TOPIC INTERNET FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLICATION

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this topic, students will be able to:

 Discuss Introduction to Computer Systems

 Highlight the importance of computer systems
 Discuss the history and evolution of computers
 Highlight the classification of computers (e.g., supercomputers,
mainframes, personal computers)
 Describe computer applications in various fields
 Discuss the computer Hardware
 Highlight the components of a Computer System
 Highlight RAM and ROM: Differences and usage
 Discuss Computer Software
 Highlight the types of software:
 Discuss system software (Operating Systems)
 Describe Data Representation and Processing
 Solve Binary and hexadecimal number systems
 Data types and structures
 Highlight threats and vulnerabilities
 Describe firewalls and encryption
Definition and Importance of Computer Systems
A computer system is a combination of hardware and software designed to receive, process,
store, and output data. At its core, a computer system is a tool that simplifies complex tasks,
enables efficient data processing, and facilitates communication.
Key components of a computer system:
1. Hardware: The physical components such as the CPU, memory, storage, and
peripherals.
2. Software: The set of instructions (programs) that control the hardware and enable it to
perform tasks.
3. Users: People or other systems that interact with the computer system.
Importance of computer systems:
 Efficiency: Automates repetitive tasks and speeds up processing.
 Accuracy: Reduces human errors in data handling.
 Connectivity: Facilitates communication through networks and the internet.
 Innovation: Drives advancements in industries such as healthcare, education, and
entertainment.
 Data Management: Stores and organizes vast amounts of information.
History and Evolution of Computers
The development of computer systems has occurred in several distinct generations, each marked
by significant technological advancements:
1. First Generation (1940s-1950s): Vacuum Tubes
o Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
o Bulky, expensive, and consumed a lot of power.
o Example: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer).
2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s): Transistors
o Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more
reliable.
o Introduced assembly language for programming.
o Example: IBM 7094.
3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s): Integrated Circuits (ICs)
o Integrated circuits combined multiple transistors on a single chip.
 o Computers became more affordable and accessible.
o Example: IBM System/360.
4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s): Microprocessors
o Microprocessors integrated all computer functions on a single chip.
o Rise of personal computers (PCs).
o Example: Apple II, IBM PC.
5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present): Artificial Intelligence and Beyond
o Focus on AI, machine learning, and quantum computing.
o Development of portable and wearable devices.
o Example: Smartphones, advanced robotics.
Classification of Computers
Computers can be categorized based on size, functionality, and application:
1. Supercomputers
o High-performance systems capable of processing vast amounts of data at
incredible speeds.
o Used in weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and complex calculations.
o Example: Summit (developed by IBM).
2. Mainframe Computers
o Large systems designed for high-volume transaction processing and critical
applications.
o Used by banks, government agencies, and large organizations.
o Example: IBM Z-series.
3. Minicomputers
o Mid-sized computers used by small businesses and research institutions.
o Example: PDP-11.
4. Personal Computers (PCs)
o General-purpose computers for individual use.
o Includes desktops, laptops, and tablets.
o Example: Dell Inspiron, MacBook Pro.
 5. Embedded Systems
o Specialized systems integrated into devices for specific functions.
o Found in appliances, automobiles, and medical devices.
Overview of Computer Applications in Various Fields
1. Education:
o E-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, and research tools.
o Example: Learning management systems (LMS) like Moodle.
2. Healthcare:
o Electronic health records (EHR), medical imaging, and telemedicine.
o Example: MRI scanners, hospital management systems.
3. Business:
o Enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship management (CRM),
and financial analysis.
o Example: SAP ERP, Salesforce.
4. Entertainment:
o Streaming services, video games, and digital content creation.
o Example: Netflix, Adobe Creative Suite.
5. Science and Engineering:
o Simulation, modeling, and data analysis in fields like physics and biology.
o Example: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
6. Transportation:
o Traffic management, navigation systems, and autonomous vehicles.
o Example: GPS systems, Tesla’s Autopilot.
7. Government and Public Services:
o E-governance, tax management, and public safety systems.
o Example: Aadhaar (India), IRS systems (USA).
8. Communication:
o Email, social media, and video conferencing.
 o Example: Zoom, WhatsApp, Gmail.

Components of a Computer System

1. Input Devices:
o Devices that allow users to interact with the computer and input data.
o Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanners, touchscreens.
2. Output Devices:
o Devices that display or produce the results of computer processes.
o Examples: Monitors, printers, speakers.
3. Storage Devices:
o Hardware used to store data permanently or temporarily.
o Types:
 Hard Drives (HDDs): Magnetic storage for large amounts of data.
 Solid-State Drives (SSDs): Faster storage using flash memory.
 Optical Drives: For reading/writing CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays.
Internal Hardware
1. Motherboard:
o The main circuit board that connects all computer components.
o Components include:
 RAM (Random Access Memory) slots.
 Expansion slots for graphics cards and other peripherals.
 Chipsets that control communication between CPU, memory, and
peripherals.
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit):
o Often called the "brain" of the computer.
o Functions:
 Executes instructions from software programs.
 Performs arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output operations.
  Comprised of cores for multitasking and a clock speed measured in GHz.

RAM and ROM

Differences between RAM and ROM
Aspect RAM (Random Access Memory) ROM (Read-Only Memory)

Temporary, volatile memory used for Permanent, non-volatile memory

Definition
data storage during operation. storing essential instructions.

Non-volatile: Retains data without

Volatility Volatile: Data is lost when power is off.
power.

Provides fast access to data and Stores firmware and essential boot
Function
instructions for active processes. instructions (BIOS/UEFI).

Write Data can be written and erased Typically not writable under normal
Capability repeatedly. operation.

Speed Faster for real-time operations. Slower compared to RAM.

Usage:
 RAM: Running applications, multitasking, caching, and buffering.
 ROM: Storing bootloader, firmware, and system-critical programs.
Power Supply and Cooling Systems
Power Supply:
 Converts AC power from a wall outlet to DC power required by computer components.
 Key Component: PSU (Power Supply Unit).
o Provides stable and regulated power.
o Rated in watts (e.g., 450W, 650W).
Cooling Systems:
 Prevents overheating of internal components like CPU, GPU, and motherboard.
 Types of Cooling:
1. Air Cooling: Uses fans and heat sinks.
2. Liquid Cooling: Uses liquid coolant for efficient heat dissipation.
3. Passive Cooling: Relies on heat spreaders and natural airflow (low-power
systems).
Peripheral Devices and Their Roles
Definition:
 External devices that expand a computer's functionality.
 Classified as:
1. Input Peripherals: Enable data input.
 Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone.
2. Output Peripherals: Display or output processed data.
 Examples: Monitor, printer, speakers.
3. Input/Output Peripherals: Perform both input and output functions.
 Examples: External hard drives, touchscreens.
Roles:
 Enhance usability (e.g., gaming controllers, graphics tablets).
 Facilitate communication (e.g., webcams, microphones).
 Provide data storage and transfer options (e.g., USB drives, external SSDs).
Types of Software
1. System Software
Software designed to provide a platform for other software. It manages hardware and system
resources.
Examples: Operating systems, utilities, drivers.
2. Application Software
Software designed to perform specific tasks for users.
Examples: Word processors, web browsers, media players.
Development Software
Tools used by developers to create, debug, maintain, and support software.
Examples: Compilers, Integrated Development Environments (IDEs), code editors.
Operating Systems
Functions
1. Process Management
Manages CPU scheduling and multitasking.
Ensures fair allocation of resources among processes.
2. Memory Management
o Allocates and deallocates memory space as needed.
o Handles virtual memory for efficient resource usage.
3. File System Management
o Provides mechanisms for storing, organizing, and accessing files.
o Ensures data integrity and access control.
4. Device Management
o Interfaces with hardware devices through device drivers.
o Handles input/output operations.
5. Security and Access Control
o Protects the system from unauthorized access.
o Manages user authentication and permissions.
6. User Interface
o Provides a way for users to interact with the system (e.g., Graphical User
Interface or Command-Line Interface).
Examples of Operating Systems
1. Windows
o Developed by Microsoft.
o Known for its graphical user interface.
o Widely used in personal and business environments.
2. macOS
o Developed by Apple.
o Built on Unix-based architecture.
o Popular in creative industries for its stability and design.
3. Linux
o Open-source operating system.
 o Used in servers, embedded systems, and personal computers.
o Popular distributions: Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian.
File Systems and Directory Structures
1. File Systems
o Definition: Methods and data structures the operating system uses to manage files
on a disk.
o Types:
 FAT32: Older file system, compatible with most systems.
 NTFS: Used by Windows; supports larger files and advanced features.
 ext4: Commonly used in Linux.
 APFS: Used by macOS; optimized for SSDs.
2. Directory Structures
o Definition: Organizational framework for files and folders.
o Types:
 Single-Level Directory: All files are stored in a single directory.
 Two-Level Directory: Each user has their own directory.
 Tree-Structured Directory: Hierarchical structure with root and
subdirectories (e.g., C:\Users\Documents).
Software Installation and Management
1. Installation Process
o Executable Installers: Run a setup file (.exe, .dmg, etc.) to install software.
o Package Managers: Tools like APT (Linux), Homebrew (macOS), or Chocolatey
(Windows) to install and update software.
2. Updating Software
o Keep software updated to ensure security and functionality.
o Automatic updates or manual checks.
3. Uninstallation
o Use system tools (e.g., Control Panel in Windows, Finder in macOS) to remove
software.
 o Ensure residual files are deleted for a clean uninstallation.
4. Licensing and Activation
o Types of licenses: Freeware, Open Source, Commercial, Shareware.
o Activation may involve license keys or online verification.
5. Backup and Recovery
o Regularly back up critical data and configurations.
o Use system restore points or disk imaging tools for recovery.
Data Representation and Processing
Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems
1. Binary Number System:
o The binary system uses only two digits: 0 and 1.
o It is the fundamental language of computers, where each digit is a bit (binary
digit).
o Conversion:
 Decimal to Binary: Divide the number by 2, record the remainder, and
repeat until the quotient is 0. Reverse the remainders to get the binary
equivalent.
 Binary to Decimal: Multiply each bit by 2 raised to the power of its
position (starting from 0 on the right) and sum the results.
o Applications: Data storage, processing, and transmission in digital systems.
2. Hexadecimal Number System:
o The hexadecimal system uses 16 symbols: 0-9 and A-F, where A=10, B=11, ...,
F=15.
o It is often used as a human-friendly representation of binary data because it is
more compact.
o Conversion:
 Binary to Hexadecimal: Group binary digits into sets of 4 (starting from
the right) and replace each group with its hexadecimal equivalent.
 Hexadecimal to Binary: Convert each hexadecimal digit into its 4-bit
binary equivalent.
  Decimal to Hexadecimal: Divide the decimal number by 16 and record
the remainder. Continue until the quotient is 0, then reverse the
remainders.
o Applications: Memory addressing, error codes, and color codes in computing.
Data Types and Structures
Data Types:
Primitive Data Types:
Integer: Whole numbers without a fractional component (e.g., 1, -5).
Float/Double: Numbers with decimal points (e.g., 3.14, -0.001).
Character: Single alphanumeric character (e.g., 'A', '7').
Boolean: Represents true/false values.
Composite Data Types:
Array: Collection of elements of the same data type, indexed for easy access.
Structure: Collection of variables of different data types grouped under one name.
Abstract Data Types (ADTs):
List: Ordered collection of elements.
Stack: Last In, First Out (LIFO) collection.
Queue: First In, First Out (FIFO) collection.
Graph: Collection of nodes (vertices) and edges.
Tree: Hierarchical data structure with a root and child nodes.

Data Structures:
Linear Data Structures:
Examples: Arrays, Linked Lists, Stacks, Queues.
Non-linear Data Structures:
Examples: Trees, Graphs.
File Structures Sequential, direct, and indexed file systems.
Applications:
Efficient data organization and retrieval.
Used in databases, operating systems, and algorithms.

Introduction to Machine Language and Assembly Language

1. Machine Language:
The lowest-level programming language directly understood by the computer's CPU.
o Composed of binary instructions (e.g., 10101011) specific to a particular
processor.
o Highly efficient but difficult for humans to read or write.
o Instruction Components:
 Opcode: Specifies the operation to be performed (e.g., ADD, SUB).
 Operands: Specifies the data or memory locations to operate on.
2. Assembly Language:
o A low-level language that uses human-readable mnemonics (e.g., MOV, ADD)
instead of binary instructions.
o Requires an assembler to translate it into machine language.
o Advantages:
 Easier to read and write compared to machine language.
 Allows for fine control over hardware.
o Disadvantages:
 Processor-specific.
 More complex compared to high-level languages.
Concept of Algorithms and Data Processing
1. Algorithms:
o A step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem.
o Characteristics:
 Finiteness: Must terminate after a finite number of steps.
 Definiteness: Each step must be clear and unambiguous.
 Input and Output: Must have defined inputs and produce outputs.
  Effectiveness: Each step must be basic enough to be carried out with
minimal effort.
o Representation:
 Flowcharts: Visual representation using symbols.
 Pseudocode: High-level description using structured natural language.
o Examples:
 Searching (e.g., linear search, binary search).
 Sorting (e.g., bubble sort, quick sort).
2. Data Processing:
o Definition: The collection, manipulation, and interpretation of data to produce
meaningful information.
o Steps:
1. Input: Collecting raw data.
2. Processing: Performing operations like sorting, filtering, and
transforming.
3. Output: Producing meaningful information.
o Techniques:
 Batch Processing: Data is processed in groups or batches.
 Real-time Processing: Immediate processing of data as it is input.
 Distributed Processing: Data is processed across multiple systems.
o Applications:
 Business analytics, scientific computing, and artificial intelligence.
Networking and Communication
Basics of Computer Networks
A computer network is a group of interconnected devices (such as computers, servers, and
networking equipment) that communicate with each other to share resources and data. Networks
enable devices to exchange information efficiently and can be classified based on their size,
purpose, and geographical spread.
Types of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
 o A LAN connects devices within a limited area, such as an office, building, or
campus.
o Typically used to share resources like printers and files.
o Offers high-speed data transfer and low latency.
o Example: A small office network.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
o A WAN spans large geographical areas, often connecting multiple LANs.
o The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.
o Typically uses public or leased communication lines and infrastructure.
o Example: A multinational company’s network connecting offices across countries.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
o A MAN covers a city or a large campus.
o Larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
o Often used by organizations or municipalities for city-wide connectivity.
o Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network.
Networking Devices
1. Routers:
o Connects different networks and directs data packets between them.
o Operates at the network layer of the OSI model.
o Example: A home router connecting devices to the Internet.
2. Switches:
o Operates at the data link layer and connects devices within a single network.
o Directs data to the specific device it is intended for, improving efficiency.
o Example: An Ethernet switch in an office LAN.
3. Modems:
o Converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission over
telephone lines and vice versa.
o Essential for connecting to the Internet via DSL or dial-up.
o Example: A DSL modem used at home.
Internet Basics
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that use standardized
communication protocols to share information and services.
IP Addresses
 An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a network.
 Two versions are commonly used:
o IPv4: Consists of four numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o IPv6: Introduced to address the limitations of IPv4, uses hexadecimal numbers
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
DNS (Domain Name System)
 The DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses.
 It acts as the phonebook of the Internet, simplifying access to websites and services.
Web Protocols
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
o The foundation of data communication on the web.
o Facilitates the transfer of web pages.
o Example: http://www.example.com.
2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure):
o A secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to protect data.
o Ensures secure communication between a user’s browser and a website.
o Example: https://www.example.com.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used to transfer files between a client and a server.
o Example: Uploading a website’s files to a hosting server.
Email and Web Browsing
Email
  Email (Electronic Mail) is a method of exchanging messages over a network, primarily
the Internet.
 Key components of an email system:
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails.
o POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): Used to retrieve emails, downloading them to the
local device.
o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used to retrieve emails while
keeping them stored on the server.
Web Browsing
 A web browser is software used to access information on the World Wide Web.
 Browsers retrieve web pages via URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) using HTTP or
HTTPS.
 Popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.
Networking and Communication
Basics of Computer Networks
A computer network is a group of interconnected devices (such as computers, servers, and
networking equipment) that communicate with each other to share resources and data. Networks
enable devices to exchange information efficiently and can be classified based on their size,
purpose, and geographical spread.
Types of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
o A LAN connects devices within a limited area, such as an office, building, or
campus.
o Typically used to share resources like printers and files.
o Offers high-speed data transfer and low latency.
o Example: A small office network.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
o A WAN spans large geographical areas, often connecting multiple LANs.
o The Internet is the largest example of a WAN.
o Typically uses public or leased communication lines and infrastructure.
o Example: A multinational company’s network connecting offices across countries.
 3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
o A MAN covers a city or a large campus.
o Larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
o Often used by organizations or municipalities for city-wide connectivity.
o Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network.
Networking Devices
1. Routers:
o Connects different networks and directs data packets between them.
o Operates at the network layer of the OSI model.
o Example: A home router connecting devices to the Internet.
2. Switches:
o Operates at the data link layer and connects devices within a single network.
o Directs data to the specific device it is intended for, improving efficiency.
o Example: An Ethernet switch in an office LAN.
3. Modems:
o Converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission over
telephone lines and vice versa.
o Essential for connecting to the Internet via DSL or dial-up.
o Example: A DSL modem used at home.
Internet Basics
The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers that use standardized
communication protocols to share information and services.
IP Addresses
 An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device connected to a network.
 Two versions are commonly used:
o IPv4: Consists of four numbers separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o IPv6: Introduced to address the limitations of IPv4, uses hexadecimal numbers
(e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
DNS (Domain Name System)
  The DNS translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses.
 It acts as the phonebook of the Internet, simplifying access to websites and services.
Web Protocols
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
o The foundation of data communication on the web.
o Facilitates the transfer of web pages.
o Example: http://www.example.com.
2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure):
o A secure version of HTTP that uses encryption to protect data.
o Ensures secure communication between a user’s browser and a website.
o Example: https://www.example.com.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
o Used to transfer files between a client and a server.
o Example: Uploading a website’s files to a hosting server.
Email and Web Browsing
Email
 Email (Electronic Mail) is a method of exchanging messages over a network, primarily
the Internet.
 Key components of an email system:
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send emails.
o POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): Used to retrieve emails, downloading them to the
local device.
o IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used to retrieve emails while
keeping them stored on the server.
Web Browsing
 A web browser is software used to access information on the World Wide Web.
 Browsers retrieve web pages via URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) using HTTP or
HTTPS.
 Popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.
Cybersecurity Basics: Threats and Vulnerabilities
Threats in Cybersecurity
 Malware: Malicious software like viruses, worms, and trojans designed to damage or
disrupt systems.
 Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information by pretending to be a
trustworthy entity.
 Ransomware: A type of malware that encrypts a victim's data and demands payment for
its release.
 Social Engineering: Psychological manipulation to trick users into revealing confidential
information.
 Insider Threats: Employees or contractors who misuse their access to systems for
malicious purposes.
Vulnerabilities in Cybersecurity
 Unpatched Software: Outdated applications or operating systems with known security
flaws.
 Weak Passwords: Easily guessable or reused passwords that can be exploited.
 Misconfigured Systems: Incorrectly set up firewalls, servers, or applications, creating
entry points for attackers.
 Lack of Employee Training: Users unaware of basic cybersecurity practices increase
risk.
 Third-Party Risks: Vulnerabilities introduced by vendors or external partners with
access to systems.
Introduction to Firewalls and Encryption
Firewalls
 Definition: A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules.
 Types of Firewalls:
o Packet-Filtering Firewall: Inspects packets and allows or blocks them based on
rules.
o Stateful Inspection Firewall: Tracks the state of active connections and makes
decisions based on the context.
o Proxy Firewall: Acts as an intermediary between users and the internet, filtering
requests and responses.
 o Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW): Combines traditional firewall features with
additional security functions like intrusion detection and application awareness.
Encryption
 Definition: Encryption is the process of converting data into a coded format to prevent
unauthorized access.
 Types of Encryption:
o Symmetric Encryption: Uses the same key for both encryption and decryption
(e.g., AES).
o Asymmetric Encryption: Uses a pair of public and private keys for encryption
and decryption (e.g., RSA).
 Common Use Cases:
o Data at Rest: Encrypting files stored on devices or servers.
o Data in Transit: Encrypting data being transferred over the network (e.g.,
HTTPS, VPNs).
Functions of an Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages hardware resources and provides
services for computer programs. The core functions of an OS include:
1. User Interface: Provides a user interface (GUI or command-line) to interact with the
system.
2. Resource Management: Allocates and manages hardware resources such as CPU,
memory, storage, and I/O devices.
3. Process Management: Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.
4. Memory Management: Allocates and tracks system memory usage for processes.
5. File Management: Manages files and directories, including creation, deletion, and access
permissions.
6. Device Management: Facilitates communication between the system and peripheral
devices through drivers.
7. Security and Access Control: Ensures data and system security by managing access
control and permissions.
8. Networking: Provides network connectivity and data exchange capabilities.
9. Error Detection and Handling: Detects and handles system errors, ensuring stability
and reliability.
 10. Multitasking and Multithreading: Supports the execution of multiple tasks or threads
simultaneously.
Process Management and Multitasking
Process Management involves handling processes (running programs) efficiently. The OS is
responsible for:
1. Process Creation and Termination:
o A process is created when a program is executed and terminated when its
execution is complete.
2. Scheduling:
o Decides which process runs at a given time.
o Scheduling algorithms include:
 First-Come-First-Served (FCFS)
 Shortest Job Next (SJN)
 Round Robin (RR)
 Priority Scheduling
3. Process States:
o New: Process is being created.
o Ready: Process is waiting to be assigned to the CPU.
o Running: Process is being executed.
o Waiting: Process is waiting for an event (e.g., I/O).
o Terminated: Process has finished execution.
4. Multitasking:
o Enables multiple processes to execute seemingly simultaneously by sharing CPU
time.
o Achieved through context switching, where the OS saves the state of a process
and loads the state of another.
5. Inter-Process Communication (IPC):
o Mechanisms like shared memory, message passing, and semaphores allow
processes to communicate and synchronize their activities.
Memory Management
Memory management involves managing the computer's primary memory (RAM). Key
responsibilities include:
1. Allocation and Deallocation:
o Dynamically assigns memory to processes and reclaims it when no longer needed.
2. Memory Partitioning:
o Fixed Partitioning: Divides memory into fixed-sized blocks.
o Dynamic Partitioning: Divides memory into variable-sized blocks based on
process needs.
3. Virtual Memory:
o Extends physical memory using disk storage, enabling processes to use more
memory than physically available.
o Implements techniques like paging and segmentation.
4. Paging:
o Divides memory into fixed-sized pages mapped to frames in physical memory.
5. Segmentation:
o Divides memory into variable-sized segments based on logical divisions like
code, data, and stack.
6. Memory Protection:
o Prevents one process from accessing the memory allocated to another.
o Uses techniques like base and limit registers.
7. Swapping:
o Moves inactive processes from RAM to secondary storage (swap space) to free up
memory for active processes.
File Management Systems
File management involves creating, organizing, and maintaining data in files. Responsibilities
include:
1. File Operations:
o Creating, opening, reading, writing, and deleting files.
2. Directory Structure:
o Organizing files into directories (folders).
 o Structures include single-level, two-level, tree-structured, and acyclic graph
directory systems.
3. File Access Methods:
o Sequential Access: Files accessed in a specific order.
o Direct Access: Files accessed directly via index or location.
4. File Allocation Methods:
o Contiguous Allocation: Files stored in consecutive blocks.
o Linked Allocation: Each block contains a pointer to the next block.
o Indexed Allocation: Uses an index block to store pointers to file blocks.
5. File Permissions and Security:
o Implements access control mechanisms like read, write, and execute
permissions.
6. File Systems:
o Examples include NTFS, FAT32, ext4, and HFS+.
Examples of Operating Systems
1. Windows:
o Developed by Microsoft.
o Known for its graphical user interface (GUI) and wide application support.
2. Linux:
o Open-source OS based on the Unix architecture.
o Offers flexibility, security, and support for multiple distributions (e.g., Ubuntu,
Fedora, Debian).
3. macOS:
o Developed by Apple Inc.
o Known for its seamless integration with Apple hardware and a user-friendly
interface.
4. Android:
o Linux-based OS designed for mobile devices.
o Popular for smartphones and tablets.
 5. iOS:
o Developed by Apple Inc.
o Designed for iPhones and iPads, emphasizing security and performance.
Introduction to Databases
1. Importance of Data and Databases
 Data: Critical for decision-making, analytics, and efficient operations across industries.
 Databases: Organized collections of data that enable storage, retrieval, and management.
Essential for handling large amounts of structured or unstructured information efficiently.
 Examples: Online shopping (order details), healthcare (patient records), social media
(user profiles).
2. Database Management Systems (DBMS)
 Software for creating, managing, and interacting with databases.
 Functions:
o Data storage and retrieval.
o Ensures data security and integrity.
o Allows multi-user access.
 Types of DBMS:
o Relational (e.g., MySQL, PostgreSQL): Use structured tables with defined
relationships.
o Non-relational (NoSQL) (e.g., MongoDB): Suitable for unstructured or semi-
structured data, often scalable for big data.
3. Basics of SQL (Structured Query Language)
 A standard language for interacting with relational databases.
 Common Commands:
o SELECT: Retrieve data.
o INSERT: Add data.
o UPDATE: Modify data.
o DELETE: Remove data.
 Includes operations like filtering (e.g., WHERE clause) and sorting (e.g., ORDER BY
clause).
4. Examples of Databases
 MySQL: Open-source, widely used for web applications.
 PostgreSQL: Advanced open-source DBMS, known for handling complex queries.
 MongoDB: NoSQL database, uses a document-based model for flexible and scalable
storage.


Module 8: System Security and Maintenance

1. Basics of System Security
 Antivirus Software:
o Detects and removes malicious software (malware).
o Often includes real-time protection and regular updates.
 Authentication Methods:
o Passwords (strong and unique combinations).
o Multi-factor authentication (MFA): Combines multiple verification factors like
SMS codes or biometrics.
 Common Threats:
o Malware: Software intended to harm systems (e.g., viruses, worms).
o Phishing: Deceptive attempts to steal sensitive information via email or fake
websites.
o Ransomware: Malicious software that locks files until a ransom is paid.
2. Backup and Recovery Strategies
 Backup:
o Regularly save copies of critical data to an external device or cloud storage.
o Types: Full, incremental, or differential backups.
 Recovery:
o Develop a disaster recovery plan.
o Test recovery processes to ensure minimal downtime.
3. Basic Troubleshooting Techniques
 Identify the problem (e.g., error messages, logs).
  Restart the system or software as a first step.
 Check connections (e.g., cables, network).
 Use diagnostic tools or system logs for deeper issues.
 Seek help from online resources or support teams if needed.

Emerging Trends in Computer Systems

Computer systems are continuously evolving to adapt to the ever-changing needs of modern
technology and society. Among the most transformative trends shaping the future of computer
systems are cloud computing and virtualization, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
(ML), and the Internet of Things (IoT). This comprehensive note explores these trends in detail.

1. Cloud Computing and Virtualization

Cloud computing and virtualization are at the core of modern IT infrastructure, revolutionizing
how businesses and individuals’ access, store, and process data.

Cloud Computing

Cloud computing enables users to access computing resources—such as servers, storage,

databases, and applications—over the internet. The key advantages include scalability, flexibility,
cost-efficiency, and global accessibility. Key models of cloud computing include:

 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Provides virtualized hardware resources.

 Platform as a Service (PaaS): Offers development platforms and tools for application
building.

 Software as a Service (SaaS): Delivers software applications over the internet.

Emerging developments in cloud computing include:

 Edge Computing: Processing data closer to the source (e.g., IoT devices) to reduce
latency.
  Hybrid Cloud Solutions: Combining private and public clouds for flexibility and
security.

 Serverless Computing: Allowing developers to focus on code without managing

infrastructure.

Virtualization

Virtualization is the creation of virtual instances of hardware or software resources. By

abstracting physical hardware, virtualization enables multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a
single physical machine. Key types include:

 Server Virtualization: Partitioning a physical server into multiple VMs.

 Desktop Virtualization: Enabling remote access to virtual desktops.

 Network Virtualization: Creating virtual networks that operate independently of

physical hardware.

Virtualization has paved the way for advancements such as containerization (e.g., Docker,
Kubernetes), which offers lightweight and portable software environments.

2. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

AI and ML are transforming industries by enabling systems to learn, adapt, and make decisions
without explicit programming. These technologies underpin applications in healthcare, finance,
retail, transportation, and more.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI refers to systems that can mimic human intelligence. It encompasses:

 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enabling machines to understand and interact

using human language (e.g., chatbots, translation tools).

 Computer Vision: Allowing machines to interpret visual information (e.g., facial

recognition, object detection).

 Robotics: Developing machines that can perform tasks autonomously.

Machine Learning (ML)

ML, a subset of AI, involves algorithms that learn patterns from data and improve performance
over time. Key types of ML include:

 Supervised Learning: Learning from labeled data.

 Unsupervised Learning: Identifying patterns in unlabeled data.

 Reinforcement Learning: Learning through trial and error based on feedback.

Emerging trends in AI and ML include:

 Generative AI: Creating new content (e.g., text, images) using models like GPT and
DALL-E.

 Explainable AI (XAI): Making AI decisions more transparent and interpretable.

 AI in Edge Computing: Running AI models on edge devices for real-time processing.

3. Internet of Things (IoT)

The Internet of Things (IoT) connects physical devices to the internet, enabling them to collect
and exchange data. IoT is driving innovation across industries such as healthcare, agriculture,
manufacturing, and smart cities.

Key Components of IoT

 Sensors and Actuators: Devices that gather data or perform actions.

 Connectivity: Methods for data transmission (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 5G).

 IoT Platforms: Frameworks for managing and analyzing IoT data.

Applications of IoT

 Smart Homes: Automating devices like thermostats, lights, and security systems.

 Industrial IoT (IIoT): Enhancing operational efficiency through predictive maintenance

and automation.

 Healthcare IoT: Monitoring patient health through wearable devices.

  Agriculture IoT: Optimizing farming practices with data-driven insights.

Emerging Trends in IoT

 5G Integration: Enabling faster and more reliable IoT communication.

 Edge IoT: Processing data locally to reduce latency and bandwidth usage.

 IoT Security: Enhancing protection against cyber threats in connected systems.

ACTIVITY

 Discuss Introduction to Computer Systems

 Highlight the importance of computer systems
 Discuss the history and evolution of computers
 Highlight the classification of computers (e.g., supercomputers,
mainframes, personal computers)
 Describe computer applications in various fields
 Discuss the computer Hardware
 Highlight the components of a Computer System
 Highlight RAM and ROM: Differences and usage
 KEYWORDS

 Cybersecurity
 Threat
 Vulnerability
 Multi-tasking
 Internet of things
 Vaccum tube

SUMMARY

In summary, cloud computing and cloud storage services revolutionize the

way individuals and businesses store, manage, and access data. With a
range of service models, storage providers, and benefits, users can choose
solutions based on their needs and preferences. However, it's important
to consider the associated challenges, especially around security, privacy,
and costs, when opting for cloud services.