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AP WORLD HISTORY: MODERN Test Booklet

Unit 8 MCQ's

Advertisement by Aeroflot, a Soviet State-Owned Commercial Airline.

The Advertisement Was Used in the Soviet Union During the 1950s.

Shawshots/ Alamy Stock Photo

The image shows a commercial jetliner flying over major landmarks from America, Europe, Africa, and Asia.

1. In addition to its main use as advertising material, the image was most likely also intended to
(A) show the Soviet Union’s rise as a major technological power
(B) demonstrate Soviet support for communist parties in Western European countries
(C) encourage improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union
(D) facilitate the spread of communist ideas in East and Southeast Asia

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“It was my privilege to attend the All African People’s Conference held in Ghana. The conference was significant because
it brought together the most representative gathering of African leaders ever assembled. There were about 300 delegates
representing some 65 organizations coming from 28 African countries. Of the nine independent African countries only
one, Sudan, was not represented.

The nationalist organizations were represented by their top leadership. Therefore, whether the colonial powers like it or
not, the decisions of the conference must be taken with some seriousness. The conference announced clearly that African
freedom and independence are a necessity, and that the struggle to achieve independence would continue. The
conference’s declaration on colonialism and imperialism significantly called upon ‘the independent African states to
render maximum assistance by every means possible to the dependent peoples in their struggle.’ The final decision of the
conference was to commend nonviolent methods but also to endorse other methods if they are deemed necessary.

Presently, there is negligible Russian influence in Africa. Nevertheless, this influence will grow unless the problem of
racism in the multi-racial areas of Africa is solved. It is my opinion that American influence will decline steadily unless
the United States is much more vocal in its support of responsible movements for independence in Africa. The United
States does not need to be as cautious as it currently is.”

George M. Houser, president of the American Committee on Africa, a nongovernmental organization founded to support nonviolent African
independence movements, report about the All African People’s Conference held in Ghana, 1958

2. The conference as described in the first and second paragraphs is best explained in the context of which of the
following developments in the aftermath of the Second World War?
(A) The development of regional free-trade agreements
(B) The intensification of ethnic rivalries in Africa
(C) The spread of industrial methods of production
(D) The dissolution of European empires

3. The conference’s decision to “endorse other methods,” as mentioned in the second paragraph, is best explained in
the context of which of the following?
The growth of the international arms trade provided armed groups in Africa with military superiority over
(A)
European powers.
Many African colonies had failed to obtain the greater self-governance promised after the First World War
(B)
and doubted that European powers would fulfill similar promises after the Second World War.
Many African societies had been strongly influenced by European methods of administration, economic and
(C)
political philosophy, and culture.
The Non-Aligned Movement was attractive to many African societies that opposed both European policies in
(D)
Africa and the development of a bipolar global order.

4. The author’s opinion in the third paragraph regarding the caution that the United States was employing in
supporting African independence movements is most directly explained in the context of which of the following
developments in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War?
(A) The United States had vastly more economic and military power than its European allies.
(B) The United States and the Soviet Union preferred to engage in proxy wars rather than in direct conflict.
The United States used its influence in international organizations to rally support for its policies in Third
(C)
World nations.
(D) The United States used its intelligence agencies to overthrow regimes in Third World nations.

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5. Which of the following was most clearly NOT a consequence of the Second World War?
(A) The independence of Brazil
(B) The independence of Indonesia
(C) The nuclear standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States
(D) The democratic constitution of Japan
(E) The division of Berlin

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“THE FLN WAS LYING TO THEM, BUT THEY SAW THROUGH IT AND MADE THE RIGHT CHOICE.
THE FLN IS LYING TO YOU!” POSTER PRODUCED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF FRANCE AGAINST
THE ALGERIAN NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (FLN), 1958

The FLN was a political movement that advocated for the overthrow of French rule in Algeria. The poster shows an
outline of French president Charles de Gaulle in the middle of the French national flag. The photo underneath de Gaulle
shows two former FLN guerrilla leaders who switched sides and joined the French forces.

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6. Which of the following best explains why nationalist groups such as the FLN became more prominent globally after
1945 ?
(A) The rise of fascism in Europe led to the growing prominence of extreme nationalism worldwide.
Military dictatorships often assumed power following the withdrawal of imperial states in postcolonial
(B)
Africa.
(C) Imperial powers were considerably weakened economically and militarily because of the Second World War.
The end of the Second World War led to the establishment of international institutions for economic
(D)
cooperation.

7. All of the following statements about Algeria under French rule are factually accurate. Which best explains the
manner in which the poster addressed its intended audience?
(A) Muslims were granted French citizenship following the conclusion of the Second World War.
Shortly before the poster was produced, French officers stationed in Algeria organized a military coup
(B)
against the government.
French settlers in Algeria resisted attempts by the colonial administration to assimilate Muslims into French
(C)
culture.
(D) Education for Algeria’s Muslim population was largely conducted in French.

INDIAN MUSLIM TROOPS IN THE BRITISH ARMED FORCES PRAYING. PHOTOGRAPH TAKEN IN
SURREY, ENGLAND, 1916

FPG / Staff

In the background, a group of British civilians, mostly women, are watching the troops pray.

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8. The experiences of soldiers such as those shown in the photograph most likely contributed to which of the following
developments after 1918 ?
(A) Conflict between Hindus and Muslims in India
(B) The rise of authoritarian governments between the world wars
(C) The idea that all Muslims should unite politically under the Ottoman sultan
(D) Growing anti-imperial opposition in European colonies such as India

“The events of the past few years all over the world have been confusing and distressing, and the future has become vague
and shadowy. Nevertheless, I have been attracted to Gandhi’s stress on non-violent means. The idea is by no means new,
but Gandhi’s application of an ethical doctrine to large-scale political activity is certainly novel, and it has created a deep
and abiding impression on the minds of large numbers of people.

A study of Marx also produced a powerful effect on my mind and helped me to see history and current affairs in a new
light. The long chain of history and social development appeared to have some meaning, and the future lost some of its
obscurity.”

Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the Indian National Congress, historical treatise written while he was imprisoned by the British for his political views, circa
1944

9. Nehru’s expression of confusion and distress in the first paragraph is best understood in the context of which of
the following?
(A) The spread of the Great Depression from developed to developing nations
(B) The devastation and suffering caused by the Second World War
(C) Proxy wars between the United States and the Soviet Union
(D) Violent conflict between Hindus and Muslims following the partition of India

10. Which of the following most likely explains why Nehru was attracted to the ideas of both Gandhi and Marx?
(A) Both were critical of colonial rule.
(B) Both wanted greater government control over economic production.
(C) Both advocated for nonviolent means of protest to achieve political aims.
(D) Both promoted full gender equality.

11. Which of the following countries experienced the most rapid economic growth during the Second World War?
(A) China
(B) Germany
(C) Japan
(D) The Soviet Union
(E) The United States

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“I belong to those scientists who consider that the drying up of the Aral Sea is far more advantageous than preserving it.
First, in its zone, good fertile land will be obtained. . . . Cultivation of cotton alone will pay for the existing Aral Sea, with
all its fisheries, shipping, and other industries. Second, the disappearance of the Sea will not affect the region’s
landscapes.”

A. Babayev, president of Soviet Turkmenistan’s Academy of Sciences, late 1950s

12. Which of the following best explains why the Soviet Union was willing to undertake projects such as the one
discussed in the passage?
(A) The need to suppress armed resistance to Soviet rule in Central Asia
(B) The mass migration of Turkmens and other Central Asians to Soviet Russia
(C) Soviet embrace of economic liberalization and free-market principles
(D) Pressure resulting from the need to keep pace with Western economic development during the Cold War

13. Which of the following was a principal cause of the Cold War?
(A) Proxy wars in Latin America
(B) Competition for natural resources in Africa
(C) The nuclear arms race
(D) Conflicting capitalist and communist ideologies

14. The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the second half of the twentieth
century was characterized by competition primarily over
(A) religion and culture
(B) the distribution of natural resources
(C) ideology and economic structure
(D) control of key trade routes

15. All of the following were policies pursued by both the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War
EXCEPT
(A) reliance on military alliances for national security
(B) promotion of proxy wars in other states
(C) centralized planning of the national economy
(D) development of massive nuclear arsenals

16. After which event did the United States and the Soviet Union emerge as superpowers with respect to the rest of the
world?

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(A) The United States Civil War

(B) The promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine
(C) The First World War
(D) The Second World War

“The Soviet structure of power is committed to the perfection of the dictatorship and to maintaining the concept that
Russia is in a state of siege, with an enemy that lies just beyond the walls. This mentality has profound implications for
Russia’s international conduct. Moscow assumes that the aims of the capitalist world are antagonistic to the Soviet
regime. However, the Kremlin is under no compulsion to accomplish its goal of spreading its influence in a hurry. If it
finds unassailable barriers in its path, it accepts them and accommodates itself to them. There is no trace of any feeling in
Soviet psychology that that goal must be reached at any given time.

In these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that
of patient and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies. Soviet economic development, while it can list
certain formidable achievements, has been precariously spotty and uneven. It is difficult to see how the deficiencies of the
Soviet economic system can be corrected by a tired and dispirited population working largely under the shadow of fear
and compulsion. And as long as they are not overcome, Russia will remain an economically vulnerable and impotent
nation, capable of exporting its ideological enthusiasm but unable to export real evidence of material power and
prosperity. Indeed, it is the strong belief of this writer that Soviet power bears within it the seeds of its own decay, and
that the sprouting of these seeds is well advanced.”

George F. Kennan, United States diplomat to the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1946, article submitted anonymously to an academic journal devoted to the
conduct of foreign policy, published in Washington, D.C., 1947

17. The recommendation provided in the second paragraph is best explained in the context of which of the following
historical situations in the aftermath of the Second World War?
(A) The emergence of fascist states engaged in territorial expansion in Asia and Africa
(B) The implementation of genocidal policies by totalitarian states
(C) The creation of secret competing alliance systems by European powers
(D) The attempts by Soviet officials to establish ideological ties with newly independent states

18. Which of the following best explains the purpose of the arguments expressed in the passage?
(A) To influence Soviet government officials to adopt economic policies that would harm the Soviet Union
(B) To influence United States government officials to adopt policies designed to avoid a major war
(C) To convince world leaders to unite in order to stop the evils of communism
To convince Soviet citizens that the United States meant them no harm in the hopes of creating a sustainable
(D)
peace

19. Which of the following best explains how the historical circumstances of Kennan’s service as a diplomat in the
Soviet Union influenced his point of view regarding the “Soviet structure of power” in the first paragraph?

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He witnessed how the Soviet Union used its industrial capabilities to produce vastly more quantities of war
(A)
equipment than Germany could produce.
He witnessed how German atrocities had turned ethnic groups within the Soviet Union who had initially
(B)
opposed Stalin against the Nazis.
He witnessed how the Soviet Union’s defeat of Nazi Germany allowed it to decide the fate of states in
(C)
Eastern Europe that it occupied.
He witnessed how conflict between Germany and the Soviet Union allowed Stalin to further centralize his
(D)
power and use Russian nationalism to mobilize the population.

20. Western-led military alliance systems such as NATO that emerged during the Cold War period sought to
(A) prevent the spread of communism
(B) encourage a foreign policy independent of the United States and the Soviet Union
(C) create democratic governments worldwide
(D) share nuclear technology with nonaligned nations

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Snark/ Art Resource, NY

Poster from the Seventeenth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 1934.

Poster text: “Raise the Flag of Lenin, It Gives Us Victory!”

Banners at bottom read: “Long live the invincible party of Lenin!” “Long live the great guide of the international
proletarian revolution, Comrade Stalin!”

21. Artworks of the type shown in the image were used for all of the following EXCEPT to
(A) mobilize the Soviet population in support of the policy of “total war” during the Second World War
(B) showcase Soviet support for the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War
(C) promote Soviet support for anti-imperialist independence movements in Asia and Africa
(D) encourage Soviet citizens to embrace Western popular culture

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22. Of the following, which represents a challenge to superpower domination by a smaller nation during the Cold War?
(A) Prague Spring
(B) Helsinki Accords
(C) Brezhnev Doctrine
(D) Marshall Plan
(E) Truman Doctrine

WORLD POLITICAL MAP, 1980

23. Which of the following best explains why the United States and the Soviet Union preferred to engage in the type of
conflicts shown on the map?
(A) To maintain control over their former colonial states through puppet governments
(B) To avoid direct military confrontations that could lead to nuclear war
(C) To obtain new military technology before a direct confrontation
(D) To acquire natural resources by forcing states to favor United States or Soviet companies

24. Which of the following likely explains the political positions of most of the nonaligned Asian and African states
shown on the map?
(A) As former colonial territories, they were wary of being dominated by another foreign power.
(B) As former large empires, they admired the territorial ambitions of the United States and the Soviet Union.
As states that had populations with deeply traditional values, they were uninterested in ideological debates
(C)
between capitalists and communists.
(D) As states with extensive natural resources, they wanted to grant free-trade privileges to all nations.

25. All of the following contributed to the end of the political order depicted on the map EXCEPT

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(A) the expansion of United States military spending

(B) the unsuccessful Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan
(C) continued economic weakness in the Soviet Union following Gorbachev’s reforms
(D) armed rebellions in Eastern European states against Soviet rule

26. The global balance of power, alluded to on the map, best reflects which of the following changes in the mid-
twentieth century?
The ability of the United States and the Soviet Union to develop economic policies that protected them from
(A)
the worst effects of the Great Depression
The disintegration of imperial states such as the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires following the First
(B)
World War
(C) The military and economic decline of Western European colonial empires following the Second World War
The United States and Soviet Union’s control over international financial institutions such as the
(D)
International Monetary Fund

27. “Total war was no longer a rational option for enemies armed with nuclear weapons. If they were to fight each
other, they could only do so in limited wars or through nonnuclear client states. Ironically, then, weapons of total
destruction may have rendered total war between major powers obsolete in the late twentieth century.”

Merry Wiesner-Hanks, world historian, 2004

Which of the following occurrences during the Cold War best supports the main contention of the passage above?
(A) Both the United States and the Soviet Union actively sought ways to neutralize each other’s nuclear missiles.
Both the United States and the Soviet Union armed and supported rival countries and factions in Africa,
(B)
Asia, and Latin America.
(C) A large movement protesting the nuclear arms buildup developed in Western Europe and the United States.
(D) Several nonaligned countries sought to obtain nuclear weapons technology.

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“[TASS News Agency]: How is the United Nations Security Council decision on the rapid withdrawal of Belgian troops
from the Congo being fulfilled?

[Patrice Lumumba]: Belgium has already proved that she has no respect for Security Council decisions. The Belgian
government is continuing its aggressive actions and savage reprisals against our people who seek their independence from
Belgian rule. These facts are not widely known in the world because the Belgian colonialists have got the press of other
Western countries to write as little as possible about the actions of Belgian soldiers in the Congo.

[TASS News Agency]: What is the Congolese people’s view of the Soviet Union’s stand on the Congo’s struggle to attain
genuine independence and territorial integrity?

[Patrice Lumumba]: The Soviet Union was the only great power whose stand conformed to our people’s will and desire.
That is why the Soviet Union was the only great power that has all along been supporting the Congolese people’s struggle
with weapons and military advisors, while the West similarly supports Belgium. I should like to convey the heartfelt
gratitude of the entire Congolese people to the Soviet people.”

Patrice Lumumba, leader of Congolese independence movement, interview with the Soviet news agency TASS, July 1960

28. Which of the following most likely explains the Soviet Union’s motivation for being involved in the Congo as
described in the passage?
(A) It wanted to establish its own colonies to extract natural resources for its industrial factories.
(B) It wanted to take advantage of a regional conflict to expand its military power and ideological influence.
(C) It wanted to expand its economic power by establishing free-trade agreements with dependent states.
(D) It wanted to promote greater stability in Third World countries by ending regional conflicts.

29. The level of military engagement between Western nations and the Soviet Union referred to in the passage is best
explained by which of the following developments after the Second World War?
The economic decline of communist states made it impossible for them to transport large armies to distant
(A)
regions.
The ability of the United Nations to send peace-keeping forces limited the scale of the involvement of major
(B)
military powers in regional conflicts.
The continued importance of resource-rich regions in Africa to economic development in the West and the
(C)
Soviet Union discouraged them from engaging in large-scale conflicts that could cause vast destruction.
The possession of nuclear weapons by the United States and the Soviet Union made it too dangerous for
(D)
Western nations and the Soviet Union to engage in large-scale military conflict with each other.

30. Which of the following explains the most significant difference between the circumstances of military competition
between Western nations and the Soviet Union in developing regions such as Africa and the circumstances of
military competition between Western nations and the Soviet Union in Europe in the late twentieth century?
Unlike in Africa, military competition between Western nations and the Soviet Union in Europe involved the
(A)
establishment of rival military blocs.
Unlike in Europe, military competition between Western nations and the Soviet Union in Africa involved
(B)
covert military actions by rival intelligence agencies.
Unlike in Europe, military competition between Western nations and the Soviet Union in Africa involved the
(C)
establishment of puppet regimes.
Unlike in Africa, military competition between Western nations and the Soviet Union in Europe involved
(D)
using political propaganda to weaken states.

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31. The founding North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is best understood in the context of which of the
following?
(A) The Cold War
(B) The growth of a globalized economy
(C) The establishment of the Nonaligned Movement
(D) The post-Second World War population boom

32. In 1949, NATO was established so that Western leaders could counter
(A) the perceived threat that the Soviet Union and its allies would spread communism
(B) free-market advocates in the United States and Great Britain
(C) the decolonization of Africa and nationalization of Western industry there
(D) the growing power of developing countries in the United Nations

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NUMBER OF NUCLEAR BOMBS OR WARHEADS BY NATION, 1945 TO 2000

Russia or

Year United States Other Nations Total

Soviet Union

1945 2 2
1950 299 5 304
1955 2,422 200 10 2,632
1960 18,638 1,627 105 20,370
1965 31,139 6,144 308 37,591
1970 26,008 11,736 486 38,230
1975 27,519 19,235 888 47,642
1980 24,104 30,665 986 55,755
1985 23,368 38,582 974 62,924
1990 21,392 32,980 1,404 55,776
1995 10,904 18,179 1,031 30,114
2000 10,577 12,188 1,081 23,846

Data adapted from [Link]

33. The pattern in the numbers of nuclear weapons shown in the table between 1945 and 1985 is best understood in
which of the following contexts?
(A) Decolonization of empires in Asia and Africa
(B) Competition between Western and communist powers
(C) The second industrial revolution
(D) The outbreak of the Second World War

34. The pattern in the numbers of nuclear weapons shown in the table after 1985 is best explained by which of the
following?

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(A) The spread of communism in Eastern Europe

(B) Proxy wars in Asia and Africa
(C) Globalization and the development of international economic unions
(D) The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War

35. Which of the following is the most serious limitation of the table as a source of information on the comparative
military capabilities of nuclear powers?
(A) It does not include data on the total destructive power of the nuclear stockpiles of each nation.
(B) It does not include data on the economic output (gross domestic product) of each nation.
It does not include data on the number of people in each nation injured or killed by weapons of mass
(C)
destruction.
(D) It does not include data on the average life expectancy of the population of each nation.

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36. On Map 2, the new divisions of mainland Southeast Asia in the region that had been French Indochina best reflect
which of the following developments?
(A) Cold War proxy conflicts
(B) Democratic elections
(C) Peaceful decolonization
(D) Ethnic conflicts leading to civil war

“Every denial of justice, every beating by the police, every demand of [colonial] workers that is drowned in blood, every
scandal that is hushed up, every punitive expedition . . . brings home to us the value of our old societies. They were
communal societies, never societies of the many for the few. They were societies that were not only pre-capitalist, but also
anti-capitalist. They were democratic societies, always. They were cooperative societies, fraternal societies. I make a
systematic defense of the societies destroyed by imperialism.”

Aimé Césaire, Afro-Caribbean intellectual, Discourse on Colonialism, 1953

37. Césaire’s interpretation of the nature of precolonial societies is most directly influenced by which of the following?
(A) The capitalist principle that markets will self-regulate
(B) The Marxist idea that early societies were classless
(C) The Social Darwinist concept of the survival of the fittest
(D) The totalitarian concept of the primacy of group interests over individual interests

38. China’s strategy for modernization and economic development in the 1950s most closely resembled the
developmental strategy of
(A) India
(B) Japan
(C) Britain
(D) the Soviet Union
(E) the United States

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THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHINA'S URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION, 1950–2000

Source: Adapted from the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, “World
Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision,” found online at [Link]
2004Highlights_finalrevised.pdf

39. The implementation of which of the following policies in China best explains the trend shown on the chart after
1980 ?
(A) Economic liberalization following the failure of Mao Zedong’s economic programs
(B) Increased persecution of government critics in the countryside during the Cultural Revolution
(C) Expanding military spending on the navy following the discovery of natural resources in the South China Sea
(D) Accepting economic assistance provided by international institutions such as the World Bank

40. In order to achieve victory in China and Vietnam, Asian communists such as Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh did
which of the following?
(A) Relied on the leadership of educated urban elites and factory workers.
(B) Retained key elements of Confucianism while deposing the traditional elites.
(C) Gained the support of fascists in the Second World War to defeat local enemies.
(D) Adapted their revolutionary theories to reflect the major concerns of the peasants.

41. In China between 1958 and 1962, Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward, an effort to make China an industrial power
through mass collectivization of agriculture, is best understood as an example of
(A) an attempt by China to win favor with policy makers in the United States
(B) a free-market policy designed to position China as a major power in a globalizing economy
market communism in which the state increasingly cedes control to businesses run by Communist Party
(C)
associates
(D) a communist government exerting control over the national economy

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“Mexico is the country of inequality. Nowhere does there exist such a profound difference in the distribution of fortune,
civilization, cultivation of the soil, and population. The indigenous people offer a picture of extreme misery. They are
banished into the most barren districts and live only from hand to mouth. Besides them, there are the people called castas,
who spring from the mixture of the races with one another. These castas constitute a mass almost as considerable as the
indigenous people.

The government is suspicious of the Creoles[1] and bestows great estates exclusively on European Spaniards. Since 1789
we frequently hear the following being proudly declared, ‘I am not a Spaniard, I am an American!’ These are words that
betray a long resentment. In the eye of law, every White Creole is a Spaniard, but the abuse of the laws, the bad policies
of the colonial government, and the influence of the opinions of the age have loosened the bonds that formerly united
more closely the Mexican Creoles to the European Spaniards.”

Alexander Von Humboldt, Prussian geographer and explorer, Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, 1811

1
a reference to people of European descent who were born in the Americas

42. The economic inequality described by Humboldt in the first paragraph was one of the primary reasons that many
twentieth-century Latin American governments advocated for
(A) the increased immigration of people of European ancestry
(B) efforts to curb the emissions of greenhouse gases
(C) providing incentives for their citizens to emigrate to the United States
(D) programs to redistribute land and resources, often influenced by socialist ideology

“Psychologists of mass behavior might have an explanation for what went wrong in China in the late summer of 1958.
China was struck with a mass hysteria fed by Mao, who then fell victim himself. Mao began believing the party slogans,
casting caution to the winds.

As we set out by train heading south from Beijing, the scene along the railroad tracks was incredible. Harvest time was
approaching, and the crops were thriving. The fields were crowded with peasants at work. The backyard steel furnaces
that had been established in the peasant communes had transformed the rural landscape. They were everywhere, and we
could see peasant men in a constant frenzy of activity, transporting fuel and raw materials, keeping the fires stoked. Every
commune we visited provided testimony to the abundance of the upcoming harvest. The statistics for both grain and steel
production were astounding. Mao’s earlier skepticism had vanished, and common sense had escaped him. The excitement
was contagious, and I was infected too.

As we continued on our journey, however, Mao’s personal secretary Lin Ke set me straight. What we were seeing from
our windows on the train was all staged, he said. The party secretaries had ordered the furnaces constructed along our rail
route. Rice plants had been moved from faraway fields along our route so that Mao would see a wildly abundant crop. All
of China was a stage, all the people performers in an extravaganza for Mao. The agricultural production figures were
false, Lin Ke said, and what was coming out of the backyard furnaces was useless.”

Li Zhisui, personal physician to Mao Zedong, biography of Mao, published in the United States, 1994

43. Which of the following best explains how the historical situation in which Li Zhisui wrote his biography of Mao
Zedong influenced Li’s assessment of the experience of the Great Leap Forward?

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Writing in the United States years after the events he described, Li Zhisui is free to offer his honest opinion,
(A)
without fear of retaliation from the Chinese government.
Writing a biography of his former national leader, Li Zhisui is trying to portray Mao’s policies from a loyal
(B)
and sympathetic point of view.
Writing in the 1990s in the context of a deindustrializing United States economy, Li Zhisui is skeptical of the
(C)
value of China becoming an industrial nation under Mao’s rule.
Writing many years after the events he describes, Li Zhisui likely misremembers many of the actual details
(D)
of the experience of Chinese industrialization under Mao’s rule.

44. Li Zhisui’s description of the actions of the local party secretaries in the third paragraph is significant because it can
be most directly used to explain the ways in which individuals within communist China reacted to the government’s
(A) use of propaganda that advocated for spreading communist revolution in Western societies
(B) implementation of cultural policies that attempted to suppress the practice of religion
(C) use of physical violence against anyone seen as not fulfilling the mandates of the central Chinese leadership
(D) glorification of peasant military contributions and suffering during the war with Japan

45. Which of the following best explains the significance of Li Zhisui presenting two contrasting views of the success
of Mao’s industrialization policy in the second and third paragraphs?
By doing so, Li Zhisui is trying to show that Mao’s approach of copying Western methods of industrial
(A)
production was finally proved to be a failure.
By doing so, Li Zhisui is trying to convince his audience that adopting Chinese agricultural methods was the
(B)
only way to end the food shortages plaguing Third World countries.
By doing so, Li Zhisui is trying to illustrate the discrepancy between the reality of the resource redistribution
(C)
policy and the facade communists created for propaganda purposes.
By doing so, Li Zhisui is trying to reject the Maoist argument that peasants can be used as substitutes for
(D)
industrial workers in trying to increase a country’s economic output.

46. Mao Zedong and Mohandas Gandhi both appealed to which of the following as a base of support?
(A) Warlords, wealthy landowners, and merchants
(B) Westernized elites
(C) Traditional rulers
(D) Peasants
(E) Urban factory workers

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“Article 1. The feudal marriage system, which is based on the superiority of man over woman, is abolished. The New
Democratic marriage system is based on free choice of partners, on equal rights for both sexes, and on protection of the
lawful interests of women and children. . . .

Article 3. Marriage shall be based on the complete willingness of the two parties.

Article 7. Husband and wife shall have equal status in the home. . . .

Article 8. Husband and wife are bound to love, respect, and assist each other, to engage in production, to care for the
children, and to strive jointly for the building up of a new society.

Article 9. Husband and wife shall both have the right to free choice of occupation and free choice of participation in work
or in social activities.”

Marriage law from the People’s Republic of China, 1950

47. The characterization of the traditional Chinese marriage system in Article 1 most likely reflects which of the
following?
(A) Chinese nationalists’ emphasis on the unity of Chinese territory
(B) The influence of Buddhist teachings on Chinese culture
(C) Chinese elites’ adoption of Western gender norms following the Opium Wars
(D) The Marxist ideology of Mao Zedong’s government in China

48. The provisions in Articles 8 and 9 can best be used as evidence to support which of the following claims about
women in China in the late twentieth century?
Women were an important part of the labor force that the government tried to recruit in implementing its
(A)
economic policies.
The Chinese government strongly encouraged Chinese women to dedicate themselves only to raising their
(B)
children.
(C) Despite making some advances, Chinese women continued to have lower social status compared to men.
As more women were elected to leadership positions in China, they shaped legislature to address issues of
(D)
special importance to women.

49. Which of the following was a common characteristic of the major revolutions that occurred in Russia, China, and
Mexico in the early twentieth century?
(A) Nationalism and socialism helped shape all three revolutions.
(B) Foreign powers played an important role in each revolution’s initial success.
(C) The upper class of each society led the movement that resulted in revolution.
(D) Each revolution failed after a short period of violent civil war.

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“Executing the directives of the International Monetary Fund, the government of the dictator Gaviria* precipitously opens
our borders and internal markets to big foreign capital and production. It privatizes important state enterprises and entities,
lays off workers and other employees en masse, guarantees broad benefits to the owner-speculators of finance capital,
removes incentives for agricultural production, and puts national producers into bankruptcy. This is the development of
savage capitalism, of neo-liberalism in which economic growth opposes social well-being.”

*César Gaviria Trujillo, president of Colombia from 1990 to 1994

Political declaration of the Eighth Conference of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), rebel group,
Colombia, 1993

50. The political position advocated by FARC in the passage is most consistent with which of the following in the
twentieth century?
(A) Communist efforts to redistribute agricultural land to peasants
(B) The increasing use of violence against civilians to achieve political aims
(C) Governments’ joining regional economic blocs
(D) The increasing globalization of consumer culture

51. “Recent years have seen a dramatic shift to the left in the politics of Latin America. This shift . . . has given rise to
renewed interest in Che Guevara’s ideals of Pan-American unity, anti-imperialism, and humanist socialism. The
rather remarkable change in direction of the region’s politics has occurred largely in response to the [unpopularity]
of the neoliberal agenda of ‘free market’ and 'free-trade' capitalism pursued by the United States Government, the
International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and most of the governments of the region.”

Richard L. Harris, Death of a Revolutionary: Che Guevara’s Last Mission, 2000

Which of the following best describes the main argument that Harris is making in the passage above?
Academic interest in Guevara’s career and personality has led to renewed interest in his ideas among the
(A)
general public.
The failure of the international community to provide effective economic assistance to Latin America has
(B)
fueled interest in Guevara’s ideas.
Governments in Latin America have shifted to the left in their attempts to adhere to the requirements of the
(C)
World Bank and other international institutions.
(D) Neoliberal governments in Latin America have reinterpreted Guevara’s ideas to align with their policies.

52. In the mid-twentieth century, which of the following was a similarity between the approaches of China and the
Soviet Union in managing their respective economies?
(A) Insistence on the participation of industrial workers in planning their economies
(B) Recognition of the independence of satellite states in developing their economies
(C) Building popular support for their regimes by slowing the pace of industrialization
(D) Direct intervention in their economies to speed the process of industrialization

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53. Which of the following was a major similarity between the goals of leaders of the Chinese Communist Revolution,
such as Mao Zedong, and the goals of leaders of the Mexican Revolution, such as Emiliano Zapata, in the early
twentieth century?
(A) Advocacy of a global workers’ revolution
(B) Active encouragement for integration into the global economy
(C) Concern primarily with improving conditions for urban factory workers
(D) Support for redistribution of land to poor peasants

“Without a revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement. The role of vanguard fighter can be fulfilled
only by a party that is guided by the most advanced theory. We have said that there could not have been Social-
Democratic consciousness among the workers. It could only be brought to them from without. The history of all countries
shows that the working class, exclusively by its own effort, is able to develop only trade union consciousness, i.e., the
conviction that it is necessary to combine in unions, fight the employers, and strive to compel the government to pass
necessary labor legislation. The theory of socialism, however, grew out of the philosophic, historical, and economic
theories elaborated by educated representatives of the propertied classes, the intellectuals. Our worst sin with regard to
organization is that by our amateurishness we have lowered the prestige of revolutionaries in Russia.”

Vladimir Lenin, Russian exile in Switzerland, What Is to Be Done?, 1902

54. Which of the following best describes a similarity between the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and the Chinese
Revolution of 1911 ?
(A) Both were initiated in response to invasions by foreign powers.
(B) Both gained the support of government reformers holding high bureaucratic positions.
(C) Both were led by members of the working classes who had risen through the ranks of labor unions.
(D) Both were able to gain support because of the ineffectiveness and corruption of the existing monarchies.

55. Which of the following led to the most dramatic change in the status of Chinese peasant women in the 1940’s and
1950’s?
The policies of Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kaishek) that attempted to give rural women more economic
(A)
opportunities
Maoist policies that banned arranged marriages and made women an important part of the Communist
(B)
women’s movement
(C) The Christian missionaries and their work among peasant families
The success of the Japanese during the occupation in making men and women equal participants in the
(D)
economy
(E) United Nation policies that provided women in rural China with resources and an education

56. Which of the following was an experience shared by the African leaders Nelson Mandela, Robert Mugabe, Jomo
Kenyatta, and Kwame Nkrumah during the colonial period?

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(A) They studied at Soviet universities.

(B) They were held as political prisoners.
(C) They served in a colonial army.
(D) They were Muslims.
(E) They originally came from French colonies.

57. Which of the following statements about Africa after 1946 is true?
(A) Most African colonies gained national independence.
(B) The Organization of African Unity resolved the issues that most African states found divisive.
(C) Most African countries joined either NATO or the Warsaw Pact.
(D) There was little postcolonial conflict in newly independent states.
(E) Colonial patterns of trade disappeared.

58. Which of the following is the basis for nearly all the boundaries of today’s sub-Saharan African states?
(A) Postcolonial conquests of one African state by another
(B) Fragmentation of countries after they achieved independence from Europe
(C) Decisions by European powers during the process of colonization
(D) Precolonial linguistic groupings
(E) International agreements mediated by the United Nations

59. Anticolonial movements like the Congress Party in India and the Young Turks agreed on which of the following?
(A) The need for reform in order to resist European imperialism
(B) The desire to return their societies to an earlier preindustrial age
(C) Their intent to engage in territorial expansion at the expense of their weaker neighbors
(D) Their emphasis on purely linguistic nationalism
(E) The need to persuade all anticolonial movements to cooperate with European socialist parties

“I think we should continue to emphasize the history and culture of the West, while encompassing the rest, because the
West has in fact made the world we know. Anyone who wants to participate in the world community in the coming
century had better know how and why the West has defined, and will continue to define, world civilization. Why do I say
that? Because everybody wants what we have: science and technology, prosperity, and democracy—that is, our
philosophy, our economics, our politics. It is the simple truth that science and technology emerge out of Western
philosophy, not out of the philosophy of India, China, or the African nations. Since it is a fact that people everywhere
aspire to the material advantages that flow, uniquely I think, from the modes of social organization that the West has
devised—its economics, its science and technology, and also its politics and philosophy—I think it is time to stop
apologizing and start analyzing what has made [the West] the world-defining power that it is.”

Jacob Neusner, historian, “It is Time to Stop Apologizing for Western Civilization and to Start Analyzing Why It Defines
World Culture,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, 1989

60. The title of the article best suggests that the author is responding to the arguments of which of the following?

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(A) Postcolonial and anti-imperialist thinkers

(B) Advocates for radical feminism
(C) Neoliberal economists and advocates of free-trade policies
(D) Supporters of conservative nationalism

61. The author’s point of view regarding the West was likely influenced by which of the following developments at the
time he was writing?
(A) The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the end of the Cold War
(B) The growing strength of environmental protest movements
(C) The outbreaks of ethnic violence in Africa and Eastern Europe
(D) The spread of the liberation theology movement in Catholic Latin American states

62. “The Declaration of the French Revolution made in 1791 on the Rights of Man and the Citizen also states: ‘All men
are born free and with equal rights, and must always remain free and have equal rights.’

“Nevertheless for more than eighty years, the French imperialists, abusing the standard of Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity, have violated our Fatherland and oppressed our fellow-citizens. They have acted contrary to the ideals of
humanity and justice.”

Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Viet Nam, 1945

The excerpt above was written in response to which of the following?

(A) The use of Vietnamese laborers and soldiers by the French in the First World War
(B) The end of the struggle for Vietnamese independence known as the Indochina wars
(C) The failure of French colonizers to apply their ideals in Indochina
(D) The rapid conquest of French Indochina by the Japanese during the Second World War

“Historically, economic motives have always loomed large in the process of empire building. Every student of African
history concedes the primacy of economic interests in the rise of the great empires during Africa’s golden age [circa
900–1400]. The historical explanations of their decline and fall have always had a strong economic orientation, but the
correlation between economics and the rise and fall of empires is not a phenomenon peculiar to African history: it is a
general historical phenomenon. Since the beginning of history, Africa has faced an assortment of foreign conquerors all
initially driven by stories of its enormous wealth—real or imaginary—to invade the continent. Whether similar impulses
drove the European conquerors of Africa in the nineteenth century has been the subject of great historical debate. . . .
Economic factors, social conditions, and politics are delicately connected. The historian who discusses the one in isolation
of the others does so at his peril.”

Godfrey Uzoigwe, Nigerian historian, Britain and the Conquest of Africa, 1974

63. Increasing interest among historians about the topic analyzed in the passage could best be explained by which of the
following?

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(A) The decolonization of Africa in the second half of the twentieth century
(B) The reduction of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union
(C) The increasing economic globalization resulting from new transportation and communication technologies
(D) The increasing migration of Africans and other formerly colonized people to Europe

“Our country needs a large population to utilize and exploit its land and natural resources. In general, the way to increase
a country’s population is to increase the number of births and to decrease the number of deaths. Some European states
adopt a number of methods to increase their birth rates: (1) additional government services are provided to people who are
married and have many children; (2) discounts and tax rebates on expenses related to the education of children are
provided; (3) awards are given to families with many children.

In Iran, due to the special impact of our national morals and religious traditions, families have many children. Therefore,
the best means to increase the Iranian population is to take measures to decrease the death rate. More governmental
physicians and health officials are needed to prevent the wasting of the country’s human capital.

Due to the lack of literature on child rearing available to Iranian mothers, and due to the absence of sufficient means for
the treatment of ill children, more than 50% of all children born to Iranian families die before the age of seven. Through
instructions and acquainting people with the literature on child rearing, as well as by providing families with free medical
treatment, at least 90% of children could live to reach adolescence. In this context, patriotic women’s organizations must
carry out serious and efficient actions to help invigorate the management of the country’s health.”

Fereydun Keshavarz, Iranian pediatrician, article published in an Iranian newspaper, 1937

64. Keshavarz’ article best reflects the influence of which of the following ideologies on members of Iran’s educated
elite?
(A) Communism
(B) Political Islam
(C) Nationalism
(D) Anti-imperialism

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Source 1:

“The British . . . have for many decades had settled notions about India’s future. Their concept of party government and
parliamentary rule has become the ideal with them as the best form of government for every country. . . .

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. It is
only a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality. This misconception of one Indian
nation will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims in India belong to
two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. . . . They have different epics and different heroes. Very
often the hero of one is a foe of the other. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical
minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be built
up for the government of such a state.”

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All-India Muslim League, an organization of Indian Muslims that had split from the Indian National Congress,
address to a meeting of the League, March 1940

Source 2:

“We, the inhabitants of India, have one thing in common and that is our India-ness, which we share despite our religious
and cultural differences. Just as our different features and personalities do not affect our common humanity, so our
religious and cultural differences should not interfere with our shared association with our homeland. Therefore, like other
religious groups in India, we Muslims have a duty to struggle for the attainment of our common Indian interests and fight
against the evils that hamper our common progress and prosperity. This is what I mean when I speak of a common
nationhood of all Indians. The [Indian National] Congress, having the same position as ours, has made provisions for the
protection of all religions, cultures, and languages in a future Indian state.

On the other hand, the European concept of nationalism is unacceptable to our organization. We denounce it and are
totally against it.”

Husain Ahmad Madani, leader of the Council of Indian Muslim Religious Scholars, address to the annual meeting of the organization, June 1940

65. During the negotiations to end British rule in India in the aftermath of the Second World War, British actions were
ultimately most strongly influenced by which of the following arguments?
The argument in Source 1 that, for the British, “the concept of party government and parliamentary rule has
(A)
become the ideal . . . for every country”
The argument in Source 1 that “to yoke together two such nations under a single state” would lead to
(B)
“destruction”
The argument in Source 2 that “religious and cultural differences should not interfere with [Indians’] shared
(C)
association with our homeland.”
The argument in Source 2 that “the [Indian National] Congress . . . has made provisions for the protection of
(D)
all religions, cultures, and languages in a future Indian state”

66. In the second half of the twentieth century, the kind of tensions illustrated by the two sources would most directly
lead to the emergence of which of the following in postcolonial Asian and African states?
(A) Communist movements
(B) Popular movements advocating the restoration of colonial rule
(C) Movements advocating for regional autonomy
(D) Famines and epidemics

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“I got beaten up many times by the Japanese officials because I resisted changing my name to a Japanese one. Eventually,
I got tired of the abuse.

Out of desperation, I wrote to my aunt in Seoul, the one who had been an activist and had been arrested for the
independence demonstration. I asked her, should I do it? She wrote back, saying, ‘Do you have two fathers? If you have
two fathers, then change your name to the name of your Japanese father.’ She was furious!

So I held out a while longer, but I couldn’t stand any more persecution. I finally changed my name to Otake. The ‘O’ in
Korean is the first syllable of the place where I was born. The ‘take,’ meaning bamboo, is for the huge bamboo grove
behind our house. So my Japanese name meant that I was born in my home township, in the house with the bamboo grove
in the back.’”

Songp’il Pak, Korean farmer and fisherman, describing his experiences circa 1939–1940, interview with a historian, circa 1990

67. A historian would most likely use the passage to research which of the following?
(A) The spread of languages and culture by migrants living in ethnic enclaves in the receiving country
(B) The use of nonviolent resistance methods against governments that demand cultural assimilation
(C) The tactics used by authoritarian regimes to create economic self-sufficiency
(D) The emergence of movements protesting the consequences of economic and cultural globalization

“As a sixteen-year-old schoolgirl, I did not know much about being a freedom fighter, although I read nationalist
newspapers and knew about the pronouncements of Jomo Kenyatta.* I read his book and Kenyatta himself was a frequent
visitor to our home. He would talk to my father for hours on end. But, as children, we did not know what they were
discussing. By the time the British declared a state of emergency in Kenya, I had already taken my first oath to the Mau
Mau cause. Repeating carefully after the instructor, I swore to:

1. Fight for the soil of Kenya, which had been stolen by the Whites.

2. If possible, get a gun and any other valuables or money to help strengthen the movement.

3. Kill anyone who was against the movement, even if that person was my brother.

The state of emergency and the fighting kept me from studying abroad and joining my sister and brothers, who were
studying in England. Finding myself with more time on my hands, I became even more eager to learn about freedom
activities and felt even more commitment to Mau Mau, convinced that it was the only way that Kenya could be free.

Matters worsened as the state of emergency continued. People were arrested arbitrarily by the colonial authorities, and
Black collaborators accused people of being Mau Mau with little or no proof. Despite the pressure, I felt as determined as
ever. In my mind, I had no doubt that I was fighting for a just cause.”

*a Kenyan nationalist and independence leader

Wambui Otieno, Kenyan activist, description of her participation in the Mau Mau uprising against British rule in Kenya in the early 1950s, included in
an autobiography published in 1998

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68. Which of the following best explains why the movement described in the passage began after the Second World
War?
The settlement of the conflict divided former German and Japanese colonies among the victorious Allied
(A)
powers.
(B) The racist ideology of the German Nazi regime spread in influence as a result of its early military success.
The defeat of the Axis powers required the Allies to grant political concessions in order mobilize colonial
(C)
populations militarily and economically.
The Allied Western European states began to implement more active measures to intervene in the economy
(D)
through the creation of extensive welfare states.

69. Which of the following best explains why the Soviet Union supported movements such as the one described in the
passage?
(A) The Soviets supported violent movements based on racial ideology.
(B) The Soviets sought to aid movements that shared their religious ideology.
(C) The Soviets believed that most colonized peoples were incapable of effective self-government.
(D) The Soviets wished to undermine Western governments during the Cold War.

70. The Mau Mau ideology described in the passage differed most significantly from that of the
(A) communist Viet Minh in Vietnam, which sought to overthrow French colonial rule
Biafra separatist movement in Nigeria, which sought to create a new state within an independent Nigeria
(B)
through armed insurrection
Hind Swaraj movement led by Gandhi in India, which sought to achieve an independent India through
(C)
protest and civil disobedience
anti-apartheid movement in South Africa, which used both peaceful protest and armed violence to end rule
(D)
by the descendants of Dutch and English settlers

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“Mr. President, I am writing you a letter

which maybe you’ll read if you have the time.

I have just received my army recruitment papers

to report for duty in the war*by Wednesday evening.

Mr. President, I do not want to do that;

I was not put on this earth to kill wretched people living far away.

I must tell you—it’s not to make you mad—

but I’ve made my decision: I am going to desert....

I will hit the road and beg for my life

all over France—and I will call out to the people:

‘Refuse to obey! Refuse to do it!

Don’t go to fight in the war! Just say no!’

If someone’s blood must be shed,

Then shed yours, Mr. President! Lead by example!

And if you decide to hunt me down, warn your police

that I will be unarmed, and that they can go ahead and shoot.”

*a reference to the war in French Vietnam

Boris Vian, French poet, “The Deserter,” 1954

71. Late-twentieth-century military conflicts such as the one referred to in the poem typically resulted from which of the
following?
(A) Mercantilist colonial policies
(B) Social Darwinist philosophy
(C) Negotiated decolonization
(D) Nationalist resistance to imperialism

72. Which of the following aspects of the political context of the 1950s best explains the author’s view of colonial wars
expressed in the poem?

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(A) The memory of the destructive total wars of the early twentieth century
(B) The intensification of anticommunist sentiment in the context of the Cold War
(C) The beginning of European economic and political integration
(D) The influence of United States mass media

73. The method of achieving political change advocated in the poem best illustrates which of the following practices
used by reform movements in the twentieth century?
(A) Nationalization and collectivization
(B) Violence against civilians
(C) Civil disobedience
(D) Consumer boycotts

74. “We shall not repeat the past. We shall eradicate it by restoring our rights in the Suez Canal. This money is ours.
The canal is the property of Egypt.”

The quotation above by Gamel Abdel Nasser (in power 1952-1970) was most influenced by
(A) Soviet communism
(B) Islamic thought
(C) nationalism
(D) constitutionalism
(E) international law

75. “We shall not repeat the past. We shall eradicate it by restoring our rights in the Suez Canal. This money is ours.
The canal is the property of Egypt.”

The quotation above by Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser (in power 1952-1970) best expresses support for
(A) communism
(B) liberalism
(C) nationalism
(D) imperialism

76. Nationalist leaders in Africa and Asia, such as Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969), Jomo Kenyatta (1894–1978), and
Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972), had which of the following in common?
(A) Defense of capitalism
(B) Support for free-trade systems
(C) Rejection of violent revolution
(D) Opposition to colonial rule

77. In the early twentieth century, nationalist movements in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East were led primarily by

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(A) the urban working class

(B) the nobility
(C) labor unions
(D) landless peasants
(E) educated urban elites

78. “Individually, the independent states of Africa, some of them potentially rich, others poor, can do little for their
people. Together, by mutual help, they can achieve much.”

Kwame Nkrumah, president of Ghana, speech, 1961

The speech above by Nkrumah is best understood in the context of which of the following?
(A) Twentieth-century transnational movements attempting to unite people across national boundaries
(B) Competition between Cold War powers to influence the development of newly independent states
(C) African and Latin American anti-colonial movements motivated by Enlightenment ideology
(D) International economic institutions attempting to spread free market economics in the developing world

“In his own traditional society, when the word ‘government’ was mentioned, the African thought of the chief. In colonial
Africa this ‘personal’ conception of government continued, except that the average person hearing the word ‘government’
now thought of the district colonial official or the provincial governor. Later, when some African ‘agitators’ such as
myself, who had been reading Abraham Lincoln and John Stuart Mill, began demanding institutional government for our
own countries, it was the very colonial officials who had come to symbolize ‘government’ who resisted our demands until
the eleventh hour.[1]

Our country is emerging today as a result of its struggle for freedom. The nationalist movement, having united all the
people of our country and led them to independence, could hardly be expected to stop in midstream and voluntarily divide
itself into opposing political parties just for the sake of conforming to what I have called the ‘Anglo-Saxon form of
democracy.’ Why should it? It is not undemocratic if nearly all the people rather than merely a section of them have
chosen to vote our government into power.”

Julius Nyerere, Tanzanian independence leader, “The African and Democracy,” essay published in 1961

1 Great Britain only agreed to grant Tanzania self-rule in 1960.

79. Nyerere’s description of the activities of anti-colonial “agitators” in the first paragraph best illustrates which of the
following aspects of the decolonization movement?
(A) It was typically resisted by the majority of the native population of the colonies.
(B) It benefited from having the support of many prominent European missionary leaders.
(C) It was typically led by locals who had acquired a Western education.
(D) It was welcomed by European colonial authorities, who were anxious to withdraw from Africa.

80. As outlined in the second paragraph, Nyerere’s view of the contrast between African post-independence politics
and the “Anglo-Saxon form of democracy” most directly explains why some African independence leaders

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(A) eventually embraced authoritarian forms of government, including Soviet-style socialism

(B) opposed their countries joining the United Nations
(C) failed to prevent the fracturing of their countries along ethnic and religious lines
(D) embraced the concept of “Africa for the Africans” and sought to restrict the rights of European settlers

81. Some historians have argued that the Haitian Revolution (1791—1804) marks the beginning of the process of
decolonization that culminated in the dissolution of European colonial empires after the Second World War.
Historians who take this position are likely to place the greatest emphasis on the importance of which of the
following in the decolonization process?
(A) The role of the desire for natural rights in independence movements
(B) The role of European powers in encouraging revolts in each other’s colonies as part of imperial rivalries
(C) The role of economic liberalization in undermining the rationale for colonial empires
(D) The role of indigenous economic patterns in fostering anticolonial movements

“It is not surprising that your nation [Japan] considers it its mission to unite and lead Asia. The European nations, for all
their differences, are united like a single country in their attitude towards the non-Europeans. If, for instance, the
Mongolians threatened to take a piece of European territory, all the European countries would make common cause to
resist them.

But Japan cannot stand alone. She would be bankrupt in competition with a united Europe, and she could not expect
support in Europe. It is natural that she should seek it in Asia, in association with a free China, Thailand, and, perhaps, in
the ultimate course of things, a free India. An associated Asia would be a powerful force. Of course, that is to look a long
way ahead, and there are many obstacles in the way, notably the absence of a common language and the difficulty of
communication. But—from India through Thailand to Japan—we are, I believe, kindred peoples, having in common
possession so much religion, art, philosophy.”

Rabindranath Tagore, Indian poet and Nobel Prize in Literature recipient, excerpt from a speech given while on a tour of Japan, 1916

82. Tagore most likely makes a clear contrast between European and Asian states in order to
(A) argue for the modernization of Asian empires like the Qing dynasty and Tokugawa Shogunate
(B) oppose the proliferation of global wars such as the First World War
(C) oppose the expansion of communism in Asia
(D) provide a counterbalance to European colonialism in Asia

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Map 1

Map 2

83. The changes in political status as depicted on the maps resulted most directly from which of the following?

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(A) Migration of imperial subjects to metropoles

(B) Religious, ethnic, and regional movements challenging imperial rule
(C) Land and resource redistribution movements advocating communism and socialism
(D) United Nations mandates ordering imperial states to grant their colonies independence

84. Which of the following most directly opposed the creation of the postcolonial political borders shown on Map 2 ?
(A) Transnational movements, such as Pan-Africanism
(B) Regional trading blocs, such as the European Economic Community
(C) Military alliances, such as NATO
(D) Global international organizations, such as the United Nations

85. The changes in the political status of the British territories and protectorates in South Asia as shown on the maps led
most directly to which of the following?
(A) Proxy wars between former colonial powers
(B) Large-scale population displacements and transfers
(C) The settling of territorial disputes by the League of Nations
(D) The creation of free-trade blocs

86. Which of the following was a significant effect of Western imperialism in the twentieth century?
(A) The decline of migrations to industrialized countries
(B) The development of nationalism among colonized peoples
(C) The conservation of the environment in colonized areas
(D) The systematic deterioration in public health conditions

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87.

Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press.

The shaded areas on the map above of South Africa indicate

(A) “Whites only” areas in the country
(B) areas of the original Dutch settlements
(C) the reserves, sometimes called Bantustans or African “homelands”
(D) other independent African nations
(E) areas set aside to commemorate the location of Great Zimbabwe

88. “Chicken Tikka Massala is now a true British national dish, not only because it is the most popular, but because it is
a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences. Chicken Tikka is an Indian dish. The
Massala sauce was added to satisfy the desire of British people to have their meat served in gravy.”

Robin Cook, British Foreign Secretary, speech, 2001

The development of the British cuisine described in the excerpted speech above is best seen as an example of which
of the following?

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(A) The effects of migration by former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles

(B) The spread of culture through new communication technology
(C) The global spread of western popular and consumer culture
(D) The resistance to immigration by nativist groups

89. Which of the following best supports the argument that colonialism was responsible for the lack of economic
development in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East in the late twentieth century?
(A) The tendency of former colonies to export raw materials
(B) Corruption within the governments of former colonies
(C) The presence of impoverished groups within industrialized states
(D) The prosperity of some newly independent states

90. Which of the following was the most significant factor that prevented many African states from achieving political
stability in the decades after their independence?
(A) Continued military intervention by former colonizing powers
(B) Ethnic and religious conflicts caused by the inclusion of rival groups within the same borders
(C) Lack of exploitable natural resources
(D) Frequent attempts by the larger states to conquer their smaller neighbors

91. Which of the following is true of both India and China in the period from 1945 to 1990 ?
(A) Both were colonies of a foreign power.
(B) In the 1950s, leaders of both countries focused on industrial development.
(C) Building an agricultural base was the top priority of both countries.
(D) Both countries adopted free-trade policies in the 1960s.
(E) Both societies quickly rejected traditional religious values.

“The [British] Raj* did bring benefits to the Indian people and its importance to the successor states of India . . . cannot be
overstated. Whether they like the fact or not, these countries are what they are now because they were once governed by
Britain and brought directly into contact with British ideas, values, learning and technology. The process of exposure and
absorption was slow and uneven; old faiths, customs and habits of mind proved remarkably durable, and outlasted a Raj
which lacked either the capacity or will to uproot them.

Any balance sheet of the Raj would not be complete without reference to [the public benefits that it brought]. When [the
Raj] ended, the sub-continent possessed what today would be called a communications ‘infrastructure’ which included
over 40,000 miles of railways. . . . Enormous headway has been made in education by the successor states, but it could not
have been achieved without foundations laid down during the Raj. . . . Likewise, the criminal and civil law codes of the
entire sub-continent are a legacy of the Raj. . . .

Quite simply, the Raj cannot be disinvented. It happened, and its consequences remain deeply rooted in Indian soil.”

*a term used in various Indian languages to refer to a ruler; in this case, the term refers to the British Empire in India

Lawrence James, British historian, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India, 1997

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92. Which of the following developments in the period after 1945 could most directly be used as evidence to challenge
the author’s assertion regarding the effects of British rule in India in the first two paragraphs?
After achieving independence, India remained economically tied to Great Britain by joining the British
(A)
Commonwealth of Nations.
Great Britain’s divide-and-rule strategy in India deepened religious tensions, leading to a partition of India
(B)
that resulted in millions of people dying or ending up as refugees.
After achieving its independence, India joined the Non-Aligned Movement, a group of nation-states that
(C)
refused to side with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Indian leaders adopted the policies of many other postcolonial states by using government resources and
(D)
policy to guide economic development.

93. The fact that large numbers of South Asians migrated to Great Britain after the end of British rule could indirectly
be used as evidence to support the author’s arguments mostly because the migrations of former colonial subjects to
imperial metropoles in the late twentieth century demonstrate that
(A) migrants from former colonies could expect to encounter little racial discrimination in imperial societies
migrants were attracted to many aspects of the cultural, political, and economic systems that imperial powers
(B)
had brought to their colonies
migrants from former colonies quickly found lucrative jobs in imperial societies and could use their income
(C)
to boost the fortunes of their families back home
(D) migrants were quick to relinquish their cultural traditions upon settling in imperial societies

94. All of the following statements about British rule in India in the twentieth century are factually accurate. Which
could best be used as evidence to modify the author’s claim about the “public benefits” of British rule in India in the
second paragraph?
The British government in India often allowed different religious groups to use their own legal customs in
(A)
civil matters such as marriage and divorce.
The British government in India developed educational institutions in which instruction was conducted in
(B) English, providing a common language that many Indians of diverse linguistic traditions used to
communicate with each other.
British investment in infrastructure such as railways and roads provided the largest economic benefit to
(C)
British companies operating in India rather than to ordinary Indians.
British companies cooperated with the British government to expand India’s canal system and irrigation
(D)
network in order to improve agricultural production and interior communications.

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95.

The maps of Africa above best explain which of the following about African history in the twentieth century?
(A) Why Islam has continued to spread in sub-Saharan Africa following decolonization
(B) Why most African states achieved independence within a few years of one another
Why some former colonial powers have continued to intervene in the internal affairs of their former colonies
(C)
after independence
Why African state-building efforts have been hindered by the persistence of political boundaries inherited
(D)
from the colonial era

96. The partition of British India in 1947 created the new Muslim state of Pakistan and the predominantly Hindu state
of India. The immediate result of the drawing of new geographic boundaries was
(A) a lasting nuclear nonproliferation pact between the newly created states
(B) religious and ethnic violence that led to mass migrations and massacres
a peaceful transition to independence along the lines that Mohandas Gandhi, the nationalist and advocate of
(C)
nonviolence, had envisioned
(D) the peaceful annexation of Kashmir, a predominantly Muslim state, by Pakistan

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97.

The map above shows the territorial arrangements in South Asia that resulted from
(A) Akbar’s expansion of the Mughal Empire
(B) rival Arab trading empires
(C) Dutch and Portuguese colonies
(D) partition at the time of decolonization
(E) treaties with Russia and China

98. The relocation of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India and Muslims from India to Pakistan between 1945 and
1955 reflects which of the following world historical processes?
(A) The migration of former colonial subjects to imperial metropoles
(B) Population resettlement caused by redrawing former colonial borders
(C) The development of ethnic enclaves as these migrants moved for work
(D) The seasonal migration patterns associated with temporary work

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Poem 1

“The world calls us coolie.*

Why doesn’t our flag fly anywhere?

How shall we survive, are we slaves forever? Why aren’t we involved in politics?

From the beginning we have been oppressed. Why don’t we even dream of freedom?

Only a handful of oppressors have taken our fields. Why has no Indian cultivator risen and protected his land?

Our children cry out for want of education. Why don’t we open science colleges?”

*An insulting term for South or East Asian manual workers

Poem 2

“Why do you sit silent in your own country You who make so much noise in foreign lands? Noise outside of India is of
little avail.

Pay attention to activities within India.

You are quarreling and Hindu-Muslim conflict is prevalent.

The jewel of India is rotting in the earth because you are fighting over the Vedas and the Koran.

Go and speak with soldiers.

Ask them why they are asleep, men who once held swords.

Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh heroes should join together. The power of the oppressors is nothing if we unitedly attack him.

Indians have been the victors in the battlefields of Burma, Egypt, China and the Sudan.”

99. The religious tensions alluded to in Poem 2 would result most directly in which of the following?
(A) The migration of many South Asians to Great Britain
(B) The development of new syncretic belief systems in India such as Sikhism and Bahaism
(C) The Japanese invasion of India during the Second World War
(D) The population resettlement following the partition of South Asia into India and Pakistan after independence

100. Which of the following African countries continued to have a sizeable segment of the population with European
ancestry in the 1990s?

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(A) Ethiopia
(B) Egypt
(C) Nigeria
(D) Ghana
(E) South Africa

“1. Long live the revolutionary Khmer Rouge, utterly wise and clear-sighted and ever glorious!

2. Long live the correct and extremely clear-sighted Communist Party of Cambodia!

3. Down with American imperialists and their supporters!

4. Report everything to the Khmer Rouge!

5. Secretly observe the slightest deeds and gestures of everyone around you!

6. The Khmer Rouge has as many eyes as a pineapple.

7. The Khmer Rouge is the mother and father of all young children, as well as all adolescent boys and girls.

8. Hands off the people’s property! Not a single grain of rice, a single chili pepper, a single needle!

9. Better to arrest ten innocent people by mistake than free a single guilty person.

10. He who protests is an enemy; he who opposes is a corpse.”

Slogans of the Khmer Rouge, the governing communist party of Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. The party ordered the forcible relocation of all urban
populations onto agricultural communes and was responsible for 2.2 million deaths.

101. The slogans best illustrate which of the following actions of twentieth-century communist governments?
(A) The use of subterfuge to undermine and discredit democratically elected governments
(B) The adoption of repressive policies in order to impose one-party rule
(C) The suppression of organized religion
(D) The adoption of electronic surveillance technologies to suppress internal dissent

102. The ideas expressed in the last two slogans most likely reflect which of the following twentieth-century
developments?
(A) Constitutional conflicts emerging between the executive and judicial branches in communist states
(B) Civil rights movements destabilizing newly independent states
(C) Totalitarian states using violence and genocide against civilians to maintain power
(D) Civil war between communist factions supporting China and the Soviet Union

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“[El Diario]: Chairman, how does the Peruvian Communist Party sustain the huge party apparatus, including the People’s
Guerrilla Army?

[Chairman Gonzalo]: I think this question deserves a detailed explanation. Concerning the party, Chairman Mao teaches
us—as did Marx, Lenin, and all the great Marxists—that the party is not a mass party, though it has a mass character. It
has a mass character in the sense that while being a select organization—a selection of the best, of the proven, of those, as
Stalin said, who have what it takes—being numerically small in proportion to the broad masses, the party defends the
interests of the proletariat in taking responsibility for its emancipation, which can only come with communism. But since
other classes that make up the people also participate in the revolution, the party defends their interests as well.

[El Diario]: Chairman, let’s talk about the people’s war now. What does violence mean to you?

[Chairman Gonzalo]: We see the problem of war this way: war has two aspects, destructive and constructive. Not to see it
this way undermines the revolution—weakens it. From the moment the people take up arms to overthrow the old order,
the reaction [state] seeks to crush, destroy, and annihilate the struggle, and it uses all the means at its disposal, including
genocide. We have seen this in our country. We are seeing it now and will continue to see it until the outmoded Peruvian
state is demolished.”

Interview with “Chairman Gonzalo” [Manuel Rubén Abimael Guzmán Reynoso], leader of the Shining Path, a Peruvian revolutionary movement, 1988.
The interview was conducted by the Peruvian newspaper El Diario, which was the unofficial newspaper of the Shining Path movement.

103. The views expressed by Chairman Gonzalo in the passage are best explained in the context of which of the
following historical circumstances of the late twentieth century?
(A) The expansion of the military-industrial complex in Latin American states
(B) The rise of movements that challenged colonial rule in Latin America
(C) The rise of separatist movements that demanded regional autonomy
(D) The intensification of political conflicts between state and nonstate entities

104. Which of the following explains the most likely purpose of Gonzalo’s answer to the second question in the
interview?
(A) To call for the prosecution of those responsible for mass violence in Peru
(B) To challenge the continued political influence of Western states in Latin America
(C) To justify the Shining Path’s use of violence to achieve its political objectives
(D) To appeal to politicians in Latin American states to adopt reforms to their respective political institutions

105. Which of the following would likely explain Gonzalo’s theoretical discussion of the idea that “the party is not a
mass party, though it has a mass character” during his answer to the first question?
His intended audience was indigenous peoples in impoverished areas of Peru who fought for the Shining
(A)
Path movement.
His intended audience was leftist intellectuals in Latin America and other regions who sympathized with
(B)
communist ideology.
His intended audience was liberal intellectuals in Latin American governments who knew little about the
(C)
differences between Leninist and Maoist ideologies.
His intended audience was criminal organizations in Peru that had agreed to help the Shining Path
(D)
movement.

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106. Which of the following describes a major change in international relations in the 1980s and 1990s?
(A) The rapid establishment of large overseas colonial empires by European powers
(B) The disbanding of most regional political organizations
(C) The decline in power of multinational corporations
(D) The reduction of confrontations between communist and noncommunist countries

Graph 1: Total Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Graph 2: Share of Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Graphs based on data from [Link]

107. Which of the following historical events best explains why, in the period 1990–2000, the trends in carbon dioxide
production in the United States and in Russia diverge, as shown in Graph 2 ?

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While the United States economy mostly continued to grow, Russia’s economy contracted following the
(A)
collapse of the Soviet Union.
(B) While the United States increased its dependency on fossil fuels, Russia relied more on nuclear energy.
While the United States experienced the benefits of the Green Revolution, Russia experienced a decline in
(C)
agricultural production.
While the United States relied on imports of oil and gas, Russia remained largely self-sufficient in energy
(D)
production.

108. Which of the following was the most immediate effect of the collapse of the communist regime in the Soviet
Union?
(A) United States involvement in wars in Iraq and Afghanistan
(B) The Chinese communist government’s institution of market-reform policies
(C) The end of the Cold War
(D) The expansion of the European Union to include countries in Eastern Europe

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Image 1

VLADIMIR KANDELAKI, SOVIET ARTIST, HOUSE OF CARDS, PAINTING, 1986

© 2019 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / GCA, Tbilisi

The image is a parody of the regular military parades staged by the Soviet Communist Party in Red Square, Moscow.

Image 2

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MARAT VALIAKHMETOV, SOVIET ARTIST, “PARADE,” CARTOON PUBLISHED IN A SOVIET

NEWSPAPER, 1989

The cartoon is a parody of Soviet military parades, with food trucks instead of tanks and military equipment. The trucks
carry labels saying “BREAD,” “MILK,” and “MEAT”—all items for which the Soviet Union was experiencing frequent
consumer shortages.

109. The depiction of the Soviet Union in the images is best explained as illustrating which of the following
developments in late-twentieth-century communist states?
(A) Increasing instances of using force to quell political protests
(B) Rising ethnic nationalism
(C) Increasing political instability because of military coups
(D) Rising public discontent

110. The inclusion of the trucks in Image 2 best helps explain which of the following developments in the Soviet Union
in the late twentieth century?

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The recent collectivization of agriculture weakened the ability of Soviet farmers to compete with Western
(A)
agricultural businesses.
Although free-market reforms made the Soviet economy more efficient, climate change led to famines and
(B)
crop failures.
Despite the introduction of free-market reforms under the perestroika program, the Soviet Union’s economy
(C)
continued to deteriorate.
The increasing role of multinational corporations in the Soviet economy led to protests about growing
(D)
economic inequality.

111. Which of the following developments in the late twentieth century best explains why the type of power that Soviet
leaders wished to highlight through the public event shown in Image 1 diminished?
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was an expensive failure that helped prevent the Soviet military from
(A)
closing growing technological gaps with the United States military.
(B) Soviet suppression of uprisings in Eastern Europe weakened morale within the Soviet military.
Soviet conflicts with communist China led to the loss of substantial territories in the east and signaled the end
(C)
of Soviet leadership of the communist world.
(D) The Soviet Union lost tens of thousands of troops during proxy conflicts in Africa and Latin America.

112. Which of the following was a significant long-term cause of the collapse of the Soviet Union during the late
twentieth century?
(A) Geopolitical rivalry between the Soviet Union and communist China
(B) The dismantling of the Berlin Wall and the end of restrictions on emigrating from communist countries
(C) The cost of the arms race between the Soviet Union and the United States
(D) The establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement

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113.

(Translation: “Woman proletarian, master aviation technology! Enroll in the technical schools and universities of
the civil aviation fleet!”)

A historian would find the 1931 Soviet poster above most useful in studying which of the following?
(A) The proportion of women to men working in technically skilled professions in the Soviet Union
(B) The effects of the introduction of commercial aviation on the Soviet economy
(C) The official propaganda of gender equality in the Soviet Union
(D) The degree of advancement of Soviet aviation technology relative to noncommunist countries

114. After the Second World War, countries around the world did which of the following to restore the global economy?
(A) Created the European Union to coordinate European economic aid to former colonies.
(B) Developed a common economic aid package for African and Asian states.
(C) Established new financial institutions, such as the World Bank.
(D) Allowed the United Nations to take over failing national economies.

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