Cache
This is a special high-speed memory that give the CPU more rapid access to data. As
you begin a task, the computer anticipates what data the CPU is likely to need and
loads or caches this data into the cache area. The CPU then takes the data from
cache instead of fetching it from RAM, which takes longer. Therefore more cache
means faster processing.

Output Devices

Output is the data that has been processed into useful form/information that can be
used by a person or a machine.
Most outputs are in form of reports or graphics. The most used output devices are:-

Visual Display Unit (V.D.U)

It is commonly referred to as monitor and it provides a soft copy output which can
be edited.

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External speakers
Speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or
connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear sound effects
from your computer.

Plotter
A graphics printer that prints engineering and architectural drawings.

Printer
 An output device which provides a hard copy output which is permanent and
cannot be edited. Printers may either be impact or non-impact

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage

Stores programs and data when they are not being processed. They are non-volatile
ie. data and programs are retained when the power is turned off.

Types of Secondary Storage Devices

FLOPPY DISK
It is a round piece of flexible plastic disk with a magnetic coating, sealed inside a
square protective coating. It is portable and the capacity is a relatively small
1.44MB. The reading and writing speed is slow and the data inside will be easily lost
as it is not durable.
New kind of floppy has larger capacity and better protection of data but they need
special disk drives to operate so they are not popular. Examples are Zip disk (up to
750 MB) and Super Disk (120MB).

HARD DISK
Hard disks provide huge storage. It consists of a set of circular plates, which are made
of metal with a magnetic coating. All the plates are sealed within a hard disk drive
together with a read/write head. It rotates at a very high speed.

FLASH DRIVE
A flash drive is a small external USB storage device that reads and writes to flash
memory, a solid-state storage medium that's both inexpensive and durable.
There are many types of flash drives available to suit all different kinds of use, but
to keep things simple we'll break things down into five different categories namely
generic, high performance, ultra durable, secure and novelty.

MAGNETIC TAPE
Magnetic tape is a magnetically coated strip of plastic on which data may be
stored. It can store a large amount of data at a low cost. It requires a tape
drive to read and write data on a tape. Unlike hard disk, the accessing method of
magnetic tape is sequential access. This slow storage is mainly used for long-term
storage and backup.

CD-ROM (CD Read-Only Memory)

Normally it can store 800MB of data. The contents inside cannot be changed or
overwritten once it is stored with data. It is cheap and durable so software
publishers use them to distribute software program. A CD-ROM

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drive is needed to read the data in CD-ROM.

DVD-ROM (DVD)
It is similar to CD-ROM but its capacity varied from 4.7GB to 17GB. A DVD-ROM drive
is needed to read data from a DVD-ROM. As its capacity is large, film companies use
them to publish high quality film.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING COMPUTER HARDWARE

User requirements
For example if the users require hard copy output then a printer will be acquired
by the organization
Flexibility
The hardware should be able to meet new user requirements as
they emerge
Cost
The hardware should be cost effective in terms of initial and
maintenance costs
Reliability
The rate of breakdown should be minimal
Networking
The hardware should have networking capabilities so that it can be interfaced with
other systems within the company network.
Processing speed
The hardware should be able to process data fast
Compatibility
The hardware should be compatible with software and other hardware within the
system

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE PROCESSING POWER OF A DIGITAL

COMPUTER
 The microprocessor clock speed i.e the higher the microprocessor clock speed
the better the processing power of the computer
 Data bus size i.e the larger the data bus the better the processing power of the
computer
 Size of RAM or primary storage i.e the larger the memory, the better the
processing power
 The free space on the hard disk i.e a hard disk which is almost full will slow
down the computer systems processing power

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Definition: Software refers to a group/set of instructions that enables the hardware to

function:-

Types of Software
 systems software
 applications software

Application Software

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Software that directs the computer to perform a specific task.

Types of Application Software’s: general purpose and application specific

1) General purpose/ off-the shelf: - computer software that allows the user to
accomplish simple computer related tasks. For example: word processing software,
spreadsheet software, etc.

Benefits of off-the-shelf packages

 Relatively cheap
 Easily available from most computer shops
 Thoroughly tested
 A lot of user support i.e. online help and manuals are available

Examples of application software include:

Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus Approach, Paradox) are used to store
and retrieve information;

Spreadsheet packages (e.g. MS Excel, Lotus 123) are used for tasks that involve
a lot of calculations or for the production of graphs and charts;

Word processing packages (e.g. MS Word, WordPerfect) are used to produce

text based documents such as letters, reports and memos;

Desktop publishing (DTP) packages (e.g. MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus) are

used to produce professional quality publications such as posters, books, newsletters,
newspapers and magazines;

Graphics packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush, Serif Draw, Corel Draw) are used to
produce and manipulate artwork;

Computer-aided design (CAD) packages (e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD) are

used to produce engineering designs and architectural plans;

Communications software (e.g. Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator) is

used to access the Internet and send and receive e-mail;

Presentation graphics packages (e.g. PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are

used to create slide shows and presentations like this one which can be
viewed on-screen or with a data or overhead projector;

Web page editors (e.g. MS FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used

to create Web pages.

USER DEVELOPED SOFTWARE

This is software that is designed to meet the unique needs of the user. It is
developed with the user in mind for the user in particular and to solve the users
unique need and is suitable under the following circumstances.
 Where there is enough time to allow development of own programs hence
there is no urgency in the use of the program.

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  When the user s problem is unique and cannot be solved using readily
available standardized applications packages.
 When there is availability of programmers in the organization to develop the in-
house software.
 When it is cheaper to develop in house software compared to acquiring already
made application packages.

System Software
These are the programs that monitor and control the operations of a computer. They
run the computer system by performing a variety of fundamental operating such as:-
 Booting the computer and making sure all the aspects are operational.
 Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing
application programs.
 Storing and retrieving files.
 Performing a variety of system utility functions.

Operating system
This is a suit/collection of related computer programs that help manage the computer
resources. It is an interface between the computer hardware and application
programs.

Functions of operating system

Communication
It allows computer systems users to interact or communicate with computer
hardware. This is achieved through use of user oriented interfaces such as graphical
user interface (GUI) and command drive interface (CDI).

Provision of a log of events

Most server operating systems have an events log file which records activities of
users at the terminals connected to the server

File security
Operating system enables users and system administrators to define passwords and
data access permissions in order to prevent unauthorized accessibility and
manipulation of data

Error detection and reporting

The operating system detects and reports system operation errors and in some cases
it will suggest how errors can be corrected.

Loading programs into memory

It loads application programs from the hard disk drive into computer memory to
be used for creation and manipulation of documents

Utility programs
Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or
maintain a computer.

Categories of Utility software

1) Anti-virus:- scan computer viruses. A computer virus is a computer program that
can

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replicate itself and spread from one computer to another.
Symptoms of an infected computer system
i) Unusual Error Messages
ii) Missing files
iii) Frequenting re-booting of the system
iv) System Crashing
v) Slow Performance
vi) Disks or Disk Drives Are Not Accessible
vii) The operating system will not load when you start your computer.

2) Backup software: - can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore
either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event
of accidental deletion).
3) Data compression:-reduces the size of a file
4) Disk checkers: - scans the operating hard drive for errors.
5) Disk cleaners: - can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take
up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to
delete when their hard disk is full.
6) Disk compression:-utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of
a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
7) Disk defragmenters: - detects computer files whose contents are broken across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase
efficiency.
8) Disk partitions: - divides an individual drive into multiple logical drives.
9) File managers:-provide a convenient method of performing routine data
management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, moving, copying, merging,
generating and modifying data sets.
10) Memory testers: - check for memory failures.
11) Network utilities: - used to analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure
network settings, check data transfer or log events.
12) System monitors: - for monitoring resources and performance in a computer
system.
13) System profilers: - provide detailed information about the software installed and
hardware attached to the computer.
14) Device drivers
A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached
to your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers,
diskette drives, NIC card, Modem card etc. A device driver essentially converts the
more general input/output instructions of the operating system to messages that the
device type can understand.

Factors to consider when selecting computer software

Documentation
Consider whether the software is supplied with online or offline documentation for
user and technical support

Reliability
Consider whether the software will be able to satisfy the objective over the defined
period of use

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Upgrading
The software selected should easily be updated without corrupting or removing the
existing files. Upgrading refers to the installation of a later version of the software.

Cost
The software should be cost effective i.e. benefits derived from its use should justify
its cost of acquisition

Compatibility
The software selected should easily interface with computer hardware and other
software. Software to hardware compatibility means that the software should
support the installation of hardware drivers in order to optimize the performance of
hardware.

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