The Ultimate Guide of SQL Here’s what you'll find in this document:- © Complete SQL Syllabus with Resources © SOL Practice Websites Categorized by Levels © Types of Most Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions & Answers - Complete SQL Syllabus with Resources 1. SQL Data Definition Language (DDL) CREATE: Create a new database object (e. ALTER: Modify an existing database object DROP: Remove an existing database object. TRUNCATE: Remove all records from a table (but keep the structure) , table). DDL is used to define and manage database structures like tables and schemas 2. SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML) INSERT: Insert new data into a table. © UPDATE: Modify existing data in a table. © DELETE: Remove data from a table. DML is used to manipulate data within database tables. 3. SQL Data Types @ Numeric Data Types: INT, FLOAT, DECIMAL, ete. String Data Types: VARCHAR, CHAR, TEXT, ete. Date/Time Data Types: DATE, DATETIME, TIMESTAMP, ete. Boolean Data Type: BOOLEAN.Data types define the nature of data that can be stored in a column (numbers, text, dates, etc). 4. SQL Querying Data SELECT: Retrieve data from the database. DISTINCT: Remove duplicate rows in a result set WHERE: Filter records based on a condition. LIKE: Search for a specified pattern. ORDER BY: Sort the result set. LIMIT: Limit the number of retuned rows (MySQL/PostgreSQL). TOP: Limit the number of returned rows (SQL Server). AND, OR, NOT: Logical operators for filtering data, IN: Filter records based on a list of values. BETWEEN: Filter records based on a range. These clauses and operators are used to filter and organize query results. 5. Aggregate Functions SUMO: Calculate the total sum of a numeric column, MAX(); Find the maximum value. MINO): Find the minimum value. COUNT: Count the number of rows, AVGO;: Calculate the average value. Aggregate functions are used to calculate summary statistics on sets of data. 6. Grouping and Filtering Data © GROUP B © HAVIN Jroup rows that have the same values into summary rows, 3: Filter groups based on a condition. These clauses are used to group data and filter aggregated results, 7. SQL Joins © INNER JOIN: Return rows with matching values in both tables.@ LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the right table. ¢ RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Retum all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from the left table. @ FULL OUTER JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in cither left or right table. © SELF JOIN: Join a table to itself. Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on related columns. 8. Subqueries and CTEs (Common Table Expressions) © CTE: Temporary result set defined within the execution scope of a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement. * SUBQUERIES: A query nested inside another query. Subqueries and CTEs are used to simplify complex queries and improve readability. 9, Set Operators @ UNION: Combine the result sets of two or more SELECT statements (without duplicates). ¢ UNION ALL: Combine the result sets of two or more SELECT statements (with duplicates). Set operators are used to combine the results of multiple queries. 10. Existential and Conditional Queries © EXISTS: Test for the existence of any records in a subquery. © CASE WHEN: Perform conditional logic in a SQL statement. Existential queries check for the existence of data, while CASE WHEN is used for conditional logic within queries. 11. Window Functions ¢ ROW_NUMBER(O OVER: Assigns a unique sequential integer to rows within a partition of a result set. @ RANK( OVER: Provides a ranking of rows within a partition, allowing for ties.DENSE_RANK() OVER: Similar to RANK(), but without gaps in ranking. LEADO OVER: Access data from the following row in a partition. LAG( OVER: Access data from the preceding row in a partition. NTILE(Q OVER: Distribute rows into a specified number of equal-sized groups. FIRST_VALUEQ OVER: Get the first value in an ordered set of values. LAST_VALUE( OVER: Get the last value in an ordered set of values. Window functions allow for calculations across a set of rows related to the current row, without collapsing data into groups. 12. Aggregate Functions as Window Functions SUMO OVER: Calculate the sum of values across a window of rows. MAX( OVER: Find the maximum value across a window of rows. MIN( OVER: Find the minimum value across a window of rows. COUNT( OVER: Count the number of rows across a window. AVG() OVER: Calculate the average value across a window. By using the OVER() clause, aggregate functions become window functions, allowing for aggregate calculations over a defined set of rows (the window) without collapsing the data like a traditional GROUP BY would. 13. SQL Date and Time Functions ‘© Functions to manipulate date and time values (e.g., NOW(), CURRENT_DATE, DATEADD(), DATEDIFF ( ), etc.) These functions allow for the manipulation and comparison of date and time values in queries. RESOURCES: Websites: 1. [Link] 2. [Link] Youtube Playlist:This below playlist contains the complete tutorial video of SQL with all the required topies in English. hitps://[Link]/playlist?list=I pSif9zZ0YISNS avw5C92dz9Ef4E-1Zi9KFCTXS_IN8gXZ&: And if you want to leam in Hindi, then you can follow this below playlist: hitps://[Link]/playlist?list=PLdOKnrf8EcP 17p05q13WXbHOSZ_JEXNpw&: Gf2MR97 Note - Below mentioned are some top playlists of SQL interview Q&A which I also use to prepare before any SQL interview. Top SQL Interview Q&A Playlists: lh /playlist?list=PLaw 7 =] CJE8gY¥CMzxS [Link] 9-krlyBTZSe [Link] BQDjLmzisazh NZs3pPAQIpYL HEVZ - SQL Practice Websites Categorized by Levels Easy These websites are perfect for beginners who want to start with the basics and build a solid foundation: 1. W3Schools SQL Tutorial https//[Link]/sql/ 2. SQLZoo [Link] Tutorial3. SQLBolt hitps://[Link] Medium These platforms are great for those with some SQL knowledge who want to practice real-world problems and prepare for interviews: 1. 2. Leetcode (Top 50 SQL Study Plan) [Link] Leetcode Database Problems [Link] . Datalemur [Link] . HackerRank SQL. hittps://[Link]/domains/sq| |. StrataScratch ps://platform [Link]/coding?code_type= Expert For advanced practice, you can solve the hard-difficulty questions available on the medium-level websites mentioned above, such as: Leeteode Database Problems (Hard) 7 4 Ve HackerRank Advanced SQL Challenges [Link] StrataScratch Expert-Level Problems [Link]- Types of Most Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions & Answers Overview For any data-related job role, SQL is a key skill, and your interview will mostly revolve around it. In any SQL round, you can face two types of questions © Query writing-based questions © Verbally asked conceptual questions First, we will cover query-based questions, followed by verbal questions. Query-Based Questions ‘Types of Most Frequently Asked SQL Interview Questions & Answers Overview For any data-related job role, SQL is a key skill, and your interview will mostly revolve around it. In any SQL round, you can face two types of questions: © Query writing-based questions © Verbally asked conceptual questions First, we will cover query-based questions, followed by verbal questions. Query-Based Questions Question 1: Write a SQL query to find the second highest salary from the table emp. © Table: emp© Columns: id, salary Answer (Using DENSE_RANK): WITH RankedSalaries AS ( SELECT salary, DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank FROM emp ) SELECT salary AS SecondHighestSalary FROM RankedSalaries WHERE rank = 2; Question 2: Write a SQL query to find the numbers which consecutively occur 3 times. Table: table_name © Columns: id, numbers Answer: SELECT numbers FROM ( SELECT numbers, LEAD(numbers, 1) OVER (ORDER BY id) AS next_num, LEAD(numbers, 2) OVER (ORDER BY id) AS next_next_num FROM table_name yt WHERE numbers = next_num AND numbers = next_next_num; Question 3: Write a SQL query to find the days when temperature was higher than its previous dates. Table: table_name© Columns: Days, Temp Answer (Using CTE): WITH TempWithLag AS ( SELECT Days, Temp, LAG(Temp) OVER (ORDER BY Days) AS prev_temp FROM table_name ) SELECT Days FROM TempWithLag WHERE Temp > prev_temp; Question 4: Write a SQL query to delete duplicate rows in a table. Table: table_name ¢ Columns: column!, column2, ..., column) Answer: DELETE FROM table_name WHERE id NOT IN ( SELECT MIN(id) FROM table_name GROUP BY column1, columnd, ..., columnN Question 5: Write a SQL query for the cumulative sum of salary of each employee from January to July. © Table: table name © Columns: Emp_id, Month, Salary Answer:SELECT Emp _id, Month, SUM(Salary) OVER ( PARTITION BY Emp_id ORDER BY Month ROWS BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW ) AS CumulativeSalary FROM table_name; Question 6: Write a SQL query to display year-on-year growth for each product. © Table: table_name © Columns: transaction_id, Product_id, transaction_date, spend Answer (Using CTE): WITH YearlySpend AS ( SELECT Product_id, YEAR(transaction_date) AS year, SUM(spend) AS total_spend FROM table_name GROUP BY Product_id, YEAR(transaction_date) )s Growth AS ( SELECT year, Product_id, total_spend, LAG(total_spend) OVER (PARTITION BY Product_id ORDER BY year) AS prev_year_spend FROM YearlySpend ) SELECT year, Product_id, (total_spend - prev_year_spend) / prev_year_spend AS yoy_growth FROM Growth WHERE prev_year_spend IS NOT NULL;Question 7: Write a SQL query to find the rolling average of posts on a daily basis for each user_id. Round up the average to two decimal places. Table: table_name e Columns: user_id, date, post_count Answer: SELECT user_id, date, ROUND(AVG(post_count) OVER ( PARTITION BY user_id ORDER BY date ROWS BETWEEN 6 PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW ), 2) AS RollingAvg FROM table_name; Question 8: Write a SQL query to get the emp_id and department for each department where the most recently joined employee is still working. Table: table_name © Columns: emp_id, first_name, last_name, date_of join, date_of exit, department Answer: SELECT emp_id, department FROM table_name WHERE date_of exit IS NULL ORDER BY date_of join DESC: Question 9: How many rows will come in the outputs of Left, Right, Inner, and Outer Join from two tables having duplicate rows?© Left Table A: Column WRwWBNnene Answer: . . . . Explanation: Left Join: 17 rows Right Join: 16 rows Inner Join: 16 rows Outer Join: 17 rows© Left Join: The left join combines all rows from Table A with matching rows in Table B. For values like | and 2, multiple matches occur, leading to repeated rows in the output. Unique values in A without matches in B (5) are included with NULL values. Method for calculating the rows - 3 rows of | from left table * 2 rows of 1 from right table = 6 Rows of 1 2 rows of 2 from left table * 3 rows of 2 from right table = 6 Rows of 2 1 rows of 3 from left table * 3 rows of 3 from right table = 3 Rows of 3 | rows of 4 from left table * 1 rows of 4 from right table = 1 Rows of 4 1 rows of 5 from left table will come with Null in corresponding row as there is no value of 5 in right and we are doing left join so it is mandatory to take all values from left table - So, Total output of left join will be 17 rows Note - Please use above method and try to understand other joins output too © Right Join: The right join behaves symmetrically, including all rows from Table B with matches in Table A. Unique values in B without matches in A (None in this case) would appear with NULL values, but no such rows exist here. © Inner Join: The inner join only includes rows with matching values in both tables. Duplicates amplify the matches, yielding 16 rows. Outer Join: The full outer join includes all rows from both tables, combining matched rows and appending unmatched rows with NULL values. Here, only 5 from Table A contributes an unmatched row, leading to 17 total rows.Question 10: Write a query to get mean, median, and mode for earnings. © Table: table_name © Columns: Emp id, salary Answer: -- Mean SELECT AVG(salary) AS MeanSalary FROM table_name; ~ Median SELECT AVG(salary) AS MedianSalary FROM ( SELECT salary FROM table_name ORDER BY salary LIMIT 2 - (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name) % 2 OFFSET (SELECT (COUNT(*) - 1)/2 FROM table_name) yt —~ Mode SELECT salary AS ModeSalary FROM table_name GROUP BY salary ORDER BY COUNT(*) DESC LIMIT 1: Question 11: Determine the count of rows in the output of the following queries for Table X and Table Y. © Table X: ids@ Table Y: Queries: 1, SELECT * FROM X JOIN Y ON [Link] != [Link] 2. SELECT * FROM X LEFT JOIN Y ON [Link] != [Link] 3. SELECT * FROM X RIGHT JOIN Y ON [Link] != [Link] 4, SELECT * FROM X FULL OUTER JOIN Y ON [Link] != Answer: Since the join condition [Link] != [Link] cannot be satisfied (as all ids in both tables are 1), the output for all queries will be: Query 1: 0 rows Query 2: 0 rows Query 3: 0 rows Query 4: 0 rows Explanation:© The condition [Link] != [Link] checks for inequality between the columns, which is not possible as every row in both tables has the same value for ids. © Hence, no rows are returned for any join type. Question 12: Write a SQL query to calculate the percentage of total sales contributed by each product category in a given year. © Table: sales © Columns: product category, sale_year, revenue Answer: WITH TotalSales AS ( SELECT sale_year, SUM(revenue) AS total_revenue FROM sales GROUP BY sale_year ) SELECT s.product_category, s.sale_year, (SUM([Link]) / ttotal_revenue) * 100 AS percentage_contribution FROM sales s JOIN TotalSales t ON s.sale_year = t.sale_year GROUP BY s.product_category, s.sale_yeat, t.total_revenue; Question 13: Write a SQL query to find the longest streak of consecutive days an employee worked.© Table: attendance © Columns: emp_id, work date Answer: WITH ConsecutiveDays AS ( SELECT emp_id, work date, ROW_NUMBER( OVER (PARTITION BY emp_id ORDER BY work_date) - DENSE_RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY emp_id, DATE_ADD(work date, -ROW_NUMBER( OVER (PARTITION BY emp_id ORDER BY work date))) AS streak_group FROM attendance ) SELECT emp_id, COUNT(*) AS longest_streak FROM ConsecutiveDays GROUP BY emp _id, streak_group ORDER BY longest_streak DESC LIMIT 1; Question 14: Write a query to identify customers who made purchases in all quarters of a year. e Table: transactions e Columns: customer_id, transaction_date Answer:WITH QuarterlyData AS ( SELECT customer_id, CONCAT(YEAR (transaction date), '-Q', QUARTER(transaction_date)) AS quarter FROM transactions GROUP BY customer _id, YEAR(transaction_date), QUARTER(transaction_date) ) SELECT customer_id FROM QuarterlyData GROUP BY customer_id HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT quarter) = 4; Question 15: Write a query to find the first and last purchase dates for each customer, along with their total spending. e Table: transactions Columns: customer _id, transaction_date, amount Answer: SELECT customer_id, MIN(transaction_date) AS first_purchase, MAX(transaction_date) AS last_purchase, SUM(amount) AS total_spendingFROM transactions GROUP BY customer_id; Question 16: Write a query to find the top 3 employees who generated the highest revenue in the last year. © Table: employee_sales © Columns: emp_id, sale_date, revenue Answer: SELECT emp_id, SUM(revenue) AS total_revenue FROM employee_sales WHERE YEAR(sale_date) = YEAR(CURDATE() - | GROUP BY emp _id ORDER BY total_revenue DESC LIMIT 3; Question 17: Write a query to calculate the monthly retention rate for a subscription-based service. © Table: subscriptions © Columns: user id, start date, end_date Answer: WITH MonthlyRetention AS (SELECT DATE_FORMAT(start_date, "%6Y-%m') AS subscription_month, COUNT(DISTINCT user_id) AS new_users, COUNT(DISTINCT CASE WHEN end_date > LAST_DAY(DATE_ADD(start_date, INTERVAL | MONTH)) THEN user_id END) AS retained_users FROM subscriptions GROUP BY subscription_month ) SELECT subscription_month, (retained_users / new_users) * 100 AS retention_rate FROM MonthlyRetention; Question 18: Write a query to identify products with declining sales for 3 consecutive months. Table: monthly_sales © Columns: product_id, month, sales Answer: WITH DeclineCheck AS ( SELECT product_id, month, LAG(sales) OVER (PARTITION BY product_id ORDER BY month) AS prev_month_sales, LAG(sales, 2) OVER (PARTITION BY product_id ORDER BY month) AS prev_2_months_salesFROM monthly_sales ) SELECT product _id FROM DeclineCheck WHERE sales = 5; Verbally Asked Conceptual Questions Question 1: Explain the order of execution of SQL. Answer: 1. FROM: Specifies the source table or tables and establishes any joins between them . WHERE: Filters rows based on specified conditions before grouping or aggregations. . GROUP BY: Groups rows into summary rows based on specified columns. . HAVING: Filters aggregated groups, often used with aggregate functions. . SELECT: Specifies the columns or expressions to include in the final output. . ORDER BY: Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order, . LIMIT: Restricts the number of rows returned in the final output. n NOQEY Question 2: What is the difference between WHERE and HAVING? Answer: © WHERE: Filters rows before any grouping takes place. It works on individual rows. ¢ HAVING: Filters aggregated data after grouping. It works on grouped rows. Example: Use WHERE to filter employees with a salary above 50,000, and HAVING to filter departments with an average salary above 60,000 Question 3: What is the use of GROUP BY?Answer: GROUP BY is used to aggregate data into groups based on one or more columns. It is often used with aggregate functions like SUM, COUNT, AVG, MAX, and MIN, Example: To calculate the total salary for each department: SELECT department_id, SUM(salary) AS total_salary FROM employees GROUP BY department_id; Question 4: Explain all types of joins in SQL Answer: 4. INNER JOIN: Returns rows where there is a match in both tables. © Example: Find employees with matching departments. 2. LEFT JOIN: Retums all rows from the left table, and matching rows from the right table. Non-matches are filled with NULL. © Example: List all employees with their departments, even if they are not assigned. 3. RIGHT JOIN: Returns all rows from the right table, and matching rows from the left table. Non-matches are filled with NULL. © Example: List all departments with their employees, even if they have none. 4. FULL OUTER JOIN: Returns all rows from both tables, with NULL in places where no match exists. © Example: Combine all employees and departments, regardless of matches. 5. CROSS JOIN: Produces the Cartesian product of both tables. o Example: Pair every employee with every department. Question 5: What are triggers in SQL?Answer: Triggers are automated actions executed in response to specific database events like INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE. They are used to enforce rules, log changes, or cascade updates. Example: Automatically update a log table whenever a row is inserted into the orders table. Question 6: What is a stored procedure in SQL? Answer: A stored procedure is a precompiled set of SQL statements stored in the database. It allows reusability, simplifies complex operations, and improves performance by reducing query execution time. Example: A stored procedure to calculate monthly sales and store the result in a report table, Question 7: Explain all types of window functions (Mainly RANK, ROW_NUMBER, DENSE_RANK, LEAD, and LAG). Answer: RANK: Assigns a rank to rows within a partition, skipping ranks for ties. © ROW_NUMBER: Assigns a unique sequential number to rows within a partition, without skipping. ¢ DENSE_RANK: Similar to RANK, but does not skip ranks for ties. @ LEAD: Accesses data from the following row in the same partition. e LAG: Accesses data from the preceding row in the same partition. Example: Use ROW_NUMBER to assign unique IDs to duplicate records in a dataset. Question 8: What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE?Answer: ¢ DELETE: Removes specific rows based on a WHERE clause. It logs each row deletion, can be slower, and maintains table structure. @ TRUNCATE: Removes all rows from a table without logging individual deletions. It is faster but cannot filter rows or trigger cascades. Question 9: What is the difference between DML, DDL, and DCL? Answer: ¢ DML (Data Manipulation Language): Deals with data manipulation. © Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT. © DDL (Data Definition Language): Manages table structure © Commands: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE. © DCL (Data Control Language): Controls access and permissions. © Commands: GRANT, REVOKE. Question 10: What are aggregate functions, and when do we use them? Explain with examples. Answer: Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values. Examples: SUM: Adds values. Example: SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees; © AVG: Calculates average. Example: SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees; © COUNT: Counts rows. Example: SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees; @ MAX/MIN: Finds maximum or minimum values. Question 11: Which is faster between CTE and subquery?Answer: CTEs are often faster and more readable for complex queries, especially when reused multiple times within a query. Subqueries can sometimes be less efficient due to re-evaluation. Question 12: What are constraints and their types? Answer: Constraints enforce data integrity and rules on tables. Types include: © NOT NULL: Ensures a column cannot have NULL values. © UNIQUE: Ensures all values in a column are unique. ¢ PRIMARY KEY: A unique identifier for a row, combining NOT NULL and UNIQUE. © FOREIGN KEY: Ensures referential integrity by linking to another table. © CHECK: Ensures values satisfy a condition. © DEFAULT: Assigns a default value if none is provided. Question 13: What are keys, and what are their types? Answer: © Primary Key: Uniquely identifies a row. Example: emp_id in an employee table. © Foreign Key: Links two tables. Example: department_id in an employee table referencing id in the department table. © Candidate Key: Potential column(s) for the primary key. © Composite Key: Combines multiple columns to uniquely identify a row. Question 14: Differentiate between UNION and UNION ALL. Answer: ¢ UNION: Combines results from two queries and removes duplicates.¢ UNION ALL: Combines results from two queries without removing duplicates. Faster than UNION. Question 15: What are indexes, and what are their types? Answer: Indexes improve query performance by providing faster data access. © Clustered Index: Determines the physical order of rows in a table. © Non-Clustered Index: Contains pointers to the actual data in a table. © Unique Index: Ensures all values in a column are distinct. Question 16: What are views, and what are their limitations? Answer: Views are virtual tables based on SQL queries. They do not store data but simplify query reuse. Limitations: © Cannot be indexed. © Performance depends on the underlying base tables © Cannot directly inelude ORDER BY. Question 17: What is the difference between VARCHAR and NVARCHAR? Similarly, CHAR and NCHAR? Answer: VARCHAR: Variable-length, stores ASCII characters. NVARCHAR: Variable-length, supports Unicode for multilingual data. CHAR: Fixed-length ASCII. . . . e NCHAR: Fixed-length Unicode. Question 18: List the different types of relationships in SQL.Answer: . One-to-One: Each row in Table A links to exactly one row in Table B. 2. One-to-Many: Each row in Table A links to multiple rows in Table B. 3. Many-to-Many: Rows in Table A link to multiple rows in Table B and vice versa, Question 19: Write retention query in SQL. Answer: WITH Retention AS ( SELECT customer_id, COUNT(*) AS total_orders, COUNT(CASE WHEN order_date >= DATE_ADD(first_order_date, INTERVAL 1 MONTH) THEN 1 END) AS retained_orders FROM orders GROUP BY customer id ) SELECT customer_id, (retained_orders / total_orders) * 100 AS retention_rate FROM Retention;