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PY-BOOK - PERIYAR UNIVERSITY 2023 REGULATIONS
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Essential Technologies for DataScience(Weka& Intel AI software) (Periyar University)
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UNIT-I
1. Algorithms
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving a problem in a finite
number of steps
Algorithms are often used to help computers make decisions, and in
programming
Set of step-by-step instructions that perform a specific task or operation
Natural language NOT programming language
Algorithm is the sequence of steps to be performed in order to solve a
problem by the computer
Three reasons for using algorithms are efficiency, abstraction and
reusability
Algorithms can be expressed in many different notations, including natural
languages, pseudocode, flowcharts and programming languages
Analysis of algorithms is the theoretical study of computer program
The practical goal of algorithm analysis is to predict the performance of
different algorithms in order to guide program design decisions
Most algorithms do not perform the same in all case
Normally an algorithm’s performance varies with the data passed to it
Typically, three cases are recognized: the best case, average case and
worst case
Worst case analysis of algorithms is considered to be crucial to
applications such as games, finance and robotics
O-notation, also known as Big O-notation, is the most common notation
used to express an algorithm’s performance in formal manner
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Characteristics of algorithm
Algorithms can be written in plain simple English language so that it is
easily understandable even by non-programmers
In the algorithm each and every instruction should be precise and
unambiguous
The instruction in an algorithm should not be repeated infinitely
Ensure that the algorithm will ultimately(finally) terminate
The algorithm should be written in sequence
The desired result should be obtained only after the algorithm
terminates
Input: An algorithm must have an input, and that input should not be zero (0)
Output: At the end, you must receive at least one output
Clear instructions: An algorithm must have thorough and clear instructions
Finiteness: An algorithm must consist of a finite number of steps, i.e., it must be
finite and should terminate
Workable: The algorithms must be simple and straightforward and should not
include any future technology or anything else. It should be executable with the
available resources
Qualities of a good algorithm
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Time - Lesser time required
Memory - Less memory required
Accuracy - Suitable or correct solution obtained
Sequence - Must be sequence and some instruction may be repeated in
number of times or until particular condition is met
Examples of algorithm
Problem 1: Find the area of a Circle of radius r
Inputs to the algorithm
Radius r of the Circle\
Expected output
Area of the Circle
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step2: Read input the Radius r of the Circle
Step3: Area ←PI*r*r // calculation of area
Step4: Print Area
Step 5: Stop
Problem2: Write an algorithm to read two numbers and find their sum
Inputs to the algorithm
First num1
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Second num2
Expected output
Sum of the two numbers
Algorithm
Step1: Start
Step2: Read\input the first num1.
Step3: Read\input the second num2.
Step4: Sum← num1+num2 // calculation of sum
Step5: Print Sum
Step6: Stop
Problem 4: Find the largest number between A and B
Inputs to the algorithm
A, B
Expected output
Largest A or B
Algorithm
Step 1: Start
Step 2:Read A, B
Step 3: If A is less than B, then
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Big=B
Small=A
Print A is largest
Else
Big=A
else
Small = B
Step 4: Write (Display) BIG, SMALL
Step 5: Stop
Problem 5: To determine student’s average grade and indicate whether
successful or fail
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input mid-term and final
Step 3: average=(mid-term + final)/2
Step 4: if (average < 60) then
Print “FAIL”
Print “SUCCESS”
Problem 6: A algorithm to find the l rgest v lue of any three numbers
Step1: Start
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Step2: Read/input A,B and C
Step3: If (A>=B) and (A>=C) then Max=A
Step4: If (B>=A) and (B>=C) then Max=B
Step5:If (C>=A) and (C>=B) then Max=C
Step6: Print Max
Step7: End
1.1 Building blocks of algorithms
Algorithms can be constructed from basic building blocks namely,
sequence, selection and iteration
1.1.1 Statements
Statement is a single action in a computer
In a computer statements might include some of the following actions
input data-information given to the program
process data-perform operation on a given input
output data-processed result
1.1.2 State
Transition from one process to another process under specified condition
with in a time is called state
1.1.3 Control flow
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The process of executing the individual statements in a given order is
called control flow
The control can be executed in three ways
sequence
selection
iteration
Sequence
All the instructions are executed one after another is called sequence
execution
Example
Add two numbers
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get a,b
Step 3: calculate c=a+b
Step 4: Display c
Step 5: Stop
Selection
A selection statement causes the program control to be transferred to a
specific part of the program based upon the condition
If the conditional test is true, one part of the program will be executed,
otherwise it will execute the other part of the program
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Example
Write an algorithm to check whether he is eligible to vote
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Get age
Step 3: if age >= 18 print “Eligible to vote”
Step 4: else print “Not eligible to vote”
Step 6: Stop
Iteration
In some programs, certain set of statements are executed again and again
based upon conditional test. i.e. executed more than one time
This type of execution is called looping or iteration
Example
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Write an algorithm to print all natural numbers up to n
Step 1: Start
Step 2: get n value.
Step 3: initialize i=1
Step 4: if (i<=n) go to step 5 else go to step 7
Step 5: Print i value and increment i value by 1
Step 6: go to step 4
Step 7: Stop
1.1.4 Functions
Function is a sub program which consists of block of code(set of
instructions) that performs a particular task
For complex problems, the problem is been divided into smaller and
simpler tasks during algorithm design
Benefits of Using Functions
Reduction in line of code
code reuse
Better readability
Information hiding
Easy to debug and test
Improved maintainability
Example
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Algorithm for addition of two numbers using function
Main function()
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Call the function add()
Step 3: Stop
sub function add()
Step 1: Function start
Step 2: Get a, b Values
Step 3: add c=a+b
Step 4: Print c
Step 5: Return
Example flow chart
1.2 Notation
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Algorithm notations are used to compare efficiency between different
algorithms, the basics are: o(n) faster O(n) faster or equal Θ(n) equal to
Ω(n) slower or equal to
1.2.1 Flow chart
Flowcharts are the graphical representation of the algorithms
The algorithms and flowcharts are the final steps in organizing the
solutions
The purpose of flowchart is making the logic of the program clear in a
visual representation
Using the algorithms and flowcharts the programmers can find out the
bugs in the programming logic and then can go for coding
Flowcharts can show errors in the logic and set of data can be easily
tested using flowcharts
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Rules for drawing a flowchart
The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow
The flowchart must have a logical start and finish
Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol
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Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol. However, two or three
flow lines may leave the decision symbol
Only one flow line is used with a terminal symbol
Intersection of flow lines should be avoided
Advantages of flowchart
Communication
Effective analysis
Proper documentation
Efficient Coding
Proper Debugging
Efficient Program Maintenance
Example
Convert the algorithm for computing factorial of given number
Solution
The algorithm for computing factorial of given number is
Read N
Set i and F to 1
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While i < = N
F = F*i
Increase the value of i by 1
Display F
End
Example flow chart
Example
Draw a flow chart to accept three distinct numbers find the
greatest and print the result
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1.2.2 Pseudo code
Pseudocode is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers
develops algorithms.
Pseudocode is a "text-based" detail (algorithmic) design tool
Pseudo code consists of short, readable and formally styled English
languages used for explain an algorithm
It does not include details like variable declaration, subroutines
It is easier to understand for the programmer or non programmer to
understand the general working of the program, because it is not based on
any programming language
It gives us the sketch of the program before actual coding
It is not a machine readable
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Pseudo code can’t be compiled and executed
There is no standard syntax for pseudo code
Common keywords used in Pseudocode
1. //: This keyword used to represent a comment
2. BEGIN,END: Begin is the first statement and end is the last statement
3. INPUT, GET, READ: The keyword is used to inputting data
4. COMPUTE, CALCULATE: used for calculation of the result of the
given expression
5. ADD, SUBTRACT, INITIALIZE used for addition, subtraction and
initialization
6. OUTPUT, PRINT, DISPLAY: It is used to display the output of the
program
7. IF, ELSE, ENDIF: used to make decision
8. WHILE, ENDWHILE: used for iterative statements
9. FOR, ENDFOR: Another iterative incremented/decremented tested
automatically
Syntax for if else
IF (condition)THEN
statement
...
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ELSE
statement
...
ENDIF
Example: Greates of two numbers
BEGIN
READ a,b
IF (a>b) THEN
DISPLAY a is greater
ELSE
DISPLAY b is greater
END IF
END
Syntax for For
FOR( start-value to end-value) DO
statement
...
ENDFOR
Example: Print n natural numbers
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BEGIN
GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
FOR (i<=n) DO
PRINT i
i=i+1
ENDFOR
END
Syntax for While
WHILE (condition) DO
statement
...
ENDWHILE
Example: Print n natural numbers
BEGIN
GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
WHILE(i<=n) DO
PRINT i
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i=i+1
ENDWHILE
END
1.2.3 Programming language
A programming language is a set of symbols and rules for instructing a
computer to perform specific tasks
The programmers have to follow all the specified rules before writing
program using programming language
The user has to communicate with the computer using language which it
can understand
Types of programming language
[Link] language
[Link] language
[Link] level language
Machine language
The computer can understand only machine language which uses 0’s and
1’s
In machine language the different instructions are formed by taking
different combinations of 0’s and 1’s
The program written in machine language can be executed directly on
computer
In this case any conversion process is not required
The execution of machine language program is extremely fast
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It is hard to find errors in a program written in the machine language
Writhing program in machine language is a time consuming process
Assembly language
To overcome the issues in programming language and make the
programming process easier, an assembly language is developed which is
logically equivalent to machine language but it is easier for people to read,
write and understand
Assembly languages are symbolic programming language that uses
symbolic notation to represent machine language instructions
They are called low level language because they are so closely related to
the machines
Assembler is the program which translates assembly language instruction
in to a machine language
Machine dependent
Execution time of assembly language program is more than machine
language program
Because assembler is needed to convert from assembly language to
machine language
High level language
High level language contains English words and symbols
The specified rules are to be followed while writing program in high
level language
The interpreter or compilers are used for converting these programs
in to machine readable form
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A compiler is a program which translates the source code written in a
high level language in to object code which is in machine language
program
Compiler reads the whole program written in high level language and
translates it to machine language
If any error is found it display error message on the screen
Interpreter translates the high level language program in line by line
manner
The interpreter translates a high level language statement in a source
program to a machine code and executes it immediately before
translating the next statement
When an error is found the execution of the program is halted and
error message is displayed on the screen.
Examples of various programming languages
Imperative programming languages
The imperative programming is also called as procedural programming
language
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Object oriented programming languages
This language has a modular programming approach
Examples:Lava,Moto
Functional programming
Computations of functional languages are performed largely through
applying functions to values, i.e., (+ 10 20).
This expression is interpreted as 10 + 20. The result 30 will be returned
Logic Programming
In this paradigm(example) we express computation in terms of
mathematical logic only
It is also called as rule based programming approach
Scripting language
Examples:Apple script,VB script
Markup languages
Examples:HTML,XML
Procedural programming language
Examples:Hyper talk,MATLAB
Concurrent programming language
Examples:Joule,Limbo
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1.3 Algorithmic problem solving
Algorithmic problem solving is solving problem that require the
formulation of an algorithm for the solution
Identify the problem
Identifying the problem is the first step in solving the problem
Understand the problem
Before solving any problem it is important to understand it
Identify the alternative ways to solve the problem
The alternative way to solve the problem must be known to the
developer
Select the best way to solve the problem from list of alternative solutions
For selecting the best way to solve the problem, the merits and demerits
of each problem must be analyzed
List the instructions using the selected solution
Based on the knowledgebase (created/used in step 2) the step by step
instructions are listed out
Evaluate the solution
When the solution is evaluated then
Check whether the solution is correct or not
Check whether it satisfies the requirements of the customer or not
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1.4 Simple strategies for developing algorithms
Developing an algorithm is a very important step in problem-solving
Iteration and Recursion are the simple strategies for developing algorithms
Basically iteration and recursion perform the same kind of task
1.4.1 Iteration
A sequence of statements is executed until a specified condition is true is
called iterations
In iteration the control statements such as for loop, do-while loop or while
is used
Syntax for For:
FOR( start-value to end-value) DO
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Statement
...
ENDFOR
Example: Print n natural numbers
BEGIN
GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
FOR (i<=n) DO
PRINT i
i=i+1
ENDFOR
END
‘Syntax for While:
WHILE (condition) DO
Statement
...
ENDWHILE
Example: Print n natural numbers
BEGIN
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GET n
INITIALIZE i=1
WHILE(i<=n) DO
PRINT i
i=i+1
ENDWHILE
END
1.4.2 Recursion
A function that calls itself is known as recursion
Recursion is a process by which a function calls itself repeatedly until
some specified condition has been satisfied
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Recursion is a method of solving problems that involves breaking a
problem down into smaller and smaller subproblems until you get to a
small enough problem that it can be solved trivially
Pseudo code for factorial using recursion:
Main function
BEGIN
GET n
CALL factorial(n)
PRINT fact
BIN
Sub function factorial(n)
IF(n==1) THEN
fact=1
RETURN fact
ELSE
RETURN fact=n*factorial(n-1)
Algorithm for factorial of n numbers using recursion
Main function
Step1: Start
Step2: Get n
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Step3: call factorial(n)
Step4: print fact
Step5: Stop
Sub function factorial(n)
Step1: if(n==1) then fact=1 return fact
Step2: else fact=n*factorial(n-1) and return fact
UNIT-II
2. Python interpreter
Python is an interpreted object-oriented programming language
A python interpreter is a computer program that converts each high-level
program statement into machine code called byte code
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This interpreter can be implemented in various languages, such as C, Java,
or even Python itself
The standard Python interpreter, known as CPython, is written in C
Interpreters translate programs one statement at a time
interpreters usually take less time to analyze(study) the source code
Python interpreter has two components
The translator checks the statement for syntax
If found correct, it generates an intermediate byte code
There is a Python virtual machine which then converts the byte code in
native binary and executes it
Example
#Demonstrating interpreted python
print "\n\n----This line is correct----\n\n" #line1
print Hello #this is wrong #line2
Output
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In the above illustration(image), you can see that line 1 was syntactically
correct and hence got successfully executed
Whereas, in line 2 we had a syntax error
The interpreter stopped executing the above script at line 2
This is not valid in the case of a compiled programming language
Interpreters don’t generate any Object code
2.1 Python interactive mode
A way of using the Python interpreter by typing commands and
expressions at the prompt
The Python interactive shell starts is called the Prompt String
The prompt string suggests that the interactive shell is now ready to take
new commands
Python has 2 prompt strings, one primary >>> and one secondary ...
which we usually see when an execution unit (statement) spans multiline
To work in interactive mode, we use an environment Integrated
Development and Learning Environment or IDLE
IDLE shell is an environment window for executing a single python
statement, generally one at a time
It produces instant output
Example python prompt
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It is automatically installed when Python is installed for Windows
Alternatively, you can go to the windows command prompt and type
python and press enter. Now you will be able to execute single python
statements
Example
Before creating actual python programs, let us first practice entering single
statements in IDLE shell, which will help writing short programs later in
script mode
In python, print is a function used to display some data on the screen
It is a frequently used in a variety of ways
As soon as we type the statement print("Hello World!") and press
ENTER, the python interpreter immediately executes it
The output is displayed in the next line
Input statements are shown in colors, outputs are in white
To display a group of characters like "Hello World!", quotations are
needed
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A sequence of characters inside quotations is called a string
In python, generally double and single quotes function similarly
When we display a number with print, quotations are not needed
A number without quotations is a numeric value. "Hello World!", 123,
45.6 are values
Interactive Python is very much helpful for the debugging purpose
Python has two basic modes: normal and interactive
The normal mode is the mode where the scripted and finished .py files are
run in the Python interpreter
2.2 Values
In computer programming, a value is a number, or a character, or a
sequence of chracters, digits, symbols, punctuations etc.
Examples of values
11, -59, 0.4, -3.7, +268 "11", "hello", "abc@#$", "Python is easy
and powerful!"
The above values have a technical term, literals
Literals are raw data or fixed values
Constants do not change during the execution of a program
Every literal has a data-type
123 is an integer literal
It is of integer data-type, and recognized by python as 'int'
45.6 is a float literal
Decimal numbers are of float data-type, and recognized as 'float'
"Hello World!" is a string literal
It is of string data-type, and recognized as 'str'
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String literals must be enclosed within quotes
The term data-type is a very important concept(idea) in programming
We can find the data-type of any literal by using another function type()
The purpose of type() is to find the data-type of the given literal, variable,
or expression
Example of type()
>>>type("HelloWorld!")
<class 'str'>
The output <class 'str'> indicates that the given character set "Hello
World!" is of 'str' data-type(string)
>>>type(123)
<class 'int'>
>>>type(56.7)
<class 'float'>
<class 'int'> confirms that data-type of 123 is 'int'
<class 'float'> denotes that of 56.7 is a 'float' type
2.3 Data types
Numbers
Number data type stores Numerical Values
This data type is immutable [i.e. values/items cannot be changed]
Python supports integers, floating point numbers and Boolean
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2.3.1 Integer
This value is represented by the int class
Contains positive or negative integers (not fractions or decimals)
In Python, there is no limit to the length of an integer value
There are two types of integers in python int and boolean
Example
x=1
y = 35656222554887711
z = -3255522
Example
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a=7
print("Type of a: ", type(a))
Type of a: <class 'int'>
2.3.2 Boolean
The simplest build-in type in Python is the bool type
It has two values: True and False. True has the value 1 and False has the
value 0
Example
>>>bool (0)
False
>>>bool (1)
True
>>>bool (‘‘)
False
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>>>bool (-34)
True
>>>bool (34)
True
2.3.3 Float
This is used to store the decimal values
It is represented by float class
It is a real number with floating-point representation
Float or “floating point number” is a number, positive or negative
In floating-point numbers, there is no fixed number of digits before or
after the decimal point
Example
X = 1.0
Y = 25.125
Z = - 48.1928569
print(X, Y, Z)
type(X)
Output
1.0 25.125 -48.1928569
<class ‘float’>
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2.3.4 String
A string is a collection of characters
We can use single, double, or triple quotes to represent strings
Triple quotes multi-line strings can be denoted. Like tuple strings are
immutable
Python does not have a character data type
A single character is simply a string with a length of 1
Each character in a string has its own index
String is immutable data type means it can never change its value in
place
Example
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Example
str1 = 'hello eMexo' #string str1
str2 = ' how are you' #string str2
print (str1[0:2]) #printing first two character using slice operator
print (str1[4]) #printing 4th character of the string
print (str1*2) #printing the string twice
print (str1 + str2) #printing the concatenation of str1 and str2
Output
he
hello eMexohello eMexo
hello eMexo how are you
2.3.5 List
Python lists are similar to C arrays
A list is a data type that allows you to store various types data in it
It is a compound data type which means you can have different-2 data
types under a list, for example we can have integer, float and string items
in a same list
There are commas (,) between items in the list, and square brackets []
surround each item
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The concatenation operator (+) and the repeat operator (*) operate on
lists as they would for strings
Example
list1 = [1, "hi", "Python", 2]
#Checking type of given list
print(type(list1))
#Printing the list1
print (list1)
# List slicing
print (list1[3:])
# List slicing
print (list1[0:2])
# List Concatenation using + operator
print (list1 + list1)
# List repetation using * operator
print (list1 * 3)
Output
[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
[2]
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[1, 'hi']
[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
[1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2, 1, 'hi', 'Python', 2]
2.4 Variables
Variable is a named memory location to store the temporary data within
a program
We have two types of memory in a computer environment (Temporary
Memory- RAM and Permanent Memory – ROM)
Variables store in the Temporary memory (RAM)
In Python, We do not need to declare variables before using them or
declare their type
A variable is created the moment we first assign a value to it
A variable is a name given to a memory location
It is the basic unit of storage in a program
2.4.1 Variable naming rules
A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character
A variable name cannot start with a number
A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and
underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
Variable names are case-sensitive
The reserved words(keywords) cannot be used to name the variable
2.4.2 Creating variables
Python has no command(rule) for declaring a variable
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A variable is created the moment you first assign a value to it
2.4.3 Single value assignment
This is a variable where only one data value is assigned to it
The data values can be of any data type
Syntax
variable=expr
Example
# declaring the variables
x = 123
y = “Udayakumar”
z=10.234
# Print variables
print(x)
print(y)
print(z)
Output
123
Udayakumar
10.234
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2.4.4 Multiple data assignment
Assigning a single value to multiple variables
This is a variable where one data value is assigned to multiple variables
Syntax
var1=var2=var3...varn = expr
Example
a = b = c = 10
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)
Output
10
10
10
2.4.5 Assigning a multiple values to single variables
This is a variable where more than one data value is assigned to the
variable
These data values can also be accessed individually
Syntax
var=exp1,exp2,exp3…..exp-n
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Example
team = "Favour", "Victor", "Clarence"
print(team)
Output
('Favour', 'Victor', 'Clarence')
Let's access the individual data values in team:
team = "Favour", "Victor", "Clarence"
print(team[1])
Output
Victor
Explanation
Using index count, we start from index 0
So "Favour" is at index 0, "Victor" at index 1, and "Clarence" at index 2
We access the data value at index 2
2.4.6 Different data types in one variable
Python variable contains different data type values
Syntax
var=exp1,exp2,exp3…..exp-n
diff = "Favour", 20, True
print(diff)
Output
('Favour', 20, True)
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Explanation
The variable diff contains the following data types:
"Favour": String
20: Integer
True: Boolean
Note: In multiple data variables, we use commas (,) to separate the data
values. When accessing these data values individually, we use square
brackets([]) for their index numbers
2.4.7 Assigning different values to multiple variables
We can also assign the multiple objects to multiple variables
Syntax
var, var, ..., var = expr, expr, ..., expr
Example
a, b, c = 1, 20.2, “uday”
print(a)
print(b)
print(c)
Output
20.2
Uday
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2.5 Expressions
An expression in python is any valid combination operators, literals and
variables
An expression is python is any valid combination of operation and atoms
As expression are the composed of one or more operation
2.5.1 Atoms
An atom is something that has a value
Identifiers, literals, string, lists, tuples, sets, dictionaries, etc. are all
atoms
2.5.2 Arithmetic expression
In arithmetic expression, we perform the mathematical calculation using
arithmetic operators like +, -, *, /, etc.
These expressions involve numbers (integers, floating-point numbers,
complex numbers) and arithmetic operators
Example
# Program to calculate the sum of two numbers
num1 = 20
num2 = 40
sum = num1 + num2 # An arithmetic expression
print("Sum of two numbers is ", sum)
Output
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Sum of two numbers is 60
2.5.3 Relational expression
The relational expression compares two operators using relational
operators, such as >, <, >=, <=, etc. It is also called conditional
expression
An expression having literals and/or variables of any valid type and
relational operators is a relational expression
Example
# Python program to find greater between three numbers
num1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
num2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
num3 = int(input("Enter the third number: "))
if num1 > num2 and num1 > num3:
print(num1, 'is a greater number among the three numbers.')
elif num2 > num1 and num2 > num3:
print(num2, 'is a greater number among the three numbers.')
else:
print(num3, 'is a greater number among the three numbers.')
Output
Enter the first number: 20
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Enter the second number: 10
Enter the third number: 30
30 is a greater number among the three numbers.
2.5.4 Logical expression
The logical expression uses the logical operators, such as and , or, and not
It produces a boolean value, either true or false value
An expression having literals and/or variables of any valid type and
logical operators is a logical expression
Example
p = 10
q = 15
r=5
s = 20
result = p > q and r > s
print("Logical expression (p > q and r > s) returns ", result)
Output
Logical expression (p > q and r > s) returns False
2.5.5 String expression
Python also provides two string operators + and *, when combined with
string operands and integers, form string expressions
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With operator +, the concatenation operator, the operands should be one
string type only
With * operator, the replication operator, the operands should be one
integer
Example
>>> "Hello, " + "World!"
'Hello, World!'
>>> ("A", "B", "C") + ("D", "E", "F")
('A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F')
>>> [0, 1, 2, 3] + [4, 5, 6]
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Example
>>> "Hello" * 3
'HelloHelloHello'
>>> 3 * "World!"
'World!World!World!'
>>> ("A", "B", "C") * 3
('A', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'C')
>>> 3 * [1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
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2.6 Statements
Instructions that a Python interpreter can executes are called statements
A statement is a unit of code like creating a variable or displaying a value
2.6.1 Multiline python statement
In Python, every statement ends with a newline character
Example
>>> a=\
10\
+20
>>> a
Output
30
Example
>>> "Hello\
hi"
Output
‘Hellohi’
>>> a=(
10+
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20)
>>> a
Output
30
>>> type(a)
<class 'int'>
2.6.2 Multiple python statement in one line
>>> a=7; print(a)
Output
Example
>>> if 2>1: print("2")
Output
2.6.3 String python statements
To declare strings in python, you may use single or double quotes
>>> "Hello 'user'"
Output
“Hello ‘user'”
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2.6.4 Assignment statements in python
In python, when assigning a value to a variable you use the assignment
statement
The values can be of any data type
In python, you don’t have to declare the variable
The declaration happens automatically during execution
Example
int1=10
string1="This is a sentence"
list1=["PythonGeeks",1,2,3,"syntax"]
dictionary1={"one":1, "two":2}
tuple1=("apple",100)
print(f"The datatype of {int1} is {type(int1)}")
print(f"The datatype of {string1} is {type(string1)}")
print(f"The datatype of {list1} is {type(list1)}")
print(f"The datatype of {dictionary1} is {type(dictionary1)}")
print(f"The datatype of {tuple1} is {type(tuple1)}")
Output
The datatype of 10 is <class ‘int’>
The datatype of This is a sentence is <class ‘str’>
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The datatype of [PythonGeeks, 1, 2, 3, ‘syntax’] is <class ‘list’>
The datatype of {‘one’: 1, ‘two’: 2} is <class ‘dict’>
The datatype of (‘apple’, 100) is <class ‘tuple’>
2.6.5 Python indentation
Indentation is when you add a blank/white space before a statement
In python, indentation is a very important part of the code
If you don’t use proper indentation, the code won’t run and you’ll get an
error stating “IndentationError”
Example
Incorrect Indentation in python
password="password"
p=input("please enter a number\n")
if(p!=password):
print("you have entered incorrect password")
else:
print("Successfully signed in")
The example above shows you how the code would look if the indentation
is incorrect
When you run this code you will get an error message stating “expected
indentation block” as shown in the output
Example
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Correct Indentation in python
password="password"
p=input("please enter a number\n")
if(p!=password):
print("you have entered incorrect password")
else:
print("Successfully signed in")
Output
please enter the password
password
Successfully signed in
2.6.6 Compound statements in python
Multiple statements or a group of statements written together to form
compound statements
Compound statements together form a block of code
Every time you work with multiple statements that form a block of code,
indentation is important
Example
Compound statement in python
for num in range (1,20):
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if num > 1:
for i in range(2,num):
if (num % i) == 0:
break
else:
print(num)# 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
2.7 Tuple in python
Example
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2.7.1Accessing elements in a tuple
2.7.2 Tuple is immutable
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2.7.3 Tuple operations
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2.7.4 Tuple methods and built in functions
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2.7.5 Nested tuple
2.7.6 Tuple assignment
Example
>>>tup1 = (8, 99, 90, 6.7)
>>>(roll no., english, maths, GPA) = tup1
>>>print(english)
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99
>>>print(roll no.)
>>>print(GPA)
6.7
>>>print(maths)
90
Example
>>> (num1, num2, num3, num4, num5) = (88, 9.8, 6.8, 1)
#this gives an error as the variables on the left are more than the number of
elements in the tuple
Output
ValueError: not enough values to unpack
(expected 5, got 4)
2.8 Precedence of operators
In Python programming, the concept of operator precedence refers to a set of
rules that dictate(readout) the order in which the operators within an
expression
The order of precedence for Python operators is presented in the following
table, where the highest-precedence operators appear at the top and the
lowest-precedence operators appear at the bottom
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Example
NOTE: When evaluating expressions that involve multiple operators, those with
higher precedence are processed before those with lower precedence
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NOTE: If there are multiple operators with the same level of precedence, then they
are processed on the basis of their associativity
2.9 Comments
The lines of code in Python that the interpreter ignores while the program
is running are called comments
A comment is a line of text within a program that is not executed
Python code can be explained with comments
The code can be made easier to read by adding comments
2.9.1 Single-line comments
These comments add a short description or note about a single line of
code
They start with a '#' symbol and continue until the end of the line
Example
# This is a single-line comment
# This is another single-line comment
2.9.2 Multi-line comments
These comments add longer descriptions or notes about multiple lines of
code
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They start and end with three single quotes ("''') or three double quotes
(""")
Example
''' This is a multi-line comment.
It can span multiple lines. '''
2.9.3 Docstrings
In Python, docstring refers to documentation string
A docstring is included as a first-line inside a function, module, class or
method
Docstring is a short description of what your function, module or class
does
Docstrings can be accessed using the help( ) function in Python
Example
def function():
""" The function prints hello world """
print(“Hello, World!”)
2.10 Modules
A module in Python is simply a file containing Python definitions and
statements, such as functions, classes, and variables
By organizing code into modules, you can reuse it across multiple
programs and manage large projects more easily
Module file: A Python module is just a .py file
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Standard Library: Python comes with a large standard library of built-in modules
like math, os, sys, and datetime
Custom Modules: You can create your own modules by placing your Python
code in separate files
2.10.1 Importing standard modules
Python has a rich set of built-in modules. For example, the math module
provides mathematical functions
Example
# Importing the math module
import math
print([Link](16)) # Output: 4.0
print([Link]) # Output: 3.141592653589793
Example
Creating Your Own Module
If you have a file named my_module.py, you can create functions inside it
and import them in other scripts
# my_module.py
def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"
def add(a, b):
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return a + b
Main Python Script
# Importing the custom module
import my_module
print(my_module.greet("Alice")) # Outputs: Hello, Alice!
print(my_module.add(5, 7)) # Outputs: 12
Example
Importing Specific Functions
You can also import specific functions or variables from a module to
avoid having to use the module's name as a prefix
# Importing only the 'add' function from my_module
from my_module import add
print(add(10, 20)) # Outputs: 30
Example
Aliasing Modules
You can rename the module during import with an alias using the as
keyword
import math as m
print([Link](25)) # Outputs: 5.0
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2.10.2 Function in modules
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2.11 Functions
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task
Functions help in breaking our program into smaller, modular pieces,
making it easier to understand, maintain, and reuse
2.11.1 Function definition and use
Defining a Function
A function is defined using the def keyword, followed by a function name
and parentheses containing optional parameters
def greet():
print("Hello, World!")
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Calling a Function
To execute a function, we call it by its name followed by parentheses
greet() # Output: Hello, World!
Function Arguments
Functions can accept arguments, which are values passed to the function
when it is called
We define arguments inside the parentheses
def greet(name):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet("Alice") # Output: Hello, Alice!
Default Arguments
We can provide default values for function arguments
If an argument is not passed when the function is called, the default value is
used
def greet(name="World"):
print(f"Hello, {name}!")
greet() # Output: Hello, World!
greet("Alice") # Output: Hello, Alice!
Return Values
Functions can return values using the return statement
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def add(a, b):
return a + b
result = add(3, 5)
print(result) # Output: 8
Keyword Arguments
When calling a function, we can specify arguments by their parameter
names
This is useful when a function has many arguments
def greet(first_name, last_name):
print(f"Hello, {first_name} {last_name}!")
greet(first_name="Alice", last_name="Johnson")
Variable-Length Arguments
Python allows functions to accept an arbitrary number of arguments using
*args for non-keyword arguments and **kwargs for keyword arguments
def print_numbers(*args):
for number in args:
print(number)
print_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4)
def print_info(**kwargs):
for key, value in [Link]():
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print(f"{key}: {value}")
print_info(name="Alice", age=25)
2.12 Flow of execution
Python is programming language ,it is easy-to-learn for beginners ,it is
object oriented and it is case sensitive language
Python is often used as a support language for software developers, for
build control and management, testing, and in many other ways
The order in which statements are executed is called the flow of execution
Execution always begins at the first statement of the program
Statements are executed one at a time, in order, from top to bottom
Function definitions do not alter the flow of execution of the program, but
remember that statements inside the function are not executed until the
function is called
Work flow
The first step of work flow is to write a source code in python (simple
English/ high level language)
Next step is to check the syntax with the set instructions/rules
After checking of syntax if it didn’t have any error in syntax then it will
send source code to the compiler
In compiler ,the source code can be converted in byte code
This byte code send to a PVM(python virtual machine) which contain the
interpreter in it
This interpreter will check code line by line and convert byte code into
machine code (low level language)
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Atleast , the output what we wanted will execute in high level language.
And the total process is done in python engine
2.13 Parameters and Arguments
Parameters
Parameters are the names that appear in the function definition
In the example below, name, age, and skill are the parameters as they
appear in the function definition
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Arguments
Arguments are the names that appear in the function call
In the below example, ‘Chetan’, 33, and ‘Python’ are the arguments
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UNIT-III
3. Boolean values
Boolean values are the backbone of decision-making in programming
They represent true or false states, allowing programs to make choices
based on conditions
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This fundamental concept enables developers to create dynamic,
responsive code
Comparison operators and logical operators work hand-in-hand with
Boolean values
These tools let programmers craft(technique) complex conditions, evaluate
data, and control program flow
Example
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Example
>>> 3==5
False
>>> 6==6
True
>>> True+True
>>> False+True
>>> False*True
Boolean values of Constructs in Python
The values of other data types are True if they are neither empty nor 0,
else they are False
The following values are considered to be False
1. Numbers: 0,0.0,0j
2. Strings: ”,””
3. Lists, tuples: [],()
4. Dictionary:{}
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5. False
6. None
7. Other methods that return either 0 or False
1. Numbers
The numbers with 0 as the values are considered as False and the others are
True
Example
bool(0)
bool(0.0000000000001)
bool(0.0j)
Output
False
True
False
Strings
Only an empty string is False, the rest of the strings are considered to be
true Even the string with space is True, as space is also a character in
Python
Example
bool(" ")
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bool("")
bool('PythonGeeks')
Output
True
False
True
Lists, tuples, and dictionaries
These will be boolean False if they do not have any element or they are
empty. Else, these are true
Example
bool(())
bool((1,2))
bool([])
bool(['t'])
bool({})
bool({4:'c'})
Output
False
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True
False
True
False
True
Others
Let us check the Boolean for the others too
Example
bool(None)
bool(True)
bool(False)
Output
False
True
False
3.1 Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on values and variables
These are the special symbols that carry out arithmetic and logical
computations
The value the operator operates on is known as Operand
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Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used for mathematical computations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.
They generally operate on numerical values and return a numerical value
They’re also referred to as mathematical operators
Example
a = 21
b = 10
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# Addition
print ("a + b : ", a + b)
# Subtraction
print ("a - b : ", a - b)
# Multiplication
print ("a * b : ", a * b)
# Division
print ("a / b : ", a / b)
# Modulus
print ("a % b : ", a % b)
# Exponent
print ("a ** b : ", a ** b)
# Floor Division
print ("a // b : ", a // b)
Output
a + b : 31
a - b : 11
a * b : 210
a / b : 2.1
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a%b:1
a ** b : 16679880978201
a // b : 2
Comparison/ Relational operators
Comparison operators are used for comparing two values
As an output, they return a boolean value, either True or False
Example
a=4
b=5
# Equal
print ("a == b : ", a == b)
# Not Equal
print ("a != b : ", a != b)
# Greater Than
print ("a > b : ", a > b)
# Less Than
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print ("a < b : ", a < b)
# Greater Than or Equal to
print ("a >= b : ", a >= b)
# Less Than or Equal to
print ("a <= b : ", a <= b)
Output
a == b : False
a != b : True
a > b : False
a < b : True
a >= b : False
a <= b : True
Logical operators
These operators are used to perform logical and, or, and not operations
They operate on Boolean values and return a Boolean value
Example
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x = True
y = False
# Logical and
print("x and y =", x and y)
# Logical or
print("x or y =", x or y)
# not operator
print("not x =", not x)
print("not y =", not y)
Output
x and y = False
x or y = True
not x = False
not y = True
Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators operate on the binary values of the operands bit-by-bit
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Bitwise And (&)
The bitwise AND operator takes two arguments and performs AND
operation on the operands bit by bit
Example
>>> 10&7
2 # output
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Bitwise Or ( | )
The bitwise OR operator performs a logical OR operation on each bit of
the operands
It takes two binary numbers and compares their corresponding bits
If either bit is 1, the result is 1; if both bits are 0, the result is 0
Example
>>> 10|7
15 #output
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Bitwise Xor (^)
The bitwise Xor also takes two operands and performs Xor operation on
the binary digits
The Xor operation gives 0 as a result when both operands are the same
Example
>>> 10^7
13 #output
>>>
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Bitwise complement (~)
The bitwise complement operator works on a single operand and inverts
all the bits of the number
This means that each 0 in the binary representation is changed to 1, and
each 1 is changed to 0
Python Ones’ complement of a number ‘A’ is equal to -(A+1).
Example
>>> ~10
-11
>>> ~-10
>>>
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Left-Shift (<<)
The bitwise left shift is a binary operator that shifts the number of bits to
its left position
It shifts all bits to the left according to the values specified on the right-
hand side of the operator
After performing the left shift operation on the bits, the operator fills the
rightmost bits by 0
Syntax
A << B
Example
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Right-Shift (>>)
The bitwise right shift is a binary operator that shifts the number of bits to
its right position
It shifts all bits to the right according to the values specified on the right-
hand side of the operator
After performing the right shift operation on the bits, the operator fills the
leftmost bits by 0
In simple terminology, right side bits are removed
Syntax
A >> B
Example
Example
# x = 9 which is 0001 0001 in binary
x=9
# y = 3 which is 0000 0011 in binary
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y=3
# Bitwise AND
print("x&y = ", x&y)
# Bitwise OR
print("x|y = ", x|y)
# Bitwise Not
print("~x = ", ~x)
# Bitwise XOR
print("x^y = ", x^y)
# Bitwise Right Shift
print("x>>2 = ", x>>2)
# Bitwise Left Shift
print("x<<2 = ", x<<2)
Output
x&y = 1
x|y = 11
~x = -10
x^y = 10
x>>2 = 2
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x<<2 = 36
Identity operator
Identity Operators help find out whether the value of operand (variable in
general programming term) shares the same memory location
If the same value is tied to two variable then Identity operators will
output True
There are only two types of Identity operators, “is” and “is not”
Example
Consider x= 10 and y = 20 and z = 10
x is z => True
x is y => False
x is not z => False
y is not z => True
Membership operators
These operators test for membership in a sequence such as lists, strings or
tuples
There are two membership operators that are used in Python. (in, not in)
It gives the result based on the variable present in specified sequence or
string
Example
x=4
y=8
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list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ];
if ( x in list ):
print("Line 1 - x is available in the given list")
else:
print("Line 1 - x is not available in the given list")
if ( y not in list ):
print("Line 2 - y is not available in the given list")
else:
print("Line 2 - y is available in the given list")
Output
Line 1 - x is available in the given list
Line 2 - y is not available in the given list
3.2 Decision making statements/Conditional statements
These conditional statements, known as decision making statements in
Python because they execute a block of statements based on a decision
They use the boolean expression for conditional test
The boolean expression may be either a single expression or multiple
expressions
3.2.1 If statement
The if statement is the simplest form
It takes a condition and evaluates to either True or False
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If the condition is True, then the True block of code will be executed
If the condition is False, then the block of code is skipped, and the
controller moves to the next line
Syntax
if condition:
statement 1
statement 2
statement n
Flow diagram
Example
number = 6
if number > 5:
# Calculate square
print(number * number)
print('Next lines of code')
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Output
36
Next lines of code
3.2.2 If – else statement
The if-else statement checks the condition and executes the if block of code
when the condition is True, and if the condition is False, it will execute
the else block of code
Syntax
if condition:
statement 1
else:
statement 2
If the condition is True, then statement 1 will be executed If the condition
is False, statement 2 will be executed
Flow diagram
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Example
password = input('Enter password ')
if password == "PYnative@#29":
print("Correct password")
else:
print("Incorrect Password")
Output 1:
Enter password PYnative@#29
Correct password
Output 2:
Enter password PYnative
Incorrect Password
3.2.3 Chained conditional (if-elif-else)
In Python, the if-elif-else condition statement has an elif blocks to chain
multiple conditions one after another
This is useful when you need to check multiple conditions
The elif statement checks multiple conditions one by one and if the
condition fulfills, then executes that code
Syntax
if condition-1:
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statement 1
elif condition-2:
stetement 2
elif condition-3:
stetement 3
...
else:
statement
Flow diagram
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Example
if age>7 and age<=10:
print(">7-10")
elif (age<=3):
print("1-3")
elif (age<=5):
print("4-5")
elif (age<=7):
print("6-7")
else:
print("error")
Output
If the value of the variable is equal to 8, 9 or 10
>7-10
3.3 Iteration/Looping /control flow Statements
In a programming language, a looping statement contains instructions
that continually repeat until a certain condition is reached
Looping simplifies complicated problems into smooth ones
It allows programmers to modify the flow of the program so that rather
than writing the same code, again and again
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Programmers are able to repeat the code a finite number of times
3.3.1 While loop
In Python, a while loop is used to execute a block of code repeatedly as
long as a specified condition is true
It continues to execute the block of code until the condition becomes false
It is also called a pre-tested loop
When the condition becomes false, the loop ends and moves to the next
statement after the loop
Syntax
while condition:
statement(s)
Flow diagram
Example
num = 10
sum = 0
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i=1
while i <= num:
sum = sum + i
i=i+1
print("Sum of first 10 number is:", sum)
3.3.2 For loop
The for loop is used in the case where a programmer needs to execute a
part of the code until the given condition is satisfied
The for loop is also called a pre-tested loop
It is best to use for loop if the number of iterations is known in advance
The for loop works well with iterable objects like lists, tuples, strings, etc.
In Python, there is no C style for loop, i.e., for (i=0; i<n; i++)
Syntax
for variable in sequence:
statements(s)
Flow diagram
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Example
for i in range(1, 11):
print(i)
Output
10
3.3.3 Break
The break statement is useful when you want to exit out of the loop if some
condition is true
Syntax
break
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Flow diagram
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Example
for num in [11, 9, 88, 10, 90, 3, 19]:
print(num)
if(num==88):
print("The number 88 is found")
print("Terminating the loop")
break
Output
11
88
The number 88 is found
Terminating the loop
3.3.4 Continue
The continue statement is used to skip the current iteration and continue
with the next iteration
Syntax
while (test_expression1): for var in sequence:
statement(s) statement(s)
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if (test_expression2): if (test_expression2):
continue continue
Flow diagram
Example
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Example
names = ["Bill Gates", "Billie Eilish", "Mark Zuckerberg", "Hussain"]
for name in names:
if name == "Mark Zuckerberg":
print("Skipping this iteration.")
continue # Skip iteration if true.
print(name)
print("Out of the loop")
Output
Bill Gates
Billie Eilish
Skipping this iteration.
Hussain
Out of the loop
3.3.5 Pass
The pass is the keyword In Python
Sometimes there is a situation in programming where we need to define a
syntactically empty block
We can define that block with the pass keyword
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Syntax
pass
Flow diagram
Example
months = ['January', 'June', 'March', 'April']
for mon in months:
pass
print(months)
Output
['January', 'June', 'March', 'April']
3.4 Fruitful functions
Fruitful functions differ from void functions
The fruitful functions are the functions that return values
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Void functions allow you to perform calculations, manipulate data, and
generate outputs
With fruitful functions, we can reduce code redundancy
To define a fruitful function in Python, you need to use the keyword "def"
followed by the function name
Fruitful functions still allow the user to provide information (arguments)
Most of the built-in functions that we have used are fruitful >>>
abs(−42)
3.4.1 Return values
The return statement lies at the heart of fruitful functions
The value can be returned from a function using the keyword return
The Keyword return is used to return back the value to the called function
Returning single values
Returning multiple values using tuples
Utilizing conditional statements in return statements
Error handling and exception raising
Creating a very simple mathematical function that we will call square
The square function will take one number as a parameter and return the
result of squaring that number
Here is the black-box diagram with the Python code following
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Syntax
return (expression_list)
Example
def square(original_number):
squared_value = original_number * original_number
return squared_value
to_square = 10
result = square(to_square)
print("The result of", to_square, "squared is", result)
Output
The result of 10 squared is 100
3.4.2 Parameter
Parameter is the input data that is sent from one function to another
Syntax Functioncall statement
Result=function_name(param1,param2)
The parameters are of two types
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Formal parameter
The parameter defined as part of the function definition
The actual parameter is received by the formal parameter
Actual parameter
The parameter is defined in the function call
Example
def cube(x):
return x*x*x #x is the formal parameter
a=input(“Enter the number=”)
b=cube(a) #a is the actual parameter
print”cube of given number=”,b
Output
Enter the number=2
Cube of given number=8
3.4.3 Local and Global scope
The global variables are those variables that are declared and defined
outside the function and can be used inside the function
The local variables are those variables that are declared and defined
inside a function
A global variable is one that can be accessed anywhere
A local variable is the opposite, it can only be accessed within its frame
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The difference between the global and local is that global variables can
be accessed locally, but not modified locally
Example
def my_function():
a = 10
print('Inside my_function a value is: ', a)
my_function()
#print('Outside my_function a value is: ', a) # Not accessible
Accessing Global Variable Inside and Outside of the Function
x= “First Global Variable” #Global Variable declaration
def myfunc():
print(“Accessing Inside a function: “ +x)
myfunc()
print(“Accessing Outside a function: “ +x)
Output
Accessing Inside a function: First Global Variable
Accessing Outside a function: First Global Variable
Note: The program will show an error if one tries to modify the global scope
variable value inside a function
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Global keyword
The Global keyword is used to make changes in a local context in the
global variable
The keyword ‘Global’ is used to create or declare a global variable inside
a function
Syntax
def func():
global Variable
Example
def myfunc():
global x #Creating global scope variable inside a function
x = “awesome global scope”
print(“Printing Inside a Function: “ + x)
myfunc()
print(“Printing Outside a Function: “ + x)
Output
Printing Inside a Function: awesome global scope
Printing Outside a Function: awesome global scope
3.5 Function composition
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Function composition is a technique where you combine multiple
functions into a single function
It involves applying one function to the result of another function
The composition of two functions f and g is denoted f(g(x))
x is the argument of g, the result of g is passed as the argument of f and the
result of the composition is the result of f
Example
def double(x):
return x * 2
def increment(x):
return x + 1
# Function composition: increment followed by double
def composed_function(x):
return double(increment(x))
# Test the composed function
print(composed_function(3)) # Output: 8 (first increment -> 4, then double -
> 8)
Explanation
The double function
def double(x):
return x * 2
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This function takes an argument x and returns x multiplied by 2. For example, if x
= 3, double(3) will return 6
The increment function
def increment(x):
return x + 1
This function takes an argument x and adds 1 to it. For example, if x = 3,
increment(3) will return 4
The composed_function function
def composed_function(x):
return double(increment(x))
This is where function composition happens:
increment(x) is called first, which increments the value of x by 1.
The result of increment(x) is then passed as an argument to double(x), which
multiplies the result by 2
step 1: The function composed_function(3) is called with x = 3
Step 2: Inside composed_function, the increment(3) function is called, which gives
the result 3 + 1 = 4
Step 3: The result 4 is then passed to the double(4) function, which gives the result
4*2=8
Thus, composed_function(3) results in 8
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3.6 Recursion
Recursion means iteration
A function which calls itself during its execution is known as recursive
function
Example
def factorial(n):
# Base case: factorial of 0 is 1
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
# Recursive case: n * factorial of (n-1)
return n * factorial(n - 1)
Base Case
The function first checks if n == 0
This is the base case for recursion, which ensures that the recursion stops
when the function reaches 0
First call: factorial(5):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 5, this is false.
The function returns 5 * factorial(4).
Second call: factorial(4):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 4, this is false.
The function returns 4 * factorial(3).
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Third call: factorial(3):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 3, this is false.
The function returns 3 * factorial(2).
Fourth call: factorial(2):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 2, this is false.
The function returns 2 * factorial(1).
Fifth call: factorial(1):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 1, this is false.
The function returns 1 * factorial(0).
Sixth call: factorial(0):
The function checks if n == 0. Since n = 0, this is true.
The function returns 1 (base case)
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3.7 Strings
A string is a sequence of characters
A character can be anything
A string is a data type in python
Python string is a sequence of characters or a single charter enclosed in
single, double, or triples quote
Python treats single and double quotes the same way
An individual character in a string is accessed using a index
The index should always be an integer (positive or negative).
A index starts from 0 to n-1
Strings are immutable i.e. the contents of the string cannot be changed
after it is created
Python will get the input at run time by default as a string
Python does not support character data type
A string of size 1 can be treated as characters
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3.7.1 String slices
The process of extracting a sub string from a string is called slicing
This technique is very similar to accessing the string character
A sub-part of the original string is called substring
This slice syntax returns the sequence of characters beginning at the start
index and extending up to but not including the end index
String Slicing using slice operator
string_name[start:end[:step]]
A start parameter specifies the starting index
A stop parameter specifies the ending index where a string object’s slicing
comes to a halt
A step parameter is an optional parameter that specifies the increment
The slicing operator, colon (:)
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Example
String = "string slicing example"
print(String[1:3]) # tr
print(String[-5:-1]) # ampl
print(String[:4]) # stri
print(String[8:]) # licing example
print(String[-3:]) # ple
In the above slice operation, we have not specified the step argument
along with the start and stop arguments
Example
str = 'Scientech Easy'
print('Original string:',str)
my_sub1 = str[Link]
print('Substring containing every second character :',my_sub1)
my_sub2 = str[::3]
print('Substring containing every third character:',my_sub2)
Output
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Original string: Scientech Easy
Substring containing every second character : SinehEs
Substring containing every third character: See s
Explanation
(a) In my_sub1, the slice [Link] takes the character at position 0 and will
print every second character in the string extending till 16th character
(excluding)
(b) In my_sub2, we have omitted both start and end index values to consider
the entire range of characters in the string by specifying two colons. We
have specified step argument 3 to skip characters
3.7.2 Immutability
Python strings are “immutable” as they cannot be changed after they are
created
Therefore [ ] operator cannot be used on the left side of an assignment
3.7.3 String functions and methods
A method is a function that “belongs to” an object
[Link]()
a=”happy birthday”
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Here, a is the string name
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3.7.4 String module
A module is a file containing Python definitions, functions, statements
Standard library of Python is extended as modules
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To use these modules in a program, programmer needs to import the
module
Once we import a module, we can reference or use to any of its functions or
variables in our code
There is large number of standard modules also available in python
Standard modules can be imported the same way as we import our user-
defined modules
Syntax
import module_name
Example
import string
print([Link])
print([Link])
print([Link])
print([Link]("happy birthday"))
print([Link])
print([Link])
Output
!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~
0123456789
0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJ
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KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ!"#$%&'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\]^_`{|}~
Happy Birthday
0123456789abcdefABCDEF
01234567
Example
>>>import string
>>>string.ascii_letters
'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'
>>>string.ascii_uppercase
'ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ'
>>>string.ascii_lowercase
'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
>>>[Link]
' \t\n\r\x0b\x0c'
3.8 Lists as arrays
Array
Array is a collection of similar elements
Elements in the array can be accessed by index
Array index starts with 0
Array can be handled in python by module named array
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To create array have to import array module in the program
Syntax
import array
Syntax to create array
Array_name = module_name.function_name(‘datatype’,[elements])
Example
a=[Link](‘i’,[1,2,3,4])
a- array name
array- module name
i- integer datatype
Example
import array
sum=0
a=[Link]('i',[1,2,3,4])
for i in a:
sum=sum+i
print(sum) #10
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Convert list into array
fromlist() function is used to append list to array. Here the list is act like a
array
Syntax
[Link](list_name)
Example
import array
sum=0
l=[6,7,8,9,5]
a=[Link]('i',[])
[Link](l)
for i in a:
sum=sum+i
print(sum)# 35
Example
import array
# Create a list
my_list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
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# Convert the list to an array
my_array = [Link]('i', my_list) # 'i' is the type code for integers
# Print the array
print(my_array) # Output: array('i', [10, 20, 30, 40, 50])
# Accessing elements in the array
print(my_array[2]) # Output: 30 (third element in the array)
List of floats to array
import array
# Create a list of floats
my_float_list = [1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4]
# Convert the list to an array of floats ('f' for float type)
my_float_array = [Link]('f', my_float_list)
# Print the array
print(my_float_array) # Output: array('f', [1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4])
# Accessing elements in the array
print(my_float_array[1]) # Output: 2.2
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UNIT-IV
4. Lists
It is an ordered collection of data
Values in the list are called elements / items
It is similar to an array in other programming languages
The python list can also hold different data types at the same time
It is dynamic, not static
Size need not be specified while declaring
It is the most widely used data type
The list is a mutable(changeable)
We can perform operations that change, add, remove and update
elements/items from the list
List index count starts from 0
Python list also allows duplicate elements
Lists are created using squared brackets [] or list() python constructor
Syntax
list_name = [element_1, element_2, element_3, . . . . ., element_n]
or,
list_name = [value1, value2, value3, . . . . ., valuen]
Declaration of List
A list can be created by placing the comma-separated values in square
brackets [ ]
Example
# Empty List
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x = []
print("\n Empty List")
print(x)#output Empty List []
# Python program to create an empty list.
empty_list = []
print(type(empty_list))
Output
<class 'list'>
# List with single data type
y = ["takeuforward", "striver", "tuf"]
print("\n List with Same data type ")
print(y) #output List with Same data type ['takeuforward', 'striver', 'tuf']
# List with multiple data types
z = ["takeuforward", 8.90, 7, 9+899j, ["tuf", "striver"]]
print("\n List with multiple data types")
print(z) #output List with multiple data types
[‘takeuforward’, 8.9, 7, (9+899j), [‘tuf’, ‘striver’]]
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4.1.1 List operations
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4.1.2 List slices
List slicing is an operation that extracts a subset of elements from an list
and packages them as another list
Syntax
Listname[start:stop]
Listname[start:stop:steps]
default start value is 0
default stop value is n-1
[:] this will print the entire list
[2:2] this will create a empty slice
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4.1.3 List methods
Methods used in lists are used to manipulate the data quickly
These methods work only on lists
They do not work on the other sequence types that are not mutable
Syntax
list [Link] name( element/index/list)
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4.1.4 List loop
List using For Loop
The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a sequence (list, tuple, string)
or other iterable objects
Iterating over a sequence is called traversal
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Loop continues until we reach the last item in the sequence
The body of for loop is separated from the rest of the code using
indentation
Syntax
for val in sequence:
List using While loop
The while loop in Python is used to iterate over a block of code as long as
the test expression (condition) is true
When the condition is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be
skipped and the first statement after the while loop will be executed
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Syntax
while (condition):
body of while
Example
a=[1,2,3,4,5]
i=0
sum=0
while i<len(a):
sum=sum+a[i]
i=i+1
print(sum)
Output
15
Infinite Loop
A loop becomes infinite loop if the condition given never becomes false
It keeps on running. Such loops are called infinite loop
Example
a=1
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while (a==1):
n=int(input("enter the number"))
print("you entered:" , n)
Output
Enter the number 10
you entered:10
Enter the number 12
you entered:12
Enter the number 16
you entered:16
4.1.5 Mutability
Lists are mutable. (can be changed)
In Python, mutability refers to the ability of an object to be changed or
modified after it is created
Appending or Removing Elements
You can add elements to the list using methods like append(), insert(), or
extend it with extend()
You can remove elements with methods like remove(), pop(), or clear()
Example
my_list = [1, 2, 3]
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my_list.append(4) # Adds 4 to the end of the list
print(my_list) # Output: [1, 2, 3, 4]
my_list.remove(2) # Removes the first occurrence of 2
print(my_list) # Output: [1, 3, 4]
Resizing Lists
Lists in Python can be resized dynamically (i.e., their length can
change).
my_list = [10, 20, 30]
my_list.append(40) # Adds a new element to the end of the list
print(my_list) # Output: [10, 20, 30, 40]
my_list.pop() # Removes the last element from the list
print(my_list) # Output: [10, 20, 30]
Nested Lists (Lists within Lists)
Lists can also contain other lists as elements
Lists are mutable; you can modify both the inner list and the outer list
Example
my_list = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]]
my_list[0][0] = 10 # Modify the first element of the first nested list
print(my_list) # Output: [[10, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]]
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Insertion without removal
The slice A[0:0] specifies an empty range, so no elements are removed
from the list
Instead, the elements [20, 30, 45] are inserted before the first element of
the list
4.1.6 Aliasing(copying)
Creating a copy of a list is called aliasing
When you create a copy both list will be having same memory location
changes in one list will affect another list
Aliasing refers to having different names for same list values
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In this a single list object is created and modified using the subscript
operator []
When the first element of the list named “a” is replaced, the first element of
the list named “b” is also replaced
This type of change is what is known as a side effect
This happens because after the assignment b=a, the variables a andb refer
to the exact same list object
They are aliases for the same object. This phenomenon is known as
aliasing
To prevent aliasing, a new object can be created and the contents of the
original can be copied which is called cloning
4.1.7 Cloning
In Python, cloning a list means creating a copy of the list so that the
original and the cloned lists are separate objects
This allows modifications to the cloned list without affecting the original
list
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Example Using the copy()
original = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
cloned = [Link]()
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
# Modify the cloned list
cloned[0] = 100
print("After modifying cloned list:")
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
Output
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
After modifying cloned list:
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [100, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Using Slicing (Shallow Copy)
You can also create a shallow copy of a list using slicing ([:])
This works in the same way as the copy() method, by creating a new list
object with the same elements as the original list
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Example
original = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
cloned = original[:]
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
# Modify the cloned list
cloned[1] = 200
print("After modifying cloned list:")
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
Output
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
After modifying cloned list:
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [1, 200, 3, 4, 5]
Using the list() constructor (Shallow Copy)
The list() constructor can also be used to clone a list
It works similarly to slicing and the copy() method
Example
original = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
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cloned = list(original)
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
# Modify the cloned list
cloned[2] = 300
print("After modifying cloned list:")
print("Original List:", original)
print("Cloned List:", cloned)
Output
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
After modifying cloned list:
Original List: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Cloned List: [1, 2, 300, 4, 5]
4.1.8 List as parameters
In python, arguments are passed by reference
If any changes are done in the parameter which refers within the function,
then the changes also reflects back in the calling function
Example
def remove(a):
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[Link](1)
a=[1,2,3,4,5]
remove(a)
print(a)
Output
[2,3,4,5]
Example
def inside(a):
for i in range(0,len(a),1):
a[i]=a[i]+10
print(“inside”,a)
a=[1,2,3,4,5]
inside(a)
print(“outside”,a)
Output
inside [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
outside [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
Example
def insert(a):
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[Link](0,30)
a=[1,2,3,4,5]
insert(a)
print(a)
Output
[30, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
4.2 Tuples
A tuple is same as list, except that the set of elements is enclosed in
parentheses instead of square brackets
A tuple is an immutable list. i.e. once a tuple has been created, you can't
add elements to a tuple or remove elements from the tuple
But tuple can be converted into list and list can be converted in to tuple
Tuples in python is an in-built data structure
A Tuple is a type of data container in Python which is used to store
multiple data in one variable
It can contain elements of different data types
Elements in a tuple are ordered and can be accessed using it's index
[Link] lists
A tuple is basically a read-only list
Items are separated by commas
Tuples are faster than lists
Tuples can be used as keys in dictionaries, while lists can't
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Operations on Tuples
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Tuple methods
4.2.1 Tuple assignment
Example
Swapping using temporary variable:
a=20
b=50
temp = a
a=b
b = temp
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print("value after swapping is",a,b)
Output
value after swapping is 50 20
Example
Swapping using tuple assignment
a=20
b=50
(a,b)=(b,a)
print("value after swapping is",a,b)
Output
value after swapping is 50 20
Multiple assignments
Multiple values can be assigned to multiple variables using tuple
assignment
Example
>>>(a,b,c)=(1,2,3)
>>>print(a)
>>>print(b)
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>>>print(c)
4.2.2 Tuple as return value
A Tuple is a comma separated sequence of items
It is created with or without ( )
A function can return one value
If you want to return more than one value from a function. we can use
tuple as return value
Example
def div(a,b):
r=a%b
q=a//b
return(r,q)
a=eval(input("enter a value:"))
b=eval(input("enter b value:"))
r,q=div(a,b)
print("reminder:",r)
print("quotient:",q)
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Output
enter a value:4
enter b value:3
reminder: 1
quotient: 1
Example2
def min_max(a):
small=min(a)
big=max(a)
return(small,big)
a=[1,2,3,4,6]
small,big=min_max(a)
print("smallest:",small)
print("biggest:",big)
Output
smallest: 1
biggest: 6
4.3 Dictionaries
A dictionary is a collection of objects that have a key and a value
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It's similar to a hash table or an associative array in that each key stores a
single value
It is similar to maps in other programming languages
Each key-value pair are separated by a colon
Each key is separated by a ‘comma’
The data types of key and value can be different
The keys can also have different data types
Values can be of any data type and can be duplicated
keys can’t be duplicated
dictionary can be created by placing comma-separated key-value pairs in
curly braces { }
Dictionary is an unordered collection of elements
Keys must be immutable data type (numbers, strings, tuple)
Note: Dictionary keys are case sensitive, which means the same name with
a different case will be treated distinctly
Example
name = {'name':'allinpython','age':19,'collage':'unknown'}
print(name)
print(type(name))
Output
{‘name’: ‘allinpython’, ‘age’: 19, ‘collage’: ‘unknown’}
<class ‘dict’>
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Example
# Empty Dictonary
dict = {}
print("Empty Dictonary")
print(dict)
Output
Empty Dictonary
{}
Example
# Creating a dictionary
my_dict = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 30, 'city': 'New York'}
# Accessing values using keys
print(my_dict['name']) # Output: Alice
print(my_dict['age']) # Output: 30
print(my_dict['city']) # Output: New York
You can also add new key-value pairs to a dictionary, modify existing
values, or delete items
# Adding a new key-value pair
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my_dict['email'] = 'alice@[Link]'
# Modifying a value
my_dict['age'] = 31
# Deleting an item
del my_dict['city']
print(my_dict) # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 31, 'email': 'alice@[Link]'}
4.3.1 Operations on dictionary
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4.3.2Methods in dictionary
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4.4 Advanced list processing - list comprehension..
List comprehension in Python is a short-hand way of creating a new list
from an existing list
It was introduced in the Python 2.0 version
List comprehension is a powerful technique for creating, filtering, and
transforming a given list into another list
The obtained result is a new list that we can use immediately or store for
further processing
The list comprehension always returns a result list
Syntax
list=[ expression for item in list if conditional]
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Example
# Create an empty list.
sq_list = []
for n in range(10):
sq = n ** 2
# Adding square values to the empty list using append() method.
sq_list.append(sq)
print(sq_list)
Output
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
Example list comprehension
# This statement creates a new list that contains squares of the first 10 natural
numbers
sq_list = [n ** 2 for n in range(10)]
print(list(sq_list))
Output
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
List comprehension is more readable than For Loop and Lambda
function
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Example
[i**2 for i in range(2,10)]
For Loop
sqr = []
for i in range(2,10):
[Link](i**2)
sqr
Lambda + Map
list(map(lambda i: i**2, range(2, 10)))
Output
[4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
UNIT-V
[Link]
A file is some information or data which stays in the computer storage
devices
Python gives you easy ways to manipulate these files
Generally files divide in two categories text file and binary file
Text files are simple text where as the binary files contain binary data
which is only readable by computer
5.1 Text files
Text files are human readable files which contains characters
Python has inbuilt functions to read, write and create text files
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Text files have end line character by default at the end of each line
In Python, the EOL (End of Line) character is represented by the newline
character \n
These text files are txt files
5.1.1 Basic File Operations
Opening a File
In order to open a file we will make use of the open() function which is an
inbuilt function
open() function creates a file object that serves as a link to a file residing
on the computer
Specify the filename and the mode ('r' for reading, 'w' for writing, 'a' for
appending, 'b' for binary mode, etc.)
Syntax
Performing Operations
Once the file is open, you can perform operations like reading, writing, or
manipulating the content
Closing a File
Always close the file using the close() method to free up resources
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Writing Content
file = open('[Link]', 'w')
[Link]('Hello, this is a sample text.')
[Link]()
Reading Content
file = open('[Link]', 'r')
content = [Link]()
print(content)
[Link]()
Output
Hello, this is a sample text.
Example
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If you open same file name again in the ‘w’ mode the old data will be
overwritten the below example
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Append mode
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5.1.2 Format operator
In Python, the format() operator is a powerful way to format strings
It's commonly used to insert values into a string, making the string more
readable and dynamic
The syntax involves placing curly braces {} in the string as placeholders
The format() method to replace those placeholders with the
Example
Basic String Formatting
name = "Alice"
age = 30
# Using format() to insert variables into the string
formatted_string = "My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name,
age)
print(formatted_string)
Output
My name is Alice and I am 30 years old.
Example
Positional Formatting
You can specify the order of arguments explicitly using positional indices
formatted_string = "My name is {0} and I am {1} years old. {0} likes
Python.".format(name, age)
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print(formatted_string)
Output
My name is Alice and I am 30 years old. Alice likes Python.
Example
Named Arguments
You can use named placeholders, which can make your code more
readable
formatted_string = "My name is {name} and I am {age} years
old.".format(name="Bob", age=25)
print(formatted_string)
Output
My name is Bob and I am 25 years old.
Formatting Numbers
You can format numbers using format specifiers, like floating-point
precision, padding, and alignment
pi = 3.141592653589793
formatted_string = "Pi to 3 decimal places: {:.3f}".format(pi)
print(formatted_string)
Output
Pi to 3 decimal places: 3.142
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Alignment and Padding
You can also align text and numbers using width specifications
formatted_string = "|{:<10}|{:^10}|{:>10}|".format("left", "center", "right")
print(formatted_string)
Output
|left | center | right|
5.2 Command line arguments
Python allows the programmer to control the program via arguments passed
at run time, by using Command Line Arguments (CLA)
The sys module also provides access to any command-line arguments via
[Link]
len([Link]) is the number of command-line arguments
To use argv, you will first have to import it (import sys)
The first argument, [Link][0], is always the name of the program
[Link][1] is the first argument you pass to the program
Python allows the support the CLA by using following modules
1. sys Module
2. argparse Module
sys Module
Example
# file name "[Link]"
import sys
programname=[Link][0];
arguments=[Link][1:]
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count=len(arguments)
print(programname)
print(arguments)
print("number of arguments",count)
Output
C:\Users\Admin>[Link] 45 56
C:\Users\Admin\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python312\Scripts\
[Link]
['45', '56']
number of arguments 2
Example
#[Link]
import sys
print("The name of the script file: ", [Link][0])
print("Number of the command line arguments: ", len([Link]))
print("The arguments are: " , str([Link]))
argList = ["apple","banana","strawberry"]
i = 0;
for cmd in [Link] :
print("Argument[", i, "] = ",cmd)
i=i+1
Run the script with the command line argument as shown below
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Output
argparse Module
argparse is a powerful library for creating user-friendly command-line
interfaces
argparse module is part of Python's standard library just like [Link]
import the argparse module
create the parser
add arguments
parse the arguments
CommandLineArgParser_02.py
import argparse
# Create the argument parser
parser = [Link](description="A script that takes
exactly three arguments")
# Add arguments to the parser
parser.add_argument("arg1", help="First argument")
parser.add_argument("arg2", help="Second argument")
parser.add_argument("arg3", help="Third argument")
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# Parse the command line arguments
args = parser.parse_args()
# Access the parsed arguments and print them
print("arg1:", args.arg1)
print("arg2:", args.arg2)
print("arg3:", args.arg3)
Output
C:\> python CommandLineArgParser_02.py apple banana strawberry
arg1: apple
arg2: banana
arg3: strawberry
5.3 Error in python
Errors are nothing but mistakes in the code
Some common examples of syntax errors include incorrect indentation,
missing colons, and misspelled keywords
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Example
# incorrect indentation
def add_numbers(x, y):
return x + y
Output
File "<ipython-input-1-7163263e7970>", line 2
return x + y
IndentationError: expected an indented block
Runtime Errors
Runtime errors, also known as exceptions
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These errors can occur due to a variety of reasons, such as invalid input,
incorrect data types, or unexpected behavior of the program
Some common examples of runtime errors in Python include
ZeroDivisionError, ValueError, and TypeError
5.4 Exceptions
Computer programs can be syntactically correct but still fail during
runtime (execution) because of some fundamental logical issues
The errors detected during runtime are known as exceptions
If exceptions remain unhandled, they can cause abnormal termination of
the program and hence confuse the programmer
Flowchart for exception handling process is as follows:
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Handling exceptions
Try block in Python
Try Block: Code that might raise an exception is enclosed within the “try”
block
Except Block: This block catches the exception and handles the exception
Else Clause:else block is used to define a block of code to be executed if
no errors were raised
Finally Block (Optional):If included, the final block is run whether or not
an exception occurred. Mainly, the finally block is used to release the
external resource
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Syntax
try:
statement(s)
except [exception_class]:
statement(s)
else:
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statement(s)
finally:
statement(s)
Example
# Division by zero - causing an exception named ZeroDivisionError
numerator = 10
denominator = 0
try:
result = numerator / denominator # Attempting division by zero
print("Result:", result)
except ZeroDivisionError as e:
print("Error:", e)
print("Division by zero is not allowed!") # user-friendly message.
Output
Error: division by zero
Division by zero is not allowed!
Example
try:
x = 1/1
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except:
print('Something went wrong')
else:
print('Nothing went wrong')
# Prints Nothing went wrong
Example
# finally clause is always executed
try:
x = 1/0
except:
print('Something went wrong')
finally:
print('Always execute this')
# Prints Something went wrong
# Prints Always execute this
Example
# Execute same block of code for multiple exceptions
try:
x = 1/0
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except (ZeroDivisionError, ValueError):
print('ZeroDivisionError or ValueError is raised')
except:
print('Something else went wrong')
# Prints ZeroDivisionError or ValueError is raised
5.5 Modules
A file containing Python definitions and statements is called a Python
Module
A Module can have functions, classes, variables, and statemens
A Module can be considered similar to a code library
In python, a piece of code in a module can be inherited to other module
using the "import" keyword
A module is basically a bunch of related code saved in a file with the
extension .py
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Example
# simple_math.py
def add(a, b):
return a + b
def substract(a, b):
return a – b
# [Link]
from simple_math import add, substract
print(add(100, 50))
# output: 150
print(substract(100, 50))
# output:50
In above code we have created a module called "simple_math.py" and
imported it's functions in the other module "[Link]" and used them
In python source code we can find many reusable modules like os, math,
collections, etc.
Example
# [Link]
def welcome_message(course):
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print("Thank you for subscribing to our " + course + " course. You will get
all the details in an email shortly.")
import welcome
welcome.welcome_message ("Python Essentials")
Output
Thank you for subscribing to our Python Essentials course. You will get all the
details in an email shortly
from welcome import welcome_message
welcome_message ("Python Essentials")
Output
Thank you for subscribing to our Python Essentials course. You will get all the
details in an email shortly.
Example
>>>import sys
>>>[Link]
Output
['C:/Users/Admin/Desktop', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\Programs\\
Python\\Python312\\Lib\\idlelib', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\Programs\\
Python\\Python312\\[Link]', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\
Programs\\Python\\Python312\\Lib', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\
Programs\\Python\\Python312\\DLLs', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\
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Programs\\Python\\Python312', 'C:\\Users\\Admin\\AppData\\Local\\Programs\\
Python\\Python312\\Lib\\site-packages']
Example
>>>import platform
>>>x = [Link]()
>>>print(x) #output Windows
5.6 Packages in python
Packages in Python are similar to directories or folders
Just like a directory that can contain subdirectories and folders and sub-
folders
A Python package can have sub-packages and modules (modules are
similar to files, they have .py extension)
Each package should contain a file named __init__.py. This file usually
includes the initialization code for the corresponding package
This file can be empty or may contain initialization code that executes
when the package is imported
Subdirectories within the package can also be considered subpackages,
and they, too, must contain an __init__.py file to be recognized as
packages
Here's an example of the my_model package with three sub-packages:
training, submission, and metrics
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To access code from a Python package, you can either import the entire
package or its specific modules and sub-packages
Import the whole package with import my_model;
Import the metrics sub-package with import my_model.metrics;
Import the [Link] module with either of these code snippets:
import my_model.[Link]
# or
from my_model.metrics import precision
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Popular Python Standard Library Packages
Python comes with a rich standard library that includes many built-in
packages, providing a wide range of functionalities
os: For interacting with the operating system
math: For mathematical operations and functions
random: For generating random numbers and choices
datetime: For working with dates and times
json: For encoding and decoding JSON data
Math Library (math): Provides a range of mathematical operations and
Functions
Example
>>>import math
>>>x = [Link](64)
>>>print(x)# output 8.0
Random Library (random): Allows for generating random numbers and
performing random selections
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Example
#First time
>>>import random
>>>rand_num = [Link](1, 10)
>>>print(rand_num) # 4
#Second time
>>>import random
>>>rand_num = [Link](1, 10)
>>>print(rand_num) # 8
OS Library (os): Provides a way to interact with the operating system, allowing
you to perform tasks like navigating directories, working with files, and
executing system commands
Example
>>>import os
>>>current_dir = [Link]()
>>>print(current_dir)
Output
C:\Users\Admin\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python312
Datetime Library (datetime): Offers classes for manipulating dates and times
Example
>>>import datetime
PERIYAR UNIVERSITY/2023 REGULATIONS/PYTHON/SEM-II Page 178
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lOMoARcPSD|50662627
[Link]/HOD/AI&DS/M.G.R COLLEGE/HSOUR
>>>x = [Link]()
>>>print(x) # 2024-11-23 [Link].483802
JSON Library (json): Facilitates the encoding and decoding of JSON data
>>>import json
>>data = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 30}
>>>json_data = [Link](data) # Converts a Python dictionary to a
JSON string
>>>print(json_data)# {"name": "Alice", "age": 30}
Python Third-Party Packages
These packages can be installed using package managers like pip
NumPy
Pandas
Matplotlib
Seaborn
scikit-learn
Requests
urllib3
NLTK
Pillow
Pytest
PERIYAR UNIVERSITY/2023 REGULATIONS/PYTHON/SEM-II Page 179
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