EEPC2004 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION (3-0-0)

This course, EEPC2004, provides a comprehensive foundation in the principles and

applications of electrical measurement and instrumentation, covering both fundamental
concepts and practical aspects of various measuring devices. The syllabus is structured
into five modules, progressively building knowledge from basic measurement theories to
advanced electronic instrumentation.
Module I (8 Hours)
This module introduces the fundamental concepts of measurement, setting the stage for
understanding the accuracy and reliability of electrical measurements.
● Measurement and Error: This section begins with the fundamental definition of
measurement, which involves assigning a numerical value to a physical quantity.
Key terms like Accuracy (how close a measurement is to the true value) and
Precision (the reproducibility of a measurement) are differentiated. The concept of
Significant Figures is introduced as a way to express the reliability of a
measurement. Crucially, the module delves into various Types of Errors
encountered in measurement, which can include gross errors (human mistakes),
systematic errors (consistent errors due to instrument defects or environmental
conditions), and random errors (unpredictable variations). Understanding these
errors is critical for analyzing and improving the quality of measurements.
● Standards of Measurement: To ensure consistency and comparability of
measurements globally, Standards of Measurement are established. This part of
the module covers the Classification of Standards (e.g., primary, secondary,
working standards) and specifically focuses on Electrical Standards for quantities
like voltage (Volt), current (Ampere), resistance (Ohm), and capacitance (Farad).
The role of organizations like IEEE Standards in defining and maintaining these
electrical measurement protocols is also discussed.
● Measuring Instruments: Instruments are broadly classified into different categories.
Absolute instruments are those that give the value of the electrical quantity in
terms of the instrument's constants and deflection, without the need for calibration
against another instrument. In contrast, secondary instruments are those whose
indications are known by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
standard. Further classifications include indicating instruments (which show the
instantaneous value of the quantity being measured, like a pointer on a scale) and
recording instruments (which provide a continuous record of the measured
quantity over time, often on a chart or digital display).
● Types of Measuring Instrument: This core section delves into the specific
construction, theory, and operation of various common electrical measuring
instruments.
○ Ammeter and Voltmeter: The module covers the Derivation for Deflecting
Torque for different types of ammeters and voltmeters. The deflecting torque
(T_d) is the force that causes the instrument's pointer to move, and it's
directly related to the quantity being measured. The controlling torque (T_c)
opposes the deflecting torque, bringing the pointer to rest at a specific
position. At equilibrium, T_d = T_c.
■ PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) Instruments: These are used
for DC measurements. The deflecting torque is proportional to the
current and the magnetic field strength. The equation for deflecting
torque in a PMMC instrument is typically T_d = NBIA, where N is the
number of turns in the coil, B is the magnetic flux density, I is the
current, and A is the area of the coil.
■ MI (Moving Iron) Instruments (Attraction and Repulsion Types): These
 instruments can measure both AC and DC. The deflecting torque is
proportional to the square of the current, making them suitable for RMS
value measurements. For attraction type, a soft iron piece is attracted
towards a coil carrying current. For repulsion type, two soft iron pieces
(one fixed, one movable) are repelled by the magnetic field of the coil.
The torque equation often involves derivatives of inductance with
respect to angular position. For example, T_d = \frac{1}{2}I^2
\frac{dL}{d\theta}.
■ Electro Dynamometer Type Ammeters and Voltmeters: These are used
for AC and DC measurements and are particularly important for power
measurements. They have both fixed and moving coils. The deflecting
torque is proportional to the product of the currents in the fixed and
moving coils. For wattmeters, this principle is crucial, where one coil
carries load current and the other has a current proportional to voltage.
The torque is proportional to I_1 I_2 \cos \phi.
■ Induction Type Ammeters and Voltmeters: These are primarily used for
AC measurements. Their operation relies on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, where eddy currents induced in a metal disc
or drum interact with a magnetic field to produce torque. These are less
common as general-purpose ammeters and voltmeters but form the
basis of induction type energy meters.
○ Energy Meters and Wattmeter: While wattmeters measure instantaneous
power, energy meters measure the total energy consumed over a period.
● Wattmeters: This section provides in-depth coverage of Electro-Dynamometer and
Induction Type Wattmeter.
○ Construction, Theory and Principle of Operation: For electrodynamometer
wattmeters, the current coil (fixed) carries the load current, and the pressure
coil (moving) is connected across the supply voltage. The interaction of their
magnetic fields produces a torque proportional to the product of voltage,
current, and the cosine of the phase angle between them (i.e., active power).
For induction type wattmeters, magnetic fields from voltage and current coils
induce eddy currents in a rotating disc, leading to a torque proportional to
power.
○ Compensation: Techniques to compensate for errors, such as those due to
the inductance of the pressure coil, are discussed.
○ Creep: This refers to the slow but continuous rotation of the energy meter
disc even when no load is connected, which can lead to measurement errors.
Causes and methods to prevent creep are covered.
○ Error: Various sources of error in wattmeter and energy meter readings are
analyzed, including pressure coil inductance error, friction error, and
temperature effects.
○ Testing: Methods for testing and calibrating wattmeters and energy meters to
ensure accuracy are important practical aspects.
○ Single Phase and Polyphase Induction Type Watt-Hour Meters: The operation
and construction of these meters for measuring energy consumption in both
single-phase and polyphase AC systems are detailed. The total energy E =
\int P dt, where P is the instantaneous power. The meter essentially performs
this integration mechanically or electronically.
● Frequency Meters:
○ Vibrating Reed Type: These meters use a set of reeds tuned to different
frequencies. When connected to an AC supply, the reed closest to the supply
 frequency vibrates with maximum amplitude.
○ Electrical Resonance Type: These meters utilize series or parallel resonant
circuits, where the current or voltage is maximum at resonance. The meter's
indication depends on the frequency at which resonance occurs.
○ Power Factor Meters: These instruments measure the power factor (\cos\phi)
of an AC circuit, indicating the phase difference between voltage and current.
Their operation often involves a moving system with coils that produce
torques proportional to the phase angle.
Module II (8 Hours)
This module shifts focus to the precise measurement of fundamental electrical
quantities: resistance, inductance, and capacitance, primarily utilizing bridge networks. It
also introduces various types of transducers.
● Measurement of Resistance, Inductance, And Capacitance:
○ Resistance:
■ Measurement of Low Resistance by Kelvin's Double Bridge: This bridge
circuit is specifically designed to eliminate the effect of contact and
lead resistances, allowing for accurate measurement of very small
resistances (typically below 1 Ohm). The balance equation for Kelvin's
double bridge is typically of the form R_x = R_s \frac{P}{Q}, with
additional terms for the double ratio arms.
■ Measurement of Medium Resistance: Methods for measuring
resistances in the range of 1 Ohm to 100 kOhms, often using
Wheatstone bridge or ammeter-voltmeter methods, are discussed. For
Wheatstone bridge, the balance condition is P/Q = R/S.
■ Measurement of High Resistance: Techniques for measuring
resistances above 100 kOhms, which require special considerations
due to leakage currents, are covered. This often involves the use of loss
of charge method or megohmmeter.
■ Portable Resistance Testing Set (Megohmmeter): Also known as a
Megger, this instrument is used for measuring very high resistances,
typically for insulation testing.
■ Measurement of Resistance of Earth Connections: This involves
specialized tests to ensure the effectiveness of earthing systems for
safety.
○ Inductance:
■ Measurement of Self Inductance by Ammeter And Voltmeter: This basic
method uses an AC source, an ammeter, and a voltmeter to determine
the impedance (Z = V/I) of the coil, from which inductance can be
calculated given the resistance and frequency (Z = \sqrt{R^2 + (2\pi
fL)^2}).
■ AC Bridges: These are crucial for precise inductance measurements.
■ Maxwell's Bridge: Used for measuring unknown inductance in
terms of a known standard capacitance. It is suitable for
measuring medium inductances and is frequency independent at
balance. The balance equations involve equating real and
imaginary parts of the impedance.
■ Hay's Bridge: Similar to Maxwell's but more suitable for coils with
a high Q factor (high quality factor, meaning low resistance).
■ Anderson Bridge: A modification of Maxwell's bridge, offering
higher accuracy for measuring small inductances.
■ Measurement of Mutual Inductance by Felici's Method: This method is
 used to determine the mutual inductance between two coils.
■ Measurement of Mutual Inductance as Self Inductance: Techniques
where mutual inductance can be determined by measuring self-
inductance of series-aiding and series-opposing connections of the
coils.
○ Capacitance:
■ Measurement of Capacitance by Ammeter and Voltmeter: Similar to
inductance, capacitance can be measured by determining the capacitive
reactance (X_C = 1/(2\pi fC)) from voltage and current readings.
■ AC Bridges: Essential for accurate capacitance measurements.
■ Owen's Bridge: Used for measuring inductance in terms of
capacitance, but can also be adapted for capacitance
measurement.
■ Schering Bridge: Widely used for measuring capacitance and
dissipation factor of capacitors, especially at high voltages, for
insulation testing. The balance equations provide both
capacitance and loss angle.
■ Wien's Bridge: Primarily used for precise measurement of
frequency, but can also be used for capacitance measurement.
■ Screening of Bridge Components and Wagnor Earthing Device: These
techniques are crucial for minimizing the effects of stray capacitances
and electromagnetic interference on bridge measurements, especially
at higher frequencies. Wagnor earthing device helps in eliminating
errors due to stray capacitances between bridge arms and ground.
● Transducers: This section introduces devices that convert one form of energy into
another, typically non-electrical quantities into measurable electrical signals.
○ Strain Gauges: Measure mechanical strain (deformation) by converting it into
a change in electrical resistance. The gauge factor (G_f = (\Delta R/R) / (\Delta
L/L)) is a key parameter.
○ Thermistors: Temperature-sensitive resistors whose resistance changes
significantly with temperature, often with a negative temperature coefficient
(NTC).
○ Thermocouples: Generate a voltage (Seebeck effect) proportional to the
temperature difference between two dissimilar metals at their junctions. The
voltage generated is approximately V = \alpha \Delta T.
○ Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): A non-contact transducer
that measures linear displacement by converting it into an AC voltage
proportional to the displacement.
○ Capacitive Transducers: Measure displacement, pressure, or other quantities
by detecting changes in capacitance due to changes in electrode separation
or dielectric material. Capacitance C = \epsilon A/d.
○ Piezo-Electric Transducers: Generate a voltage when subjected to
mechanical stress, or conversely, deform when an electric field is applied.
Used for pressure, force, and acceleration measurements. The charge
generated Q = d \times F, where d is the piezoelectric coefficient and F is the
force.
○ Optical Transducer: Convert light energy into electrical signals or vice versa.
Examples include photodiodes, phototransistors, and fiber optic sensors.
○ Hall Effect Transducer: Based on the Hall effect, these transducers produce a
voltage across a conductor carrying current when placed in a magnetic field,
proportional to the magnetic field strength and current. Used for magnetic
 field sensing, current measurement, and position sensing. The Hall voltage
V_H = (k_H I B) / t, where k_H is the Hall coefficient, I is current, B is magnetic
field, and t is thickness.
Module III (6 Hours)
This module focuses on two critical precision measurement instruments: galvanometers
and potentiometers.
● Galvanometer: This section explores instruments used for detecting and
measuring small electric currents.
○ Construction, Theory and Principle of Operation:
■ D'arsonval Galvanometer (Moving Coil): This is a highly sensitive
instrument where a coil carrying current rotates in the magnetic field of
a permanent magnet. The deflecting torque is proportional to the
current.
■ Vibration Galvanometer (Moving Magnet & Moving Coil Types): Used for
detecting small AC currents or voltages, particularly for balancing AC
bridges. They are tuned to resonate at a specific frequency.
■ Ballistic Galvanometer: Designed to measure the total quantity of
charge (charge impulse) that passes through it, rather than steady
current. It has a long natural period of oscillation. The maximum
deflection is proportional to the total charge.
○ Influence of Resistance on Damping: Damping refers to the forces that
oppose the motion of the coil, bringing it to rest. Different levels of damping
(underdamped, critically damped, overdamped) are influenced by the circuit
resistance.
○ Logarithmic Decrement: A measure of the rate at which oscillations in a
damped system decay. It's used in ballistic galvanometers to correct for
damping.
○ Calibration of Galvanometers: The process of determining the relationship
between the current flowing through the galvanometer and its deflection.
○ Galvanometer Constants: Important parameters like current sensitivity,
voltage sensitivity, and ballistic constant are defined and their significance
discussed.
● Potentiometer: Potentiometers are precision instruments used for accurate
measurement of unknown voltages by comparing them with a known standard
voltage, without drawing any current from the source under test at balance.
○ Construction, Theory and Principle of Operation of DC Potentiometers:
■ Crompton Potentiometer: A widely used laboratory-grade DC
potentiometer with a long uniform resistance wire and multiple ranges
for precise voltage measurement.
■ Vernier Potentiometer: A type of potentiometer that uses a vernier scale
for finer resolution in reading the balanced position.
■ Constant Resistance Potentiometer: Maintains a constant resistance in
the main circuit while adjusting voltage, often used for calibrating
voltmeters.
■ Deflection Potentiometer: Combines the precision of a potentiometer
with the quick readings of a deflection instrument, by using a
galvanometer to measure the small unbalance voltage.
○ AC Potentiometers: Used for measuring unknown AC voltages, including
their phase angle.
■ Drysdale-Tinsley Potentiometer: An AC potentiometer that balances
both the magnitude and phase of the unknown voltage against a known
 reference.
■ Gall-Tinsley Potentiometer: Another type of AC potentiometer offering
high precision for AC voltage measurements.
Module IV (6 Hours)
This module covers instrument transformers and introduces modern electronic
instruments for basic parameter measurement.
● Instrument Transformers: These are crucial for extending the range of AC
measuring instruments (ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, energy meters) and for
isolating the measuring instruments from high voltage and current circuits.
○ Potential Transformers (PTs): Used to step down high AC voltages to a safe
and measurable level for instruments.
○ Current Transformers (CTs): Used to step down high AC currents to a safe
and measurable level for instruments.
○ Ratio and Phase Angle Errors: Due to imperfections in their construction and
operation, PTs and CTs introduce errors in the ratio of transformation (ratio
error) and a phase difference between primary and secondary quantities
(phase angle error).
○ Phasor Diagram: Phasor diagrams are used to visually represent and analyze
the voltage and current relationships in instrument transformers, helping to
understand and quantify ratio and phase angle errors.
○ Methods of Minimizing Errors: Techniques such as proper design, material
selection, and compensation windings are discussed to reduce these errors.
● Electronic Instruments for Measuring Basic Parameters: This section introduces
the principles behind modern electronic measuring devices.
○ Amplified DC Meters: These meters use electronic amplifiers to increase their
sensitivity, allowing them to measure very small DC currents or voltages with
high input impedance.
○ AC Voltmeters Using Rectifiers: Many AC voltmeters convert the AC signal to
a DC voltage using rectifiers (half-wave or full-wave) before measurement by
a DC meter. The reading might be average-responding or peak-responding,
calibrated to RMS for sine waves.
○ True RMS Voltmeter: Unlike simple rectifier-type voltmeters that are accurate
only for pure sinusoidal waveforms, true RMS voltmeters measure the actual
root mean square (RMS) value of any arbitrary waveform, providing a more
accurate representation of the signal's heating effect.
○ Digital Multi-meter (DMM):
■ Block diagram: Typically includes an analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
display, range switches, and input conditioning circuits.
■ Principle of operation: Measures voltage, current, and resistance by
converting analog signals to digital values using ADCs and displaying
them numerically.
○ Digital Frequency Meter:
■ Block diagram: Usually consists of a gate control unit, a counter, a time
base generator (oscillator), and a display.
■ Principle of operation: Measures frequency by counting the number of
cycles of an input signal within a precisely defined time interval (gate
time). The frequency is then calculated as the count divided by the gate
time.
Module V (2 Hours)
This module introduces the Oscilloscope, a versatile and essential electronic instrument
for visualizing and analyzing waveforms.
● Oscilloscope:
○ Block Diagrams: The typical block diagram of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO) includes a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), vertical amplifier, horizontal
amplifier, sweep generator (time base), trigger circuit, and power supply.
○ Delay Line: Used in the vertical deflection system to delay the signal applied
to the vertical plates, allowing the sweep generator to start before the signal
reaches the plates, thus enabling the viewing of the leading edge of the
waveform.
○ Multiple Trace: Oscilloscopes can display multiple waveforms simultaneously
using techniques like alternate sweep or chopped mode.
○ Oscilloscope Probes: Discusses different types of probes (e.g., 1x, 10x, high-
voltage) and their characteristics, which are crucial for accurate signal
acquisition without loading the circuit.
○ Oscilloscope Techniques: Covers various techniques for setting up and
using the oscilloscope for different measurements and waveform analysis.
○ Introduction to Analog and Digital Storage Oscilloscopes: Compares and
contrasts the operation and capabilities of traditional analog oscilloscopes
with modern digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs), which digitize and store
waveforms.
○ Measurement of Frequency, Phase Angle, and Time Delay Using
Oscilloscope: Practical methods for using the oscilloscope to determine:
■ Frequency: By measuring the period of the waveform (f = 1/T).
■ Phase Angle: By observing the Lissajous figures or by measuring the
time difference between two waveforms and relating it to the period
(\phi = 360^\circ \times \Delta t / T).
■ Time Delay: Directly by observing the horizontal shift between two
waveforms