Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/

21

CHAPTER Two
Concrete Dam Engineering
3.1. Introduction
Concrete dams can be classified as gravity, buttress and arch dams. Concrete dams require
strong foundation than other types of dams. The foundation should be sound rock as much as
possible. Concrete dams are rigid and also they can resist the overflow action. The spillway can
be inside the dam or on the abutments if there is natural depression.

3.1.1. Gravity Dams

A gravity dam is a sold structure, made of concrete or masonry constructed across a river to
create a reservoir on its upstream. The section of gravity dam is approximately triangular in
shape, with its apex at its top and maximum width at bottom. The section is so proportioned that
it resists the various forces acting on it by its own weight.
The gravity dam is usually provided with an over flow spillway in some portion of its length.
Thus, the dam consists of the non‐overflow section and overflow section. The design of the two
sections is done separately because the loading conditions are different.
3.1.2. Gravity Dam Loads
Forces that act on gravity dam can be categorized as primary loads, secondary loads and
exceptional loads.
 Primary loads comprise:
1. Weight of the dam 2. Water pressure 3. Uplift pressure
 Secondary loads comprise:
1. Wave pressure 2. Silt pressure 3. Ice pressure 4. Wind pressure
 Exceptional Load: Earthquake forces
1. Primary Loads
A. Weight of the dam: ‐ the weight of the dam is the main stabilizing force in a gravity
dam. The weight of the dam per unit length is equal to the product of the area of cross‐
section of the dam and the specific weight (unit weight) of the material. For the figure
shown below:
W1 = T*H*ρ‐material, acting at (L‐T) +T/2 from the toe (point C)
W2= ½*h*L*ρ‐material, acting at 2/3(L‐T) from the toe (point C). Both forces have a
stabilizing effect.
Where crest gates & other ancillary structures of considerable weight exist they must also
be considered in determining the weight & their appropriate position of line of action.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 1
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2‐1: Force distribution on concrete gravity dams

B. Water Load: - The gravity dam section can be divided in to overflow and non over flow
section. The water pressure acting on the non‐over flow section and overflow section is
different and should be treated separately.
ii. Overflow Section: The water approaching the dam has a velocity of approach (V a).
The head “Ha” due to the velocity of approach is equal to (V a2/2g), and the total
energy line (TEL) is at a height of Ha above the water surface. The trapezium 1‐2‐3‐4
represents the water pressure distribution diagram. The pressure intensity at the crest
is equal to [w*(H1+Ha)] and that at the base is [w*(H2+Ha)] where H1 and H2 are
respectively the depths of water above the crest and the base.

Figure 2‐2: Over flow section of a dam

PH1 = w (H1+Ha) (H2‐Ha), acts at (H2‐H1)/2 and

The horizontal component of force due to water pressure per unit length of the dam is given by:

PH2 = 0.5*w (H2‐H1) (H2‐H1), acts at (H2‐H1)/3 from the base.

If the u/s face is inclined, there is downward water pressure on the upstream face of the dam. The
downward water pressure due to water volume over the crest level is neglected as it is in motion.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 2
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

There is also water pressure on the downstream curved face of the dam due to its
hydrodynamic effect. The forces should be computed and when the overflow section of
the dam is designed, it should be included.
ii. Non‐over flow section: The Hydrostatic pressure distribution can act at u/s and d/s (if
there is tail water) and can be computed as:

Figure 2.3 Non‐Over Flow Section

1. U/S hydrostatic Pressure (acts to dawn ward):
PH = (W*H2)/2 where W is the unit weight of water and H is the water depth on u/s face. This
force acts at H/3 from the base and it has an overturning effect.
2. D/S hydrostatic Pressure (acts to upward):
Ph = (W*h’2)/2 where W is the unit weight of water and h’ is the water depth on d/s face. This
force acts at h’/3 from the base and it has a stabilizing effect.
3. Water pressure at the d/s face due to h’ water column (acts dawn ward): there will
be dawn ward water pressure that acts at the downstream face of the dam. If the
downstream face has a slope of
(1V: m*h’), the total weight of water is 0.5mh’2, and acts at (m*h’)/3 from point C.
C. Seepage & uplift load: The water entering at the interface between the dam and within
the foundation. Because the water is under pressure, it creates uplift pressure on the dam.
The pressure acts in all directions, but the pressure acting upward is important for the
design of the dam, as it reduces the effective weight of the dam. The magnitude of the
uplift pressure can be computed as below:

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 3
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

1. If there is tail water as shown on figure:

Wu1 = [W*h’ *L] and acts at L/2 and
Wu2 = [W*(H - h’)*L/2] and acts at 2/3L from toe of the dam.
2. If there is no tail water,
Wu = W*H*L/2 and acts at 2/3L from the toe of the dam.

The following factors affect the effective uplift pressure:

a. Effect of drains on uplift pressure:
To reduce uplift pressure, drains are formed through the body of the dam and also drainage holes
are drilled in the foundation rock. It is located near the u/s face to reduce the effective uplift.
According to USBR recommendation the uplift pressure at the line of the drains is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure at the d/s face plus one‐third of the differences of pressures at the u/s and d/s
faces. Thus the uplift pressure intensity at the line of drains is given by:
' 1
U =w∗[ H + (H −H ' )], Where H and H’ are the depths of water on the u/s and d/s faces.
3

Figure 2.4 effects of drains on uplift pressure

b. Effect of grout curtain (cutoff) on uplift pressure:
If a grout curtain is provided in the foundation near the u/s face of the dam and it is extended
quite deep in to the foundation, the intensity of uplift pressure is considerably reduced. The
intensity of uplift pressure just at the d/s of the grout curtain is expressed in terms of the intensity
factor (ξ). The intensity factor is defined as the ratio of the actual intensity of pressure when the
grout curtain is provided to that when grout curtain is not provided. Thus, the intensity of
pressure at the d/s of grout curtain is ξH, where H is the depth of water on the u/s side.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 4
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

c. Effect of Tension Crack:

The tension crack occurs on the u/s side of the horizontal section if the reservoir water pressure
(wH) exceeds the vertical stress (fyu) without considering the uplift pressure. The horizontal
tension crack extends from the u/s face up to a point where the computed stress is just equal to
the reservoir water pressure (wH). Hence, the total uplift pressure:
U =w [B ' H +1/2(H + H ')(B−B ')], where H and H’ are the depths of water on the u/s and d/s
faces and B is the total base width and B’ is the length of the horizontal crack from u/s face.

Figure 2‐5: Effect of Tension Crack on Uplift Pressure

Exercise 1: Determine the self-weight, water and uplift pressure for the figure shown below
and force action for point C: Take the unit weight of the material as 24KN/m 3 and unit weight
of water as 10KN/m3.

Exercise ‐ 2: Determine the uplift force at the base of a gravity dam as shown on the
figure below for the following three cases: (i). No drains, (ii). With drains and grout
curtain at a distance of 5m from the u/s end and (iii). Tension crack up to 2m from the u/s
end. Assume the unit weight material as 24KN/m3 and of water 10KN/m3.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 5
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

D rainage gallery

2. Secondary loads
a. Sediment load: Silt is deposited on the u/s face of the dam and exerts overturning force.
The silt pressure can be computed by Rankine’s Theory. If the u/s face of the dam is
vertical, the force is horizontal and is given by

Where ws is the submerged unit weight of the silt and hs is the depth of silt above the bed and φ
is the angle of shearing resistance of the soil.
a. Hydrodynamic wave Load: ‐ when the wind blows over the water surface of the
reservoir, it exerts a drag on the surface due to which waves are formed. When the
waves strike the dam surface, it causes a force on the upper portion of the dam. The
force due to the wave pressure is horizontal and is computed as follows:
Height of wave (hw): The wave characteristics depend on the extent and configuration of water
surface, the velocity of the wind and depth of water in the reservoir. The wave height can be
determined by the following formula:

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 6
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2.6 height of wave

b. Wave Pressure Distribution: the figure below shows the simplified wave pressure
distribution indicated by triangle a‐b‐c. The total height of the triangle is 5/3hw, with a
height of 4/3hw above the sill water level.

Figure 2‐6: Water wave pressure distribution

The maximum pressure intensity occurs at a height of h w/8 above the sill water level and is given
by:
Pw = 2.4*w*hw

The total water pressure force per unit length is given by: Pw = 2.0*w*h w 2. The line of action is
at a height of 0.375*hw above the sill water level.
c. Wind load: ‐ When the dam is full, wind acts only on the d/s side thus contribute to
stability. When empty the wind can act on the u/s face but insignificant compared to
hydrostatic load. For buttress dams load on the exposed surface has to be considered.
d. Ice load: ‐ Not a problem in Ethiopia. It can be significant where ice sheets form to
appreciable thickness & persist for lengthy periods.
Pice = 145 KN/m2 for ice > 0.6m thick, otherwise neglected
3. Exceptional Loads
Seismic load: An earthquake produces seismic waves which set the earth’s crest into a state of
vibration. The dam has to resist the inertia forces caused by the sudden movement of earth’s
crest. Inertia forces should be considered in the design of the dam to avoid failure due to
earthquake. The magnitude of the earthquake depends on a number of factors as severity of
earthquake, the mass of the dam and the elasticity of the material of the dam.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 7
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Horizontal & vertical inertia loads are generated with respect to the dam & the retained water by
seismic disturbance. Horizontal & vertical accelerations are not equal, the former being of
greater (αv =0.5αh). For design purposes, both should be considered operative in the sense least
favorable to stability of the dam, under reservoir full conditions the most adverse seismic loading
will then occur when the ground shock is associated with.

Effect of Earthquake force on Retained Water: ‐ The horizontal acceleration acting u/s
towards the reservoir causes momentary increase in the water pressure. The dam and its
foundation accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to its
inertia, and hence the water pressure is increased. The additional water pressure exerted due to
the earthquake is known as hydrodynamic pressure. The total water pressure force due to
earthquake is given by Von Karman’s method as:
Pe = 0.555*αh*w*H 2, where αh = the horizontal acceleration coefficient and H = the depth of
water above the base.
Another method for the determination of hydrodynamic pressure is Zangar’s method. The
intensity of hydrodynamic pressure at depth y below the water surface in the reservoir with a
total depth H is given as:
Peyi = C*αh*w*H, where C is a dimensionless coefficient. The value of C depends upon the slope
of u/s face of the dam and the depth of the reservoir.
For u/s face either vertical or having constant slope for the entire height, the value of C is given
by:

φ
Where, Cm is the maximum value of C which can be obtained as: C m=0.735 (1− ), where φ
90 0
is the angle in degree in which the u/s face makes with the vertical.
The total hydrodynamic force acting horizontally on the part of the dam lying above a horizontal
section X‐X at a depth y below water surface is obtained by the integration of the pressure and is
given by:

. The force PeyT, acts at a height of about 0.41*y above section

X‐X.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 8
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2.7 hydrodynamic pressure distribution

The moment of the force about X‐X is given by:
I. Effect of Earthquake forces on dam body: The force due to earthquake can occur
due to horizontal and vertical acceleration.
a. Effect of horizontal acceleration: it may occur either u/s or d/s direction. If the
earthquake acts in u/s direction its inertia forces acts towards downstream. Hence,
the sever case for reservoir full condition is if the earthquake acts towards upstream
and for reservoir empty case is if it acts towards downstream direction.
The horizontal force due to earthquake is equal to the product of mass of the dam and horizontal
earthquake acceleration, (Fh = M*horizontal acceleration).
As earthquake acceleration can be expressed as α h*g, and mass is equal to weight divided by g,
the above equation can be written as:

It acts at the Centre of gravity of mass.

According to Response spectrum method, the total force and moment above the base of the dam
can be given by: F = 0.6*W *αh and M = 0.9*W H* αh
Where: W= weight of the dam per unit length,
ah= Seismic coefficient
H = height of the Centre of gravity of the entire gravity dam above the base.
b. Effect of Vertical acceleration: The magnitude of the inertia force is equal to the
product of the mass (M) and the vertical acceleration. Thus: F v = M* Vertical
acceleration = αv*W.
If the vertical acceleration acts downwards, the inertia force acts upwards and the
effective weight of the dam and water is decreased; hence the stability is reduced,
because in a gravity dam the main stabilizing force is the weight of the dam.
Exercise 3: Calculate the earthquake forces and moments acting on the base of the dam as
shown below. Take γconcrete = 24KN / m3 and αh = 0.152. Ignore the effect of vertical
acceleration.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 9
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Exercise 4: Determine the total hydrodynamic force and moment at the base of the dam of
height 90m, free board 3m and u/s slope 1:10 as shown below. Take αh = 0.10

10 0.7
1

3.1.3. Load combinations

Different design authorities have differing load combinations. A concrete dam should be
designed with regard to the most rigorous groupings or combination of loads which have a
reasonable probability of simultaneous occurrence.
Three nominated load combinations are sufficient for almost all circumstances. In ascending
order of severity they may be designated as normal (sometimes usual), unusual and extreme load
combinations, and here denoted as NLC, ULC and ELC respectively.
Table 2‐1: Nominated load combinations

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 10
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

DFL=design flood level; NML=normal maximum level, i.e. maximum retention

level of spill weir (or gates, if fitted); TWL=maximum tail water level;
SEE=safety evaluation earthquake
Ice load should normally include both thermal expansion and wind drag but for
the unusual case with a reservoir at flood level, only wind drag need be
considered.
The possibility of blocked uplift relief drains and the degree of blockage is a matter of
judgment as to whether it is ‘usual’, ‘unusual’ or ‘extreme’ in likelihood. If deemed
‘usual’ or ‘unusual’, in that it could happen more frequently than ‘extreme’ events, the
effect should be studied but an appropriately lower shear friction safety factor (in the
range 1.25–2.00) is often accepted.
3.1.4. Gravity Dam Design and Analysis
The dam as a whole should be structurally safe and stable. It should be withstand the stresses
developed due to imposed loads and the foundation should be strong enough to carry the
loads.
The following assumptions are made for the analysis and design by gravity method of analysis
(which is commonly used in practice).
I. The concrete in a dam is homogenous, isotropic and elastic
II. The dam consists of a number of vertical cantilevers of unit of length, each act independently
from adjoining cantilevers.
III. The stresses in the dam and its foundation are within elastic limits
IV. There is a perfect rigid bond b/n the dam and the foundation and both act as a one unit
V. All loads are transferred to the foundation by the cantilever acting.
VI. The foundation is strong and unyielding (no movement is caused in the foundation due to the
imposed loads).
VII. Small openings as galleries, do not affect the overall stability of the dam.
VIII. The dam behaves as a two‐dimensional plane‐strain structure. (the behavior of all vertical
sections is the same)

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 11
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

IX. The vertical stresses on a horizontal plane vary linearly from u/s to d/s faces
3.1.5. Mode of Failures of Gravity Dam
The dam should be designed such that it is safe against all possible modes of failure, with
adequate factor of safety. The dam may fail in one or more of the following modes:
A). Overturning failure B). Sliding failure
C). Tension failure D). Crushing (compression) failure
A. Overturning stability
The overturning failure occurs when the resultant of all the forces acting on the base
passes outside the base of the dam. If the resultant strikes just at the middle third point, a
factor of safety of 2.0 is available against overturning; however, if the resultant strikes
outside the outer middle third, tension crack will occur at the u/s edge (heel).
Factor of safety against over farming, Fo, in terms of moment about the d/s toe of the dam

B. Sliding stability
Sliding failure occurs when the dam slides over its base. The sliding failure is resisted by
the friction and shearing strength of the concrete (masonry) at upper levels and that b/n
foundation rock and concrete at the base. The factor of safety against sliding (Fs) is
defined as the ratio of forces resisting sliding to the forces tending to cause sliding. It is
given by:

Where, μ is coefficient of friction b/n the material and the horizontal section and its value
varies b/n 0.65 to 0.75 up on the materials used.
Factor of safety against sliding, Fs, estimated using one of the three definitions:
1) Sliding factor, FSS ;
2) Shear friction factor, FSF or

The resistance to sliding or shearing which can be mobilized across a plane is expressed
through parameters C & tanφ.

1. Sliding Factor (SF):

SF = tanθ, where θ the angle which the resultant force make with the vertical.
For safety against sliding, SF should be less than the coefficient of friction. I.e.
SF<μ
2) Shear friction factor, SFF: if the factor of safety against sliding is less than unity, it
doesn’t mean that the dam will fail due to sliding. Thus the SFF should be determined
considering both friction and shear strength of the joint.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 12
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

SFF is defined as the ratio of the total resistance to shear and sliding which can be
mobilized on a plane to the total horizontal load. With this approach both cohesion and
s
the frictional components of shear strength are accounted for and: SFF=
∑H
S = μ*∑V + Bq Where: S = the maximum shear resistance which can be mobilized
B = base width of the dam
μ = coefficient of friction b/n the material and
the foundation
q = average shear strength of the material at the
horizontal section
According to figure below

Where: Ah = the area of plane of contact or sliding.

For the case of a horizontal plane (α = 0) S = cAh +∑V tanφ. Then, the SFF can be expressed as:

Figure 2‐7: Sliding and Shearing resistance: Shear friction factor

With the normal load combination, the shear friction factor required in the foundation
zone is generally SFF >4.0. On planes within the dam and at the base interface, SFF >
3.0 is representative.
Table 2‐2: Recommended shear friction factor, SFF (USBR 1987)
Load combination
Location of sliding Normal Unusua Extreme
plane l
Dam concrete, base 3.0 2.0 >1.0
interface
Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE
Students 13
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Foundation rock 4.0 2.7 1.3

C. Tension Failure
It may occur when the resultant strikes outside the middle third. If it is so, the tension
develops at the upstream edge (heel). Hence, at the heel, the dam loses contact with the
foundation and the effective width is reduced. This results in an increase in the maximum
compressive stress at the toe. A tension crack by itself does not cause failure of the dam
but it leads to the failure of the dam by crushing or by overturning.

Crushed portion
Tension crack

Reduced length

Figure 2‐8: Failure due to tension

D. Failure due to Crushing (Compression Failure)
This occurs when the compressive stress in the dam or foundation exceeds the safe limit. The
vertical stress in the dam and foundation can be determined using equation below:

Where: ΣV=sum of vertical stress, B= base width and e = the eccentricity given by M/ ΣV, M is
the moment.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 14
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

(a) (b)
Figure 2‐8: Vertical stress distribution (a) reservoir full, (b) reservoir empty
Figure above shows the vertical stress distribution when the resultant strikes towards the
right of the center under reservoir full (a) and reservoir empty (b) condition. For reservoir
full condition, the distribution I corresponds to the condition when the resultant is within
the middle third (e <B/6), II when the resultant is just at the middle third (e = B/6) and III
when the resultant is outside the middle third (e>B/6) and tension develops at the heel.
To determine the vertical stress at the base of the dam, it is better to consider the following
cases:

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 15
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Principal Stresses: The vertical stresses determined from above are not the maximum
direct stresses. The maximum direct stress is the major principal stress acting on the
major principal plane passing through the point.
A. Reservoir Full Condition: the principal plane at the toe is the d/s AC of the dam on
which only the normal stress due to water pressure acts and there are no shearing
stresses on that face. The other principal plane AB is at right angle to AC as shown on
figure below.
The maximum vertical stress: occurs at the toe (d/s edge of the horizontal section). The major
principal stress is given by:
Where: σd = major principal stress, f yd = maximum vertical stress, φd = angle which the d/s
face makes with the vertical, p' = water pressure at the toe (= γwater *H ) and pe' =
hydrodynamic pressure due to earthquake at toe. If there is no tail water

The shear stress: acts at the base (plane BC) on which the vertical stress is acting.
The maximum shear stress at the d/s edge toe is given by:

The direction of the shear stress is towards the upstream.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 16
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2‐9: Principal stress Principal stress (a) at toe and (b) at
heel
B. Reservoir Empty Condition: The plane DF at right angles to the u/s face ED of the
dam is the minor principal plane and the u/s of the dam DE is the major principal
plane. The maximum vertical stress occurs at the heel (u/s edge of the horizontal
section). The principal stress is given by:

Where: σu = principal stress, f yu = maximum vertical stress at the heel, φu = angle which
the u/s face makes with the vertical, p = water pressure at the heel (= γwater *H ) and p e
=hydrodynamic pressure due to earthquake at the heel.
For reservoir empty condition, p and Pe = 0, then the equation is reduced to: σu = f yu *sec 2 φu
The maximum shear stress at the heel is given by: τu = -[f yu − (p − pe ]*tanφu
If P = Pe = 0, then the equation is reduced to: τu = − f yd *tanφu
The direction of shear stress is towards the downstream
To avoid over stressing of the material, the principal stress should not exceed the allowable
compressive stress in the dam and foundation.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 17
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

The compressive strength of the concrete is obtained by crushing to failure 15cm cube
prepared and cured at a temperature approximating to that expected in the dam. The
strength of concrete should satisfy early‐load and construction requirements. The
allowable stress in any part of the dam should not exceed 7Mpa.
The compressive strength of the masonry is obtained by crushing 75cm cubes of masonry
prepared and cured at a temperature approximating to those expected in the structure.
The strength of concrete should satisfy early‐load and construction requirements.
Exercise 5: For the gravity dam shown on figure below, determine:
a. the factor of safety against sliding
b. the shear friction factor
c. the factor of safety against overturning
d. the maximum vertical stress, shear stress and normal stress at the toe
e. check whether there is tension
Consider reservoir full condition and take only the weight of the dam and the water pressure.
Take μ = 0.70, γ material = 24KN/m3, γ water = 10KN/m3 and q = 1400KN/m2

Exercise 6: the figure below shows concrete gravity dam (non‐over flow portion). By neglecting,
the earthquake effects, calculate:
i. The maximum vertical stresses at the heel and toe
of the dam
ii. The major principal stress at the toe iii. The
intensity of shear stress on a horizontal plane near the
toe.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 18
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

3.1.6. Elementary profile of Gravity Dam

An elementary profile of a gravity dam is the theoretical shape of its cross‐section when it is
subjected only to three main forces (self-weight, water pressure and uplift pressure). The
elementary profile has zero top width and no free board. Thus the elementary profile is a right
angle triangle with its apex at the water surface and base width B.
However, the elementary profile is hypothetical because in an actual gravity dam, there will be
some minimum top width and free board and also it will be subjected to forces other than the
main three.

Figure 3‐10: Elementary gravity dam profile

Forces acting on an elementary dam: the magnitude and the line of action of the three forces
are found as follows:
i. Self-weight of the dam: W = 0.5*(B*H)G*γw , where G = the specific gravity of the dam
and taken as 2.4 for concrete. The line of action is at B/3 from the heel.
ii. Water pressure: P = 0.5*γw *H 2 , acts at H/3 from the base
iii. Uplift pressure: U = 0.5*B*c*γw *H , acts at B/3 from the heel

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 19
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Base width of an elementary profile: The base width of an elementary profile for
reservoir full condition is found separately for no‐tension basis and no‐sliding basis. The
larger of the two values is taken as the minimum base width of the elementary profile.
Base width for no‐tension basis: Let R is the resultant of all the forces acting on the
dam when the reservoir is full. For no tension at the heel, R must pass through the middle
third. The maximum value of eccentricity (e) is B/6 when the resultant passes through the
middle third point A. When the resultant passes through the point A, the sum of the
moment of all the forces about A will be zero.

W(B/3) −U(B/3) −P(H /3) = 0 ⇒ (W−U)*(B/3) −P(H /3) = 0

Taking moments of the forces about A, with counter‐clockwise moments as positive:

⇒ (0.5*B*H *G*γw )B/3− (0.5*c*B*H *γw )*B/3− (0.5*γw *H 2 )*H /3

Solving, ⇒ B 2 (G − c) = H 2. If the uplift pressure intensity factor (c) is unity:

Base width for no sliding: for no sliding on the dam base, the forces resisting sliding
should be greater than the force causing sliding. In the limiting case, the two forces are
equal. For an elementary profile, it is generally assumed that the sliding is resisted by
friction alone. Thus,

If the uplift intensity factor is unity, then the equation becomes:

The minimum base width required for the elementary profile should be the greater of the values
obtained from the above two cases.
Limiting Height of dam
The principal stress at the toe of an elementary profile for the reservoir full condition is given by:
σd = γw *H *(G −c +1) , as γw, G and c are constants, principal stress increase as the height of
the dam increases. The value of the principal stress should not exceed to the allowable stress (fa)
for the material of the dam. For limiting case, σd = fa. Thus; fa = γw *H *(G −c +1)

If uplift pressure is not considered, the critical height can

be given by:

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 20
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

If the dam height is lower or equal to the critical height of the dam, it is called low gravity dam
and if greater, it is high gravity dam. For a high dam, the resultant may strike the outer middle
third point and the maximum compressive stress may greater than the allowable stress if the
elementary profile is provided. Hence, the base width should be increased.
3.1.7. Modification of Elementary profile
The elementary profile of the gravity dam is theoretical profile which cannot be adopted in
practice because of the following reasons:
I. No top width: In an actual dam, some minimum top width must be provided to resist the
force due to accidental loading and impact of floating debris. For low height dams, the top
width (a) is equal to 0.14H or the minimum required road way.
II. No free board: the water may overtop the dam when the waves develop in the reservoir and
cause splashing over the dam. The free board also takes care of any small increase in the
minimum water level due to some unforeseen flood. Thus:
Freeboard= wind setup (S) + 4/3 (hw)
III. Only three forces are considered: In an actual dam, there are a number of other forces such
as silt, ice, wave, earthquake, weight of gates and live load on the road.
Practical profile of a gravity dam
When freeboard and top width are provided, the elementary section gets modified. The
u/s face is vertical up to a depth of [2a (G) ^0.5] measured below the water level and
then it is provided with a slope from a depth of [2a (G) ^0.5] to [3.1 a (G) ^0.5] so that
the horizontal projection is equal to [a/16].

Figure 2‐11: Practical section of gravity dam

The weight of the concrete in the trapezium FEHG keeps the resultant within the middle
third for the reservoir empty condition. Whatever may be the adopted section; it should
be checked to ensure that the dam is safe against all mode of failure.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 21
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

3.1.8. Analysis of Gravity dam

(Gravity method of analysis)
For this method, the dam is considered as a two‐dimensional structure (a plane strain case). A
unit length of a dam is considered. The dam is assumed to consist of a series of independent
vertical cantilevers of unit length and fixed at the base. The load acting on the cantilever is
transferred to the foundation through the cantilever action. The distance between the two vertical
planes of the cantilever normal to the axis of the dam is unity. The stability of these cantilevers is
checked at different levels against all the possible modes of failure under worst loading
conditions. If the assumed section doesn’t satisfy the required stability requirements, it is
modified and checked. The following procedure is commonly used. Generally, the maximum
section of the dam up to the deepest foundation level is checked first.
1. Determine all the forces acting per unit length of the dam. Determine the horizontal and
vertical components of all forces.
2. Find the algebraic sum of all horizontal and vertical components.
3. Determine the moment of all the force components about toe (d/s edge). Find the algebraic
sum of the resisting (ΣMR) and overturning (ΣMo) moments. Also determine the net moment

Σ M = Σ MR ‐ Σ Mo
(ΣM) about the toe. Thus,

4. Determine the distance X of the point where the resultant (R) strikes the horizontal section or
the base.

Determine the eccentricity (e) of the resultant, e = 0.5B ‐ X. The eccentricity is measured from
X=ΣM/ΣV
5.
the center of the dam and it is equal to the distance b/n the center of the base and the point
where the resultant strikes the base. Generally, the eccentricity is considered positive when it
is on the right side (d/s side) of the center.

6. Determine the vertical stress at the toe and heel of the dam.
7. Calculate the principal stress and check whether it is within the safe limits and also the
stresses.
8. Determine the factor of safety against sliding.
9. Determine the factor of safety against overturning.
10. Determine the tensile stresses if the eccentricity is greater than B/6, and check whether they
are within the limits.
3.1.9. Strip method
If the height of the dam is less than or equal to the critical dam height, then it is designed by
considering the whole section of the dam. If the height of the dam is greater than to the critical
dam height, then the upper portion up to which the critical height can be designed as one section

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 22
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

as low gravity dam and the remaining height can be divided in to a number of suitable strips and
the stability of each section is considered.

Figure 2‐12: Designing of high dam using strip method

Design of strip‐I: The total base width required at the bottom of the first strip is given by:

B1 = base width of low dam (base width at top of 1st strip)

B2 = base width required at the bottom of the 1st strip
H2 = height of dam portion from MWL to the bottom of strip‐I
γw = unit weight of water
f = allowable compressive stress of the dam material
W1= total vertical weight of dam and water above the top of strip‐I
W2= total weight of dam portion and water above the bottom of strip‐I
The increase of base width required on the u/s side, at the bottom of Strip‐I (X1) is given by:

The increase in width on the d/s side can be determined as (B1‐B0‐X1).

Design of strip‐II: The total base width required at the bottom of the 2nd strip is given by:

Where: H2= height of dam portion from MWL to the bottom of strip‐II
W2= total weight of dam portion and water above the bottom of strip‐II
The increase of base width required on the u/s side, at the bottom of Strip‐I (X2) is given by:

The increase in width on the d/s side can be determined as (B2‐B1‐X2).

3.1.10. Multi‐stage approach /Zoning method
9 It comprises a profile where slopes are altered at suitable intervals.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 23
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

9 The design commences from the crest level and descends downwards.
9 At each level stresses are maintained within acceptable limits, i.e. no tension under any
condition of loading.
9 Its advantage is that it is more economical in terms of volume of concrete, but more
expensive to construct.
This method deals with designing the dam joint by joint (block by block) beginning at the top
and making each joint confirm to all gravity dam design rules. This procedure results in dams
with polygonal face that may be smoothened up for appearance with no appreciable change in
stability or economy. The multiple step method is always used for the final design of dams with a
height that does not encroach greatly on Zone V.
Zoning of high non‐overflow dams
A high gravity dam may be divided into seven zones according to design and stability
requirements. The characteristics and limits of these zones are given below.
Zone I: this is a rectangular section from the top of the dam to the water surface. The resultant
passes through the middle point of the base.
Zone II: this is also a rectangular section and extends to a depth where the resultant in the
reservoir full condition reaches the outer middle third point of the base.
Zone III: upstream face of the dam is vertical but the downstream face is gradually
inclined so that the resultant in the reservoir full condition has exactly at the outer middle
third point of the base. This zone extends to a depth where the resultant in the reservoir
empty condition reaches the inner middle third point of the base.
Zone IV: in this zone both the upstream and downstream faces are inclined so that the
resultant both in the reservoir full and empty conditions lies at the middle third point.
The zone extends to a point where maximum permissible compressive stress is reached at
the toe of the dam.
Zone V: the slope of the downstream face is further increased to keep the stresses within
permissible limits. Resultant in the reservoir full condition is kept within the middle third
section. The resultant in the reservoir empty condition follows the upper middle third
section. This zone extends t a depth where the stress at the heel of the section reaches the
permissible limits in the reservoir empty case.
Zone VI: the slope of the upstream face is rapidly increased so as to keep the stress at
the heel with in the permissible limits in the reservoir empty condition. The resultants in
both conditions lie within the middle third section. This zone extends to a point where
the slope of the downstream face reaches 1:1. This normally happens when the dam is 80
to 90 meters high.
Zone VII: it is better to avoid this zone. If one reaches this zone during design, it is better to
start again with a fresh design with increased crest with and/or better quality concrete.
Zoning of overflow dams (Spillways)

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 24
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Zone I: the resultant in the reservoir full condition is outside the middle third point both
horizontal and vertical forces are existing. End of zone I is at a depth where resultant
intersects downstream middle third point. Upstream face needs reinforcement to take
tension.
Zone Ia: this is the zone below zone1. The end of zone ‘Ia’ is established by the plane
where only friction is Construction of Concrete dams.
3.1.11. Construction of Concrete dams
Before the actual construction of a dam, the water from the river channel must be temporarily
diverted.
The diversion of water can be achieved either of the following two methods:
I. Provision of diversion tunnel: if the geological and topographic conditions are
suitable, a diversion tunnel (or channel) can be constructed to bypass the flow to
downward. The area for the construction site should be closed by u/s and d/s
coffer dams depending the site condition.

Figure ‐13: Diversion tunnel/channel

II. By constructing the dam in two stages: in this case, the flow is confined to one
side of the channel by constructing a semi‐circular type of coffer dam. The
construction can be done within water free area. This method is suitable for
concrete dam types as it tolerates overflowing.

1st stage diversion 2nd stage diversion

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 25
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure ‐14: Two stage construction

Construction of Joints
As a gravity dam is a huge structure, it is essential to provide suitable joints at appropriate
places.
Depending up on the location and the purpose served, the joints are classified as:
1. Construction joints: are provided for ease in construction of the dam. It is usual
practice to place the concrete in the dam in lifts so as to avoid excessive heat of
hydration of cement.
2. Contraction joints: are provided to relief the thermal stresses in the concrete
and to prevent the development of horizontal and vertical cracks in the body of
the dam. It can be provided in to traversal and longitudinal joints. Traverse joints
are provided normal to the axis of the dam and are vertical, extended from the
foundation to the top of the dam. Longitudinal joints are provided parallel to the
axis of the dam to prevent vertical cracks. If the dam is high, the width of the
dam section is quite large and there may be vertical cracks.
Construction of galleries
Galleries are horizontal or sloping openings left in the body of the dam. It is a small
passage in a dam for providing an access to the interior of the dam, and is rectangular in
shape with flat or semi‐circular at the top. It should be sufficiently large to serve the
required purpose.
Galleries may serve to one or more of the following purposes:
I. As drainage gallery, to permit drainage water percolating from the upstream of the
dam in to the body of the dam or its foundations;
II. For providing space for equipment required for drilling holes and grouting the holes
to form a grout curtain in the foundation;
III. Access to the interior of the dam for inspection and maintenance; iv. To provide
space for installing various instruments in the dam to study its structural behavior;
IV. To provide space for electrical and mechanical equipment for the operation of gates
for outlet conduits, penstocks or spillways;
V. To provide space through the dam for control cable and power cables; and vii. To
provide space for the visitors.
3.1.12. Temperature control in dams
When cement concrete sets, a large amount of heat is liberated. This heat raises the
temperature within the body of the dam, whereas the outside temperature remains
atmospheric. This results in the development of the temperature stress in the dam. When
the concrete cools down, it shrinks and the shrinkage stresses are developed. Due to this,
cracks may develop. The following measures are usually adopted to control the
temperature in the dam:

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 26
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

1. Pre‐cooling: the ingredients are cooled before mixing with water and even
cold water also used for mixing.
2. Post‐cooling: the concrete mixture will be cooled after it has been placed in
position. It is usually done by circulating cold water through pipes already
embedded in the concrete.

3.2. Buttress dams

A buttress dam consists of a slopping u/s membrane which transmits the water load to a series of
buttress at right angle to the axis of the dam. The principal structural elements of a buttress dam
are the water supporting u/s deck and the buttresses that in turn support the deck. The buttresses
are carefully spaced, triangular walls proportional to transmit the water load and the weight of
the structure to the foundation. Buttress dams are adaptable to both overflow and non‐overflow
conditions. In overflow dams a downstream deck is provided to guide the flowing stream.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 27
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2. 3.6: Typical section and plan view of a buttress dam

Relative to gravity dam, buttress dam has the advantages of saving in concrete, major reduction
in uplift and also offers greater ability to accommodate foundation deformation without damage.
However, the advantages offset by considerably higher finished unit costs as a result of more
extensive & non repetitive formwork required. It also requires more competent foundation
because of stress concentration.
Advantages of buttress dams
1. less concrete used compared to a gravity dam of the same height,
Increased surface area to volume ratio
Better heat dissipation
Increased speed of construction
2. More safety against overturning and sliding because of the larger vertical component of
hydrostatic force exerted on the dam (highly inclined u/s face)
3. More equal distribution of stresses of foundation.
4. Less massive than gravity dam hence may be used on weak foundation not suitable for
gravity dam
5. Decreased uplift pressure ( if no spread footing, joining the buttresses is used)
Disadvantages of Buttress dam
1. needs reinforcement and expensive shuttering
2. needs more skilled labor
3. slabs and columns are highly stressed
Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE
Students 28
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

4. danger of deterioration of concrete of the u/s deck

5. more susceptible to damage by sabotage
Forces on buttress dams
Essentially buttress dams are subjected to the same as gravity dams. Uplift forces may be
insignificant as in the case of arch dams. Wind force on buttress faces may be considerable when
high velocity winds blow diagonally from the downstream side, hence struts (beams) are usually
provided.
Design Principle for Buttress Dams
The stability analysis for buttresses is done in a similar fashion as is done for a gravity dam.
However, the design element is not taken to be a slice of unit thickness as in gravity dams, but
the full panel is considered. In addition to satisfying the stability criteria the buttresses are
designed to conform to the design rules for structural concrete members.
The buttress width is determined by considering the buttress to be a vertical cantilever beam. The
width has to e sufficient to avoid tension at the upstream face when fully loaded and also to avoid
excessive compression at the downstream face. In order to determine the thickness of the buttress
required to prevent buckling they are considered to be bearing walls instead of beams. The
minimum allowable thickness is same as that for columns. The unsupported length is generally
reduced by providing struts at intermediate points.
Simple slab (Ambersen type) buttress dams
The slab is simply supported and the joint between the slab and buttresses is filled with asphalt
putty or any flexible compound.
The slab is designed by assuming that it consists of a series of parallel beams acting
independently of one another and simply supported on the buttresses.

Spacing of the buttress is governed by:

i. length of the dam
ii. pressure of spread footing or a continuous floor slap
iii. presence of spillway over the dam

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 29
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

iv. slope of the upstream water supporting

membrane(slab)
v. Unusual foundation or side hill condition.
For high dams greater spacing may be economical. Wider spacing may entail increased thickness
and reinforcement of slabs. The spacing that will give the most economical balance of concrete
steel and formwork area is determined by the total cost of the items.
Mean height Economical buttress spacing (distance b/n
CL)
15 to 30 4.5 to 6.0
30 to 45 9.0 to 12.0
Above 45 12.0 to 12

The buttress is designed as a system of columns each carrying the load by column action to the
foundation. These columns are proportioned to develop a uniform compressive stress and curved
to avoid any serious eccentricity on any horizontal or normal plane when the water and concrete
loads are resolved.
3.3. Arch Dams
Arch dam is a concrete dam with a considerable upstream curvature, structurally resisting the
imposed forces by arch and cantilever action. Arch dam transmits the major portion of the water
load to the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley, hence, large horizontal
reactions are required by the abutments.
Arch dams are restricted to relatively narrow valley sections with strong abutments. Arch dams
are structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume of
concrete required.
The arch dam offer great economies in volume of concrete. In the case of a slender double
curvature, the saving in volume may exceed 80% of that necessary for an equivalent gravity
profile. Associated savings may also be realized in foundation excavation and preparation.
3.3.1. Type of Arch dams
Arch dams may be classified in to the following types:
Single‐curvature arch dams
Double–curvature arch dams

Single Curvature arch dams

Constant radius profile
The constant‐radius profile has the simplest geometry, combining a vertical upstream face of
constant radius with a uniform radial downstream slope. The downstream face radius therefore
varies with elevation. The profile is shown schematically in Figure below, and it is apparent that
the central angle, 2θ, reaches a maximum at crest level. A constant‐radius profile is not the most
Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE
Students 30
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

economical in volume, but has the merit of analytical and constructional simplicity. The profile is
suited to relatively symmetrical U‐shaped valleys.

Figure 2‐3.1: Constant radius arch dam

A. Constant angle profile
It is a special type of variable radius arch dam in which the central angle of the arch rings at
various elevations is constant, but the radii do vary. The central of the arch rings at all elevations
from top of the dam to its base has the same magnitude. The profile is best suited to narrow and
relatively symmetrical steep‐sided V‐shaped valleys.

Figure 2.3.2: Constant angle arch dam

Double curvature arch dams (Cupola profile)
It has a curvature in the horizontal as well as vertical planes (curved both in plan and in
elevation). It has smaller thickness as compared to other types and hence is more economical.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 31
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Figure 2.3.3: double curvature arch dam

Forces
The forces acting on arch dam are the same as that of gravity dams. Uplift forces are less
important (not significant) as the base width is very small. Internal stresses caused by
temperature changes and yielding of abutments are very important. Foundation stresses are
generally small.
3.3.2. Methods for design of Arch dams
The following methods are commonly used for the design and analysis of arch dams
 Thin cylinder theory;
 Thick cylinder theory;
 Elastic arch theory;
 Trial load analysis;
 Shell theory; and
 Finite element method
Here only thin cylinder theory and thick cylinder theory design methods are discussed.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 32
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Thin cylinder theory

It is assumed that the horizontal section of the arch dam is a part of thin cylinder of the same
radius. The pressure acting on the arch ring is equal to hydrostatic pressure at the corresponding
elevation. It is again assumed that the entire water load is carried by the arch action and the
cantilever action is absent. As the cylinder is thin, there is no variation of stress across the
thickness of the cylinder.
The ring shown in figure below is subjected to hydrostatic pressure (P). If the arch ring is at a
depth (h) below the water surface in the reservoir, the intensity of pressure P is equal to γH
where, γ is unit weight of water. The total pressure (Ph) acting on the entire arch ring per unit
height = Intensity of pressure * Projected area normal to the direction of Ph.
PH = P*(2*re *sinθ/2); PH = γw *h*(2*re *sinθ/2) ⇒ PH = 2*γw *h*re *sinθ/2
The pressure force Ph acts in the d/s direction along the axis of symmetry of the arch ring and
resisted by the reactions at the abutments. If R is the reaction at each abutment, its component in
the u/s direction which resist Ph is equal to R*sinθ/2.

Figure 2.3.4: Arch dam section

From equilibrium in u/s direction: 2*γw *h*re *sinθ/2 = R*sinθ/ 2 ⇒ R =γw *h*re
The arch is subjected to a constant trust of R. If ‘f’ is the compressive stress developed in the
arch ring, f = R/ (t*1). Substituting for the value of R;

For safe design of the arch ring, the compressive stress (f) should not exceed the allowable stress
(fa) in compression for the material of the arch ring. Thus;

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 33
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

As an arch dam is never a complete cylinder, the stresses and dimensions computed by the thin
cylinder theory is quite approximate.
Most Economical Central angle of an Arch dam
The thin cylinder theory can be used to compute the most economical central angle of an arch
dam for which angle; the volume of concrete required is minimum.

For the figure shown above, the volume of concrete per unit height is given by:
V = re *θ*(T *1)
Where: θ = the angle in radians
T = thickness of the arch ring
re = radius of the extrados ring

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 34
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

For minimum volume of concrete: dv/dθ=0, hence θ= 1330 34’

For most economical angle: Le = 2*re *sin(133034' / 2) and re=0.544*Le
In actual arch dam design, the central angle is usually in the range of 1000 to 1400.
Example‐1: Design a constant radius arch dam for a valley 50m wide at the base and 80m wide
at the height of 50m from the base. Take the height of the dam as 50m, Allowable stress in
concrete 5MPa, and unit weight of water 10KN/m 3 and assume 1.5m thickness at the top and
central angle 1400.

Solution: the minimum volume of concrete for the whole arch dam with a constant radius is
obtained by keeping the angle θ at the top quite large so that the best average angle is obtained
for the entire dam.
The intrados radius (ri) at the top is given by: ri*sin (140 0/2) =80/2 = 40m → ri = 42.57m, say
42.50m
The extrados radius (re) = 42.5+1.5 = 44.00m. The extrados radius of all arches will be kept as
44m. The calculations for the thickness at various elevations are given in table below.
Depth of arch Pressure P =
from water surface Span γw*h
(h) (Li) Radius (KN/m2) Thickness t =
(m) (m) (re) (m) P*re/fa (m) ri (m)
0 80 44 0 0 (1.5m nominal) 42.5
0.88 (1.5m
10 74 44 100 nominal) 42.5
20 68 44 200 1.76 42.24
30 62 44 300 2.64 41.36
40 56 44 400 3.52 40.48
50 50 44 500 4.4 39.6

Exercise 1: ‐ Design a 100m high constant angle arch dam by thin cylinder theory for a valley
40m wide at the base and 240m wide at a height of 100m. Take fa = 5MPa and θ = 133044’

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 35
Gambella University Dam Engineering I 2020/
21

Exercise 2: Design a 50m high constant angle arch dam by thin cylinder theory for a valley 30m
wide at the base and 150m wide at a height of 50m. Take fa = 5MPa and unit weight of water
10KN/m3 and assume the central angle 133 0 34’ and minimum thickness of 1.50m is provided at
the top of the dam.
Thick cylinder theory
The figure below shows thick arch subjected to an external pressure, P e. The radial and
circumferential

Figure 2.3.5 Thick Arch dam

Exercise 3: For the example ‐1 above, determine the thickness of the dam by thick cylinder
theory.

Prepared By: Gebrehiwet H. (MSc.) G 3 WRIE

Students 36