EP1128- Basic Electrical Circuits

Mayukh Pahari
Department of Physics
Reference books

+ class notes and lec slides

Timetable
Location of CoreLab
Basic Electric Circuits & Components
Introduction
SI Units and Common Prefixes
Electrical Circuits
Direct Currents and Alternating Currents
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws
Power Dissipation in Resistors
Resistors in Series and Parallel
Resistive Potential Dividers
Sinusoidal Quantities
Circuit Symbols
Introduction

This lecture outlines the basics of Electrical Circuits

For most students much of this will be familiar
– this lecture can be seen as a revision session for
this material
If there are any topics that you are unsure of (or that
are new to you) you should get to grips with this
material before the next lecture
– the following lectures will assume a basic
understanding of these topics
We will return to look at several of these topics in
more detail in later lectures
SI Units

Quantity Quantity symbol Unit Unit symbol

Capacitance C Farad F
Charge Q Coulomb C
Current I Ampere A
Electromotive force E Volt V
Frequency f Hertz Hz
Inductance (self) L Henry H
Period T Second s
Potential difference V Volt V
Power P Watt W
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Temperature T Kelvin K
Time t Second s
Common Prefixes

Prefix Name Meaning (multiply by)

T tera 1012
G giga 109
M mega 106
k kilo 103
m milli 10-3
μ micro 10-6
n nano 10-9
p pico 10-12
Circuit Symbols
Electrical Circuits

Electric charge
– an amount of electrical energy
– can be positive or negative
Electric current
– a flow of electrical charge, often a flow of electrons
– conventional current is in the opposite direction to a
flow of electrons
Current flow in a circuit
– a sustained current needs a complete circuit
– also requires a stimulus to cause the charge to flow
E. M. F.

Electromotive force and potential difference

– the stimulus that causes a current to flow is an e.m.f.
– this represents the energy introduced into the circuit by
a battery or generator
– this results in an electric potential at each point in the
circuit
– between any two points in the circuit there may exist a
potential difference
– both e.m.f. and potential difference are measured in
volts
A simple circuit

A water-based
analogy
Voltage reference points
– all potentials within a circuit must be measured with
respect to some other point
– we often measure voltages with respect to a zero volt
reference called the ground or earth
Direct Current and Alternating Current

Currents in electrical circuits may be constant or may

vary with time
When currents vary with time they may be
unidirectional or alternating
When the current flowing in a conductor always flows
in the same direction this is direct current (DC)
When the direction of the current periodically
changes this is alternating current (AC)
Alternating current
is commonly used
everyday in homes
and businesses
throughout the
word to power
various electrical
appliances
 Voltage in AC Circuits

The voltage supplied by an AC source is sinusoidal with a period T

Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors

Resistors provide resistance

– they oppose the flow of electricity
– measured in Ohms (Ω)
Capacitors provide capacitance
– they store energy in an electric field
– measured in Farads (F)
Inductors provide inductance
– they store energy in a magnetic field
– measured in Henry (H)
We will look at each component in later lectures
Kirchhoff’s Laws

Node
– a point in a circuit where two or more circuit components are joined
Loop
– any closed path that passes through no node more than once
Mesh
– a loop that contains no other loop

Examples:
– A, B, C, D, E and F are nodes
– the paths ABEFA, BCDEB
and ABCDEFA are loops
– ABEFA and BCDEB are meshes
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents

flowing into any junction in a circuit is zero
For example

I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
I2 = I1 – I3
= 10 – 3
=7A
Current Law
At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the currents
flowing into any node in a circuit is zero
– if currents flowing into the node are positive, currents
flowing out of the node are negative, then
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the voltages

around any loop in a circuit is zero
For example

E – V1 – V2 = 0
V1 = E – V2
= 12 – 7
= 5V
Voltage Law
At any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any loop in a circuit is zero
– if clockwise voltage arrows are positive and
anticlockwise arrows are negative then
Kirchhoff’s Rules
No, it is pronounced “KEERKOFF’s” rules. The ch sounds like
“k,” not like “ch.” (depending on regional accents)
Analyze this circuit for me, please. Find the currents I1, I2, and
I 3.

30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1 W
g f e
I see two sets of resistors in series. This. And this.
You know how to analyze those.
Further analysis is difficult. For example, series1 seems to be in
parallel with the 30 W resistor, but what about e2? We haven’t
discussed how to analyze that combination.

30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c
series1
20 W
I2 series2
e1 = 85 V 1 W
g f e
A new technique is needed to analyze this, and far more
complex circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule: at any junction point, the sum of all

currents entering the junction must equal the sum of all
currents leaving the junction. Also called Kirchhoff’s First Rule.*

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule: the sum of the changes of potential

around any closed path of a circuit must be zero. Also called
Kirchhoff’s Second Rule.**

*This is just conservation of charge: charge in = charge out.

**This is just conservation of energy: a charge ending up

where it started out neither gains nor loses energy (Ei = Ef ).
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Starting Equations

åI = 0 at any junction

åV=0 around any closed loop

simple… but there are details to worry about…

Brief litany for Kirchhoff’s Rules Problems
1. Draw the circuit.
2. Label + and – for each battery.
3. Label the current in each branch of the circuit with a
symbol and an arrow (OK to guess direction).
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule at each junction.
Current in is +.
5. Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule for as many loops as
necessary. Follow each loop in one direction only.
+
5a. Resistor: I 5b. Battery: V is +
V is - -
loop
loop
6. Solve.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a dd
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

Back to our circuit: we have 3 unknowns (I1, I2, and I3), so we

will need 3 equations. We begin with the junctions.
Junction a: I3 – I1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1
Junction d: -I3 + I1 + I2 = 0
Junction d gave no new information, so we still need two more equations.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

There are three loops. Loop 1. Loop 2. Loop 3.

Any two loops will produce independent equations. Using the

third loop will provide no new information.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

The “green” loop (a-h-d-c-b-a):

(- 30 I1) + (+45) + (-1 I3) + (- 40 I3) = 0

I +-
V is - V is +
loop loop
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

The “blue” loop (a-b-c-d-e-f-g):

(+ 40 I3) + ( +1 I3) + (-45) + (+20 I2) + (+1 I2) + (-85) = 0

I +-
V is - V is +
loop loop
After combining terms and simplifying, we now have three
equations, three unknowns; the rest is “just algebra.”

Junction a: I3 – I1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1

The “green” loop - 30 I1 + 45 - 41 I3 = 0 --eq. 2

The “blue” loop 41 I3 -130 + 21 I2 = 0 --eq. 3

Make sure to use voltages in V and resistances in W. Then currents will be in A.

Resistors in AC Circuits
Inductors in an AC Circuit

Instantaneous current and voltage are out of phase by π/2

ωL is defined as inductive reactance XL

Capacitors in an AC Circuit

Instantaneous current and voltage are out of phase by π/2

(1/ωC) is defined as capacitive reactance

XC
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents

flowing into any junction in a circuit is zero
For example

I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
I2 = I1 – I3
= 10 – 3
=7A
Current Law
At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the currents
flowing into any node in a circuit is zero
– if currents flowing into the node are positive, currents
flowing out of the node are negative, then
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

At any instant the algebraic sum of the voltages

around any loop in a circuit is zero
For example

E – V1 – V2 = 0
V1 = E – V2
= 12 – 7
= 5V
Voltage Law
At any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages
around any loop in a circuit is zero
– if clockwise voltage arrows are positive and
anticlockwise arrows are negative then
Kirchhoff’s Rules
No, it is pronounced “KEERKOFF’s” rules. The ch sounds like
“k,” not like “ch.” (depending on regional accents)
Analyze this circuit for me, please. Find the currents I1, I2, and
I 3.

30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1 W
g f e
I see two sets of resistors in series. This. And this.
You know how to analyze those.
Further analysis is difficult. For example, series1 seems to be in
parallel with the 30 W resistor, but what about e2? We haven’t
discussed how to analyze that combination.

30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c
series1
20 W
I2 series2
e1 = 85 V 1 W
g f e
A new technique is needed to analyze this, and far more
complex circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule: at any junction point, the sum of all

currents entering the junction must equal the sum of all
currents leaving the junction. Also called Kirchhoff’s First Rule.*

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule: the sum of the changes of potential

around any closed path of a circuit must be zero. Also called
Kirchhoff’s Second Rule.**

*This is just conservation of charge: charge in = charge out.

**This is just conservation of energy: a charge ending up

where it started out neither gains nor loses energy (Ei = Ef ).
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Starting Equations

åI = 0 at any junction

åV=0 around any closed loop

simple… but there are details to worry about…

Brief litany for Kirchhoff’s Rules Problems
1. Draw the circuit.
2. Label + and – for each battery.
3. Label the current in each branch of the circuit with a
symbol and an arrow (OK to guess direction).
4. Apply Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule at each junction.
Current in is +.
5. Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule for as many loops as
necessary. Follow each loop in one direction only.
+
5a. Resistor: I 5b. Battery: V is +
V is - -
loop
loop
6. Solve.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a dd
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

Back to our circuit: we have 3 unknowns (I1, I2, and I3), so we

will need 3 equations. We begin with the junctions.
Junction a: I3 – I1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1
Junction d: -I3 + I1 + I2 = 0
Junction d gave no new information, so we still need two more equations.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

There are three loops. Loop 1. Loop 2. Loop 3.

Any two loops will produce independent equations. Using the

third loop will provide no new information.
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

The “green” loop (a-h-d-c-b-a):

(- 30 I1) + (+45) + (-1 I3) + (- 40 I3) = 0

I +-
V is - V is +
loop loop
 30 W h
I1
40 W I3 1W e2 = 45 V
a d
b c

20 W
I2
e1 = 85 V 1W
g f e

The “blue” loop (a-b-c-d-e-f-g):

(+ 40 I3) + ( +1 I3) + (-45) + (+20 I2) + (+1 I2) + (-85) = 0

I +-
V is - V is +
loop loop
After combining terms and simplifying, we now have three
equations, three unknowns; the rest is “just algebra.”

Junction a: I3 – I1 – I2 = 0 --eq. 1

The “green” loop - 30 I1 + 45 - 41 I3 = 0 --eq. 2

The “blue” loop 41 I3 -130 + 21 I2 = 0 --eq. 3

Make sure to use voltages in V and resistances in W. Then currents will be in A.

Resistors in AC Circuits
Inductors in an AC Circuit

Instantaneous current and voltage are out of phase by π/2

ωL is defined as inductive reactance XL

Capacitors in an AC Circuit

Instantaneous current and voltage are out of phase by π/2

(1/ωC) is defined as capacitive reactance

XC
What is Ohm’s Law?
What is Ohm’s Law?

▪ The current flowing in a conductor is directly

proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to its resistance R

I = V/R

V = IR

R = V/I
Electric Current

▪ Current (I): the rate at which charge flows through a

surface
– Unit of current is ampere= A
▪ If ΔQ is the amount of charge that passes though
the surface in time (Δt) the average current Iavg=
ΔQ/ΔI
▪ Electric Current I= dQ/dt
– 1A= 1C/s
Resistance
▪ Current density (J) units of ampere/meter2
– J=I/A
– I= nqVdA then J= nqVd
– This above equation is ONLY VALID if current density
is UNIFORM and only if the cross-sectional area A is
PERPENDICULAR to the direction of the current
Resistance
▪ Ohm’s Law
– For many materials, the ratio of the current density to
the electric field is a constant σ that is independent of
the electric field producing the current
– J=σE
▪ Further derivations show that R=L/σA which is called
resistance
Resistance
▪ Resistance (R) unit is ohm (Ω)
– R= ΔV/I
▪ 1Ω= 1V/A
▪ circuits use elements called resistors to control the
current in the circuit at different places:
▪ Two types are:
– Composition resistor
– Wire-wound resistor
Resistance
▪ Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity
▪ ρ=1/σ
– Unity is Ohm• meters (Ω•m)

▪ Resistance of a uniform material of length(L)

– R= ρ x L/A
▪ If the length of wire is doubled, its resistance doubles
▪ If its area is doubled, its resistance decreases by ½
Resistance and Temperature
▪ Variation of Resistance with temperature
ρ=ρo[1+α(T-To)]
– ρ=resistivity at some temp. T (°C)
– α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity
▪ Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
– α= (1/ρo)x(Δρ/ΔT)
▪ Δρ= ρ - ρo
Superconductors
▪ Class of metals and
compounds whose
resistance decreases to
zero when they are
below a certain temp.
(Tc)
Superconductors
▪ Class of metals and
compounds whose
resistance decreases to
zero when they are
below a certain temp.
(Tc)
Power Dissipation in Resistors

▪ The instantaneous power dissipation P of a resistor is

given by the product of the voltage across it and the
current passing through it. Combining this result with
Ohm’s law gives:

P = VI

P = I2R

P = V2/R
Resistors in Series
▪ Series

R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in Parallel

IT= I1 + I2 + I3 VT = V1 = V2 = V3
LC and RLC Circuits

PHY2049: Chapter 31 15
 Topics
èLC Oscillations
u Conservation of energy
èDamped oscillations in RLC circuits
u Energy loss
èAC current
u RMS quantities
èForced oscillations
u Resistance, reactance, impedance
u Phase shift
u Resonant frequency
u Power

èTransformers
u Impedance matching
 LC Oscillations
èWork out equation for LC circuit (loop rule)
-q - L di = 0 C L
C dt

èRewrite using i = dq/dt

d 2q q d 2q 1
L + =0 Þ + w 2q = 0 w=
dt 2 C dt2 LC
uw (angular frequency) has dimensions of 1/t

èIdentical to equation of mass on spring

d 2x d 2x k
m + kx = 0 Þ 2
+w x = 0 w=
dt 2 dt 2 m
 LC Oscillations (2)
èSolution is same as mass on spring Þ oscillations
k
q = qmax cos (wt + q ) w=
m
u qmax is the maximum charge on capacitor
u q is an unknown phase (depends on initial conditions)

èCalculate current: i = dq/dt

i = -w qmax sin (wt + q ) = -imax sin (wt + q )

èThus both charge and current oscillate

u Angular frequency w, frequency f = w/2p
u Period: T = 2p/w
Plot Charge and Current vs t
w = 1 T = 2p
q (t )

i (t )
 Energy Oscillations
èTotal
energy in circuit is conserved. Let’s see why
di q
L + =0 Equation of LC circuit
dt C

L di i + q dq = 0 Multiply by i = dq/dt
dt C dt

2 dt
() 2C dt
( )
L d i 2 + 1 d q2 = 0
Use
dx2 = dx
2x
dt dt

d æ 1 2 1 q2 ö 2 1 q2
ç 2 Li + 2 ÷÷ = 0
1
2 Li + 2 = const
ç
dt è C C
ø
UL + UC = const
 Oscillation of Energies
èEnergies can be written as (using w2 = 1/LC)
q2 q2
UC = = max cos 2 wt + q( )
2C 2C
2
qmax
U L = 12 Li 2 = 12 Lw 2 qmax
2
sin 2 (wt + q ) = sin 2 (wt + q )
2C
2
qmax
èConservation of energy: UC +U L = = const
2C

èEnergy oscillates between capacitor and inductor

u Endless oscillation between electrical and magnetic energy
u Just like oscillation between potential energy and kinetic energy
for mass on spring
 Plot Energies vs t
U C (t ) U L (t ) Sum
 LC Circuit Example
èParameters
uC = 20µF
u L = 200 mH
u Capacitor initially charged to 40V, no current initially

èCalculate w, f and T
uw = 500 rad/s w = 1/ LC = 1/ (2 ´10-5 )(0.2 ) = 500
u f = w/2p = 79.6 Hz
u T = 1/f = 0.0126 sec

èCalculate qmax and imax

u qmax = CV = 800 µC = 8 ´ 10-4 C
u imax = wqmax = 500 ´ 8 ´ 10-4 = 0.4 A

èCalculate maximum energies

u UC = q2 /2C = 0.016J UL = Li2 /2 = 0.016J
max max
 LC Circuit Example (2)
èCharge and current
q = 0.0008cos (500t ) i = -0.4sin (500t )
èEnergies

U C = 0.016cos 2 (500t ) U L = 0.016sin 2 (500t )

èVoltages

VC = q / C = 40cos (500t )
VL = Ldi / dt = -Lwimax cos (500t ) = -40cos (500t )
èNote how voltages sum to zero, as they must!
 RLC Circuit
èWork out equation using loop rule
di q
L + Ri + = 0
dt C
èRewrite using i = dq/dt
d 2q + R dq + q
=0
dt 2 L dt LC
èSolution slightly more complicated than LC case

q = qmax e-tR / 2L cos (w ¢t + q ) w ¢ = 1/ LC - (R / 2L )2

èThis is a damped oscillator (similar to mechanical case)

u Amplitude of oscillations falls exponentially
Charge and Current vs t in RLC Circuit

q (t )
i (t ) e-tR / 2L
 RLC Circuit Example
èCircuit parameters
uL = 12mL, C = 1.6µF, R = 1.5W

èCalculate w, w’, f and T

uw = 7220 rad/s
w = 1/ (0.012 )(1.6 ´10-6 )= 7220
u w’ = 7220 rad/s w¢ = 72202 - (1.5 / 0.024 )2 ≃w
u f = w/2p = 1150 Hz
u T = 1/f = 0.00087 sec

èTime for qmax to fall to ½ its initial value e-tR / 2L = 1/ 2

ut = (2L/R) * ln2 = 0.0111s = 11.1 ms
u # periods = 0.0111/.00087 » 13
 RLC Circuit (Energy)
di q
L + Ri + =0 Basic RLC equation
dt C

di q dq
L i + Ri2 + =0 Multiply by i = dq/dt
dt C dt

d æ 1 2 1 q2 ö 2
Collect terms
Li + = -i R (similar to LC circuit)
dt ç 2 2 C ÷
è ø

d Total energy in circuit

(U L +U C ) = -i 2 R decreases at rate of i2R
dt
(dissipation of energy)
U tot ∼e -tR / L
 Energy in RLC Circuit
U C (t )
U L (t )
Sum

e-tR / L
 Quiz
èBelow are shown 3 LC circuits. Which one takes the least
time to fully discharge the capacitors during the
oscillations?
u (1) A
u (2) B
u (3) C

C
C C C
C

A B C

C has smallest capacitance, therefore highest

w = 1/ LC frequency, therefore shortest period
 AC Circuits
èEnormous impact of AC circuits
u Power delivery
u Radio transmitters and receivers
u Tuners
u Filters
u Transformers

èBasic components
uR
uL
uC
u Driving emf
èNow we will study the basic principles
 AC Circuits and Forced Oscillations
èRLC + “driving” EMF with angular frequency wd
e = e m sin wd t
di q
L + Ri + = e m sinw d t
dt C
èGeneral solution for current is sum of two terms

“Transient”: Falls “Steady state”:

exponentially & disappears Constant amplitude

Ignore

i ∼e-tR / 2L cos w ¢t
 Steady State Solution
èAssume steady state solution of form i = I m sin (wd t - f )
u Im is current amplitude
u f is phase by which current “lags” the driving EMF
u Must determine Im and f

èPlug in solution: differentiate & integrate sin(wt-f)

i = I m sin (wd t - f )
di Substitute di q
= wd I m cos (wd t - f ) L + Ri + = e m sinwt
dt dt C
Im
q=- cos (wd t - f )
wd
Im
I mwd Lcos (wdt - f ) + I m Rsin (wd t - f ) - cos (wd t - f ) = e m sin wd t
wd C
 Steady State Solution for AC Current (2)
Im
I mwd Lcos (wdt - f ) + I m Rsin (wd t - f ) - cos (wd t - f ) = e m sin wd t
wd C
èExpand sin & cos expressions
sin (wd t - f ) = sin wd t cos f - cos wd t sin f
High school trig!
cos (wd t - f ) = cos wd t cos f + sin wd t sin f

èCollect sinwdt & coswdt terms separately

(wd L -1/ wd C )cos f - R sin f = 0 coswdt terms

I m (wd L -1/ wd C )sin f + I m R cos f = e m sinwdt terms

èThese equations can be solved for Im and f (next slide)

 Steady State Solution for AC Current (3)
(wd L -1/ wd C )cos f - R sin f = 0 Same equations
I m (wd L -1/ wd C )sin f + I m R cos f = e m
èSolve for f and Im in terms of
tan f = wd L -1/ wd C º X L - X C
Im = em
R R Z
èR, XL, XC and Z have dimensions of resistance

X L = wd L Inductive “reactance”

X C = 1/ wd C Capacitive “reactance”

Z = R 2 + ( X L - X C )2 Total “impedance”

èLet’s try to understand this solution using “phasors”

 Understanding AC Circuits Using Phasors
èPhasor
u Voltage or current represented by “phasor”
u Phasor rotates counterclockwise with angular velocity = wd
u Length of phasor is amplitude of voltage (V) or current (I)
u y component is instantaneous value of voltage (v) or current (i)

em
e Im
e = e m sin wd t i wdt - f
i = I m sin (wd t - f )
Current “lags” voltage by f
 AC Source and Resistor Only
i
èVoltage is v R = iR = VR sin wd t

e ~ R
èRelation of current and voltage
i = I R sin wd t I R = VR / R
u Current is in phase with voltage (f = 0)

IR
VR
wdt
 AC Source and Inductor Only
èVoltage is vL = Ldi / dt = VL sin wd t
i
èIntegrate di/dt to find current:
di / dt = (VL / L )sin wd t e ~ L
i = -(VL /wd L)coswdt
èRewrite using phase
i = (VL / wd L )sin (wd t - 90° )
èRelation of current and voltage
IL
i = I L sin (wd t - 90° ) I L = VL / X L wdt
VL wdt - 90
è “Inductive reactance”: X L = wd L
u Current “lags” voltage by 90°
 What is Reactance?
Think of it as a frequency-dependent resistance

ωd ® 0, XC ® ¥
1 - Capacitor looks like a break
XC =
wd C ωd ® ¥, XC ® 0
- Capacitor looks like a wire (“short”)

ωd ® 0, XL ® 0
X L = wd L - Inductor looks like a wire (“short”)
ωd ® ¥, XL ® ¥
- Inductor looks like a break

( "XR " = R ) Independent of ωd

 Quiz
èThree identical EMF sources are hooked to a single circuit
element, a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. The
current amplitude is then measured as a function of
frequency. Which one of the following curves corresponds
to an inductive circuit?
u (1) a
u (2) b a
u (3) c b
u (4) Can’t tell without more info Im
c

fd
For inductor, higher frequency gives higher
X L = wd L reactance, therefore lower current
 AC Source and RLC Circuit
Im
èVoltage is e = e m sin wd t

èRelation of current and voltage

i = I m sin (wd t - f )
“lags” voltage by f
u Current
u Impedance: Due to R, XC and XL

èCalculate Im and f using geometry em V

u See next slide VL R
wdt - f

VC
 AC Source and RLC Circuit (2)
èRight triangle with sides VR, VL-VC and em
tanf = L C
V -V VR = I m R em
VR VL = I m X L f
e m2 = VR2 + (VL -VC )2 V =I X
VL-VC VR
C m C

èSolve for current: i = I m sin (wd t - f )

u (Magnitude = Im, lags emf by phase f)

Im = em / Z
tan f = X L - X C = wd L -1/ wd C
R R
Z = R 2 + ( X L - X C )2 = R 2 + (wd L -1/ wd C )2
 AC Source and RLC Circuit (3)
X L - XC
Z = R2 + ( X L - X C )
2
tanf =
R

èOnly XL - XC is relevant, reactances cancel each other

èWhen XL = XC, then f = 0
u Currentin phase with emf, “Resonant circuit”:wd = w0 = 1/ LC
u Z = R (minimum impedance, maximum current)

èWhen XL < XC, then f < 0

u Current leads emf, “Capacitive circuit”: wd < w0
èWhen XL > XC, then f > 0
u Current lags emf, “Inductive circuit”: wd > w0
 General Solution for RLC Circuit
èSolve for f and Im

tanϕ = ω L -1/ ω C º X L - XC ε
Im = m
R R Z

èR, XL, XC and Z have dimensions of resistance

XL = ωL Inductive “reactance”

X C = 1/ ωC Capacitive “reactance”

Z = R2 + ( X L - X C )2 Total “impedance”

èThis is where f, XL, XC and Z come from!

 AC Source and RLC Circuits
ε
Im = m Maximum current
Z
X - XC
tanϕ = L Phase angle
R

XL = ωL (ω= 2πf ) Inductive reactance

X C = 1/ ωC Capacitive reactance

Z = R2 + ( X L - X C )2 Total impedance

f= angle that current “lags” applied voltage

 What is Reactance?
Think of it as a frequency-dependent resistance

1
XC = Shrinks with increasing ω
ωC

XL = ωL Grows with increasing ω

(" X R " = R ) Independent of ω

Pictorial Understanding of Reactance

Z = R2 + ( X L - X C )2

X L - XC
tanϕ =
R

R
cosϕ=
Z
Summary of Circuit Elements, Impedance, Phase Angles
X L - XC
tanϕ =
Z = R2 + ( X L - X C ) 2
R

PHY2054: Chapter 21 12
 Quiz
èThree identical EMF sources are hooked to a single circuit
element, a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. The
current amplitude is then measured as a function of
frequency. Which one of the following curves corresponds
to an inductive circuit?
u (1) a
u (2) b a
u (3) c b
u (4) Can’t tell without more info Imax
c

f
 Quiz
èThree identical EMF sources are hooked to a single circuit
element, a resistor, a capacitor, or an inductor. The
current amplitude is then measured as a function of
frequency. Which one of the following curves corresponds
to an inductive circuit?
u (1) a
u (2) b a
u (3) c b
u (4) Can’t tell without more info Imax
c

f
XL = ωL (ω= 2πf ) For inductor, higher frequency gives higher
Imax = εmax / X L reactance, therefore lower current
 RLC Example
èR = 200W, C = 15µF, L = 230mH, emax = 36v, f = 60 Hz

u X L = 2π´ 60´ 0.23 = 86.7W

XC > X L
Capacitive circuit
u (
X C = 1/ 2π´ 60´15´10 -6
)= 177W
u Z = 2002 + (86.7 -177)2 = 219W

u Imax = εmax / Z = 36 / 219 = 0.164 A

-1 æ 86.7 -177 ö Current leads emf
u ϕ= tan ç ÷ = -24.3° (as expected)
è 200 ø

i = 0.164sin (ωt + 24.3°)

 Resonance
èConsider impedance vs frequency

Z = R2 + ( X L - X C )2 = R2 + (ωL -1/ ωC
)2
èZ is minimum when ω L = 1/ ω = ω0 = 1/ LC
ωC
u This is resonance!

èAt resonance
u Impedance = Z is minimum
u Current amplitude = Im is maximum
 Imax vs Frequency and Resonance
èCircuit parameters: C = 2.5µF, L = 4mH, emax = 10v
u f0= 1 / 2p(LC)1/2 = 1590 Hz
u Plot Imax vs f
Imax = 10 / R2 + (ωL -1/ ω C )2

R = 5W
R = 10W
R = 20W
Imax
Resonance
f = f0

f / f0
 Power in AC Circuits
èInstantaneous power emitted by circuit: P = i2R
(
P = I 2 R sin2 ω t - ϕ ) Instantaneous power oscillates
m d
èMore useful to calculate power averaged over a cycle
u Use <…> to indicate average over a cycle

P = I m2 R sin2 (ωdt - ϕ) = 12 I m2 R

èDefine RMS quantities to avoid ½ factors in AC circuits

I rms = Im εrms = εm Pave = I 2 R

rms
2 2
èHouse current
u Vrms = 110V Þ Vpeak = 156V
 Power in AC Circuits
èPower formula Pave = I 2 R I = I
rms rms max / 2

εrms εrms
èRewrite using I rms = Pave = I rms R = εrms I rms
Z Z cosϕ
R Z
Pave = εrms Irms cosϕ cosϕ = X L - XC
Z ϕ
R

ècosf is the “power factor”

u Tomaximize power delivered to circuit Þ make f close to zero
u Max power delivered to load happens at resonance
u E.g.,too much inductive reactance (XL) can be cancelled by
increasing XC (e.g., circuits with large motors)
 Power Example 1
èR = 200W, XC = 150W, XL = 80W, erms = 120v, f = 60 Hz

u Z = 2002 + (80 -150)2 = 211.9W

u Irms = εrms / Z = 120 / 211.9 = 0.566 A

-1 æ 80 -150 ö Current leads emf
u ϕ= tan
ç 200 ÷ = -19.3° Capacitive circuit
è ø
ucosϕ = 0.944

u Pave = εrms Irms cosϕ = 120´ 0.566´ 0.944 = 64.1W

Same
2
u Pave = I rms R = 0.5662 ´ 200 = 64.1W
 Power Example 1 (cont)
èR = 200W, XC = 150W, XL = 80W, erms = 120v, f = 60 Hz
èHow much capacitance must be added to maximize the
power in the circuit (and thus bring it into resonance)?
u Want XC = XL to minimize Z, so must decrease XC

u X C = 150W = 1/ 2πfC C = 17.7µF

u X C new = X L = 80W Cnew = 33.2µF

u So we must add 15.5µF capacitance to maximize power

 Power vs Frequency and Resonance
èCircuit parameters: C = 2.5µF, L = 4mH, emax = 10v
u f0= 1 / 2p(LC)1/2 = 1590 Hz
u Plot Pave vs f for different R values

R = 2W
R = 5W
R = 10W
Pave Resonance
R = 20W
f = f0

f / f0
Resonance Tuner is Based on Resonance
Vary C to set resonance frequency to 103.7 (ugh!)
Circuit response Q = 500
Other radio stations. Tune for f = 103.7 MHz
RLC response is less
 Quiz
èA generator produces current at a frequency of 60 Hz with
peak voltage and current amplitudes of 100V and 10A,
respectively. What is the average power produced if they
are in phase?
u (1) 1000 W
u (2) 707 W
u (3) 1414 W Pave = 12 εpeak Ipeak = εrms Irms
u (4) 500 W
u (5) 250 W
 Quiz
èThe figure shows the current and emf of a series RLC
circuit. To increase the rate at which power is delivered to
the resistive load, which option should be taken?
u (1) Increase R
u (2) Decrease L
u (3) Increase L
u (4) Increase C

X L - XC
tanϕ =
R

Current lags applied emf (f > 0), thus circuit is inductive. Either
(1) Reduce XL by decreasing L or
(2) Cancel XL by increasing XC (decrease C).
 Example: LR Circuit
èVariable frequency EMF source with em=6V connected to a
resistor and inductor. R=80W and L=40mH.
u At what frequency f does VR = VL?

X L = ω L = R Þ ω = 2000 f = 2000 / 2π = 318Hz

u At that frequency, what is phase angle f?
tanϕ= X L / R = 1 Þ ϕ= 45°

u What is the current amplitude and RMS value?

Imax = εmax / 802 + 802 = 6 /113 = 0.053A

Irms = Imax / 2 = 0.037 A

i = 0.053sin (ωt - 45°)

 Transformers
èPurpose: change alternating (AC) voltage to a bigger (or
smaller) value

Input AC voltage Changing flux in

in the “primary” “secondary” turns
turns produces a flux induces an emf

DF B
DFB Vs = N s
Vp = N p Dt
Dt

Ns
Vs = V p
Np
 Transformers
èNothing comes for free, however!
u Increase in voltage comes at the cost of current.
u Output power cannot exceed input power!
u power in = power out
u (Losses usually account for 10-20%)

ipVp = isVs

is Vp N p
= =
ip Vs Ns
 Transformers: Sample Problem
èA transformer has 330 primary turns and 1240 secondary
turns. The input voltage is 120 V and the output current
is 15.0 A. What is the output voltage and input current?

Ns
= 120æç
1240 ö “Step-up”
Vs = V p ÷ = 451V transformer
Np è 330 ø

= 15æç
Vs 451 ö
ipVp = isVs i p = is ÷ = 56.4 A
Vp è 120 ø
 Transformers

Ø This is how first experiment by

Faraday was done
Ø He only got a deflection of the
galvanometer when the switch
is opened or closed
Ø Steady current does not make
induced emf.
 Applications

Microphone

Tape recorder
 ConcepTest: Power lines
èAt large distances, the resistance of power lines becomes
significant. To transmit maximum power, is it better to
transmit (high V, low i) or (high i, low V)?

u (1) high V, low i

u (2) low V, high i
u (3) makes no difference
 ConcepTest: Power lines
èAt large distances, the resistance of power lines becomes
significant. To transmit maximum power, is it better to
transmit (high V, low i) or (high i, low V)?

u (1) high V, low i

u (2) low V, high i
u (3) makes no difference
Power loss is i2R
 Electric Power Transmission

i2R: 20x smaller current Þ 400x smaller power loss

Outline

 Resonance in Series RLC Circuit

 Quality Factor (Q)
 Bandwidth and Half-Power Frequencies

 Resonance in Parallel RLC Circuit

 Parallel LC Circuit (Tank Circuit)
 Dynamic Impedance (or) Dynamic Resistance

2
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Induction Heater
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 06 Dec. 2019) 3
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

RF Amplifiers
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 06 Dec. 2019) 4
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

TV Receivers

Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 06 Dec. 2019) 5

 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Radio
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 6
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Guitar
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 7
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Pendulum
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 8
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Swing
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 9
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Singer Breaking the Glass

Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 10
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Bridge Collapse
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 11
 PHENOMENON OF RESONANCE IN VARIOUS DOMAINS

Microwave Oven
Courtesy: [Link] (Available Online: 25 Nov. 2019) 12
 WHY STUDY RESONANCE?
• Resonance is the frequency response of a circuit or network when it is
operating at its natural frequency called “ Resonance Frequency”.
• For many applications, the supply (defined by its voltage and frequency)
is constant. e.g. The supply to residential homes is 230 V, 50 Hz.
• However, many communication systems involve circuits in which the
supply voltage operates with a varying frequency.
• To understand communication systems, one requires a knowledge of how
circuits are affected by a variation of the frequency. Examples of such
communication systems are,
Radio, television, telephones, and machine control systems.

13
WHEN RESONANCE OCCURS? AND WHAT IT RESULTS?
• Resonance occurs in any circuit that has energy storage elements, at least
one inductor and one capacitor.
• Under resonance, the total impedance is equal to the resistance only and
maximum power is drawn from the supply by the circuit.
• Under resonance, the total supply voltage and supply current are in phase.
So, the power factor (PF) becomes unity.
• At resonance, L and C elements exchange energy freely as a function of
time, which results in sinusoidal oscillations either across L or C.
TYPES OF RESONANCE
• Series resonance. C
• Parallel resonance. L
14
 APPLICATIONS OF RESONANCE
• Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are used in many applications
such as selecting the desired stations in radio and TV receivers.

• Most common applications of resonance are based on the frequency

dependent response. (“tuning” into a particular frequency/channel)

• A series resonant circuit is used as voltage amplifier.

• A parallel resonant circuit is used as current amplifier.

• A resonant circuit is also used as a filter.

15
 RESONANCE IN SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely
resistive impedance.
The input impedance is as follows,
1  1 
Z  R  j L   R j L  
jC   C 
At resonance, the net reactance becomes zero. Therefore,
1 1 1
r L   r  rad/s; f r  Hz Series resonant RLC
r C LC 2 LC circuit

where r and f r represent resonant frequency in rad/s and in Hz, respectively

16
 REACTANCE (XL, XC) VS FREQUENCY PLOTS
The value of the reactance X of the circuit is, Variation of
inductive
1 Depends on frequency reactance with
X  L  frequency
C
The inductive reactance:
Increases linearly with Variation of
X L   L  2 fL frequency
Capacitive
reactance with
frequency
The capacitive reactance:
1 1
XC  
C 2 fC Decreases with frequency and
it is largest at low frequencies
17
 VARIATION OF REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE WITH
FREQUENCY
• At resonant frequency fr, |Z| = R, the
power factor is unity (purely resistive).
• Below fr, |XL| < |XC |, so the circuit is more
capacitive and the power factor is leading. XL + XC

• Above fr, |XL| > |XC |, so

the circuit is more
inductive and the power
Variation of resistance, reactance and
factor is lagging. impedance with frequency
18
 IMPEDANCE PHASOR DIAGRAMS
The phase of the circuit impedance
is given by 1  X L  X C 
  tan
R

Below fr, XC > XL At fr, XC = XL, Z = R Above fr, XL > XC

• Below fr , XL < XC,  is negative, the circuit is capacitive.

• At resonance ( fr ) , XL = XC,  is zero, the circuit is purely resistive.
• Above fr , XL > XC,  is positive, the circuit is inductive. 19
 THE CURRENT IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
The circuit current is given by
V V   1 
I  V  L  
Z  Z I   tan 1  C

 2  R
1  
2
 
R  L     
  C  

The current is maximum when ωL = 1/(ωC),

when the circuit is resistive (  = 0). Therefore,
V
Im 
R
20
 VARIATION OF MAGNITUDE AND PHASE OF
CURRENT WITH FREQUENCY
• The current is maximum at resonant
frequency (fr).

Variation of magnitude |I|

and phase  of current with
frequency in a series RLC
circuit

21
 QUALITY FACTOR (Q)
• The “sharpness” of the resonance in a resonant circuit is measured
quantitatively by the quality factor Q.
• The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored to the
energy dissipated in the circuit per cycle of oscillation:
 Peak energy stored in the circuit 
Q  2  
 Energy dissipated by the circuit in one period at resonance 
• It is also regarded as a measure of the energy storage property of a circuit
in relation to its energy dissipation property.

22
 QUALITY FACTOR (Q)
• In the series RLC circuit, the quality factor (Q) is,

 1 2 
 LI  2 f r L
Q  2  2 
1 2 1  R
 I R( f ) 
2 r 

r L1 1 L
Q  
R r CR R C

23
 QUALITY FACTOR (Q)
• The Q factor is also defined as the ratio of the reactive power, of either
the capacitor or the inductor to the average power of the resistor at
resonance:  Reactive power 
Q 
 Average power 
• For inductive reactance XL at resonance:
 Reactive power  I 2 X L r L
Q   2 
 Average power  I R R
• For capacitive reactance XL at resonance:
 Reactive power  I 2 X C 1
Q   2 
 Average power  I R r CR 24
 VOLTAGES IN A SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

(b) f = fr (c) f > fr

(a) f < fr Resistive,
Capacitive, Inductive,
V and I in I lags V
I leads V phase
25
 VOLTAGES ACROSS RLC ELEMENTS AT RESONANCE
The voltage across resistor at fr is,
V
VR  I R  R  I m  R   R  VR  V
R
The voltage across inductor at fr is,
V r L
VL  X L  I L  r L  I m  r L   V  QV
R R
 VL  QV
The voltage across capacitor at fr is,
1 1 V 1
VC  X C  I C   Im    V  QV  VC  QV
r C r C R r CR 26
 VOLTAGES ACROSS RLC ELEMENTS AT RESONANCE
• Q is termed as Q factor or voltage
magnification, because VC or VL equals Q Voltage magnification
multiplied by the source voltage V. Q in series resonant circuit

• In a series RLC circuit, values of VL and VC

can actually be very large at resonance and
can lead to component damage if not
recognized and subject to careful design.

r L 1 1 L
Q  
R r CR R  C 
27
 VOLTAGES ACROSS RLC ELEMENTS

Effect of frequency variation on voltages across R, L and C 28

 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• In a series RLC circuit, at resonance, maximum power is drawn. i.e.,
V
Pr  I max  R; where I max  at resonance
2

R
• Bandwidth represents the range of frequencies for which the power level
in the signal is at least half of the maximum power.
2
Pr I max  R  I max 
2
   R
2 2  2 
• The bandwidth of a circuit is also defined as
the frequency range between the half-power
points when I = Imax/√2.
29
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• Thus, the condition for half-power is given when
I max V
I  
2 R 2
• The vertical lines either side of |I | indicate
that only the magnitude of the current is
under consideration – but the phase angle
will not be neglected.
• The impedance corresponding to half
The resonance peak, bandwidth
power-points including phase angle is and half-power frequencies

Z (1,2 )  R 2  45
30
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• The impedance in the complex form
Z (1,2 )  R 1  j1
• Thus for half power,
V
I and Z  R 1  j1
R 1  j1
• At the half-power points, the phase angle of the current is 45°. Below the
resonant frequency, at ω1, the circuit is capacitive and Z(ω1) = R(1 − j1).
• Above the resonant frequency, at ω2, the circuit is inductive and
Z(ω2) = R(1 + j1).
31
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• Now, the circuit impedance is given by,
 1    L 1 
Z  R  j L    R 1  j  
 C    R  CR 

• At half power points, Z  R 1  j1

• By comparison of above two equations, resulting in
L 1
  1
R CR
• As we know,
r L 1
Q 
R r CR 32
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• Now, by multiplying and dividing with ωr :
 L r 1 r  r   r 
  1  Q  Q  1  Q     1
R r CR r r   r  
• For ω2 :
 2 r 
Q   1
 r 2 
• For ω1 :
 1 r 
Q     1
 r 1 
33
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
• The half-power frequencies ω2 and ω1 are obtained as,
r 1 r 1
2   r 1  1   r 1 
2Q 4Q 2 2Q 4Q 2

• The bandwidth is obtained as:

r Resonant frequency
BW  2  1  i.e. Bandwidth 
Q Q factor
• Resonant frequency in terms of ω2 and ω1, is expressed as:
r  12
34
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
The bandwidth is also expressed as:
r R
2  1   2  1  rad/s
Q L
(or)
R
f 2  f1  Hz
2 L

BW BW R
r  1   1  r   1  r  rad/s
For Q >> 1, 2 2 2L
BW BW R
2  r   2  r   2  r  rad/s
2 2 2L
35
 CONCLUSIONS
Resonance in series RLC circuit:
• The voltages which appear across the reactive
components can be many times greater than that of the
supply. The factor of magnification, the voltage
magnification in the series circuit, is called the Q factor.

• An RLC series circuit accepts maximum current from

the source at resonance and for that reason is called an
acceptor circuit.

36
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Q1. In the circuit below, R = 2 Ω, L = 1 mH, and C = 0.4 μF.
(a) Find the resonant frequency ωr and the half-power
frequencies ω1 and ω2.
(b) Calculate the quality factor and bandwidth.
(c) Determine the amplitude of the current at ωr, ω1 and ω2.

37
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Ans:
1 1
(a) The resonant frequency is r    50 krad/s
3 6
LC 10  0.4  10
The lower half-power frequency is
2
R  R  1 2
1      
2L  2 L  LC

2  10 3
 10    50 10 
3 2 3 2
 49 krad/s

Similarly, the upper half-power frequency is

2
R  R  1 2
2 
2L
    
 2 L  LC 2  10
3
 10    50 10 
3 2 3 2
 51 krad/s

38
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
(b) The bandwidth is BW  2  1  2 krad/s
r 50
The quality factor is Q    25
BW 2

Vm 20
(c) At ω = ωr: I    10 A
R 2

Vm 20
At ω = ω1, ω2: I    7.071 A
2R 22
39
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Q2. A circuit, having a resistance of 4.0 Ω with an inductance of 0.5 H
and a variable capacitance in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate:
(a) the capacitance required to attain resonance;
(b) voltages across the inductance and the capacitance at resonance;
(c) the Q factor of the circuit.

40
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Answer:
1 1
(a) For resonance: 2 f r L  => C   20.3 F
2 f r C (2  50)  0.5
2

V 100
(b) At resonance: I    25 A
R 4
Voltage across inductance, VL =2  50  0.5  25  3927 V
25
VC =IX C   3927 V
2  50  20.3  10 
6

X L 2  50  0.5
(c) Q    39.26
R 4
41
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Q3. The bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is 500 Hz.
If the resonant frequency is 6000 Hz, what is the Q-factor?
If R = 10 Ω, what is the value of the inductive reactance at
resonance? Calculate the inductance and capacitance of
the circuit.

42
 PROBLEMS ON SERIES RLC CIRCUIT
Answer:
resonant frequency fr 6000
Bandwidth= Hence,Q =   12
Q factor BW 500

XL
Q  X L  Q  R  12  10  120 
R XL 120
and X L  2 f r L  L    3.18 mH
2 f r 2  6000

and |X L | |X C | 120 
1 1
XC   120  C  0.22 μF
2 f r C 2  6000  120
43
 RESONANCE IN PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
• The supply voltage: V  IZ where Z
is the net impedance of the three
parallel branches.
• In parallel circuits, it is simpler to
consider the total admittance Y of the
three branches. Thus, I
V  IZ 
Y
where
1 j  1 
Y G  jC  G   jC  G  j  C  
j L L   L 
44
 RESONANCE IN PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
• At resonance (ω = ωr), the net susceptance is zero.
 1 
i.e.  C  0
 L 
• Therefore, the resonant frequency (ωr) :
1
r  rad/s
LC
• At the resonant frequency, Y = G = 1/R, the
conductance of the parallel resistance, and I = VG.

45
 CURRENT THROUGH RESISTANCE
• The supply voltage magnitude:
I
V 
2
1  1 
  C  
2
R  L 
• At resonance, ω = ωr,
I The three-branch
V  | V || I | R parallel resonant circuit
1
 0
2
2
R
VR V I  R
• Current through the resistance at ωr: I R     IR  I
R R R 46
 CURRENT MAGNIFICATION
• Magnitude of current through inductor at ωr :
V IR  R 
| I L |     I  Q I
X L r L  r L 
• Magnitude of current through capacitor at ωr :
V IR
| I C |   r CR   I  Q  I
XC 1
r C
where Q is the current magnification i.e.,
 R 
Q   r CR 
 r L  The three-branch parallel resonant circuit
47
 CURRENT MAGNIFICATION
Current magnification Q is also expressed in terms of inductive or capacitive
susceptance (B), inductive or capacitive reactance (X ) and conductance (G) :
 1   r C   B   R 
Q     
 r LG   G   G   X 

By substituting ωr = 1/√(LC) in Q :

1 C C
Q R
G L L
The three-branch parallel resonant circuit
48
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
The parallel RLC circuit is the dual of the series RLC circuit. Therefore, by
replacing R, L, and C in the expressions for the series circuit with 1∕R, C, and
L respectively, we obtain for the parallel circuit, the Ymin/21/2 frequencies:
2 2
1  1  1 1  1  1
1      2     
2 RC  2 RC  LC 2 RC  2 RC  LC

1
• Bandwidth: BW  2  1 
RC

r R
• Relation between BW and Q: Q   r RC 
BW r L 49
 BANDWIDTH AND HALF POWER FREQUENCIES
The half-power frequencies in terms of quality factor:
2 2
 1  r  1  r
1  r 1     2  r 1    
 2Q  2Q  2Q  2Q

For Q >> 1,
BW BW
r  1  2  r 
2 2

The three-branch parallel resonant circuit

50
 PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT
Computation of resonant frequency of a “tank circuit”:
• The Figure shown is the two branch parallel resonant circuit.
Also called tank circuit.
• The total admittance (YT) of the circuit shown is:
 1   1 
YT  Y1  Y2    ,
 RS  jX L    jX C 
 RS  jX L   j 
YT   2 2 
 ,
 RS  X L   X C 
 RS   1 XL  The two-branch
YT   2 2 
 j  2 2 
, parallel resonant circuit
 RS  X L   X C RS  X L  (or) tank circuit
51
 PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT
Computation of resonant frequency of a “tank circuit”:
 RS   1 XL 
YT   2 2 
 j  2 2 
,
 RS  X L   X C RS  X L 
At resonance (ω = ωr), the net susceptance is zero.
1 XL 1
i.e.  2  0  RS  X L  r L 
2 2
,
X C RS  X L
2
r C
The two-branch
parallel resonant circuit
• L L 1 RS2 (or) tank circuit
R X 
2
S
2
L RS  r L   r 
2 2 2
 2 rad/s
C C LC L

52
 PRACTICAL PARALLEL RESONANCE CIRCUIT
Computation of resonant frequency of a “tank circuit”:

• The resonant frequency in Hz is:

1 1 RS2
fr   2 Hz
2 LC L
• The admittance at resonance is:
 RS  RS C
YT ( f  f r )   2 2 
 ,
 RS  X L  L
The two-branch parallel
resonant circuit (or) tank circuit
53
 IDEAL TANK CIRCUIT
Computation of resonant frequency of a “ ideal tank circuit”:
• In ideal tank circuit, the series resistance RS is made zero.
• The total admittance (YT) of the circuit shown (Rs = 0) is:
 1   1 
YT  YL  YC     ,
 jX L    jX C 
 1 1 
YT   j   .
 XC X L 
• At resonance (ω = ωr), the net susceptance is zero.
i.e. 1  1  0  r  1 rad/s; f r  1
Hz
Ideal tank circuit
with RS = 0
XC X L LC 2 LC
54
 CONCLUSIONS
Resonance in parallel RLC circuit:
• The lowest current from the source occurs at the resonant frequency of
a parallel circuit hence it is called a rejector circuit.
• At resonance, the current in the branches of the parallel circuit can be
many times greater than the supply current.
• The factor of magnification, the current magnification in the parallel
circuit, is again called the Q factor.
• At the resonant frequency of a resonant parallel network, the impedance
is wholly resistive. The value of this impedance is known as the
dynamic resistance or dynamic impedance.
55
SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF RESONANT
RLC CIRCUITS
Characteristics Series circuit Parallel circuit
1 1
Resonant frequency, ωr
LC LC
r L 1 R
Quality factor, Q or or r CR
R r CR r L

r r
Bandwidth, BW Q
Q

2 2
 1  r  1  r
Half-power frequencies, ω1 , ω2 r 1    r 1   
 2Q  2Q  2Q  2Q
BW BW
For high circuits, (Q ≥ 10), ω1, ω2 r r
2 2
56
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Q1. In the parallel RLC circuit below, R = 8 kΩ, L = 0.2 mH, and C = 8 μF.
(a) Calculate ωr, Q, and BW.
(b) Find ω1 and ω2.
(c) Determine the power dissipated at ωr, ω1, and ω2.

57
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Answer:
1 1 105
r    =25 krad/s
LC 0.2  103  8  106 4
R 8  103 r
Q   1600 BW   15.625 rad/s
r L 25  10  0.2  10
3 3
Q

(b) Since Q >> 1,

BW
1  r   25000  7.812  24992 rad/s
2
BW
2  r   25000  7.812  25008 rad/s
2
58
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
(c) At ω = ωr, Y = 1∕R or Z = R = 8 kΩ. Then
V 10  90
I0    1.25  90 mA
Z 8000
Since the entire current flows through R at resonance,
the average power dissipated at ω = ωr is
1 1
P  | I 0 | R  1.25  10   8  103   6.25 mW
2 3 2

2 2
or At ω = ω1, ω2 ,
Vm2 100 Vm2
P   6.25 mW P  6.25 mW
2 R 2  8  10 3
2R
59
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Q2. A coil of 1 kΩ resistance and 0.15 H inductance is connected in parallel
with a variable capacitor across a 2.0 V, 10 kHz a.c. supply as shown.
Calculate:
(a) the capacitance of the capacitor when the supply current is a minimum;
(b) the effective impedance Zr of the network at resonance;
(c) the supply current at resonance.

60
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Ans:
1 1
(a) f r   f  2 2

4 LC
r
2 LC
1 1
C 2 2  2  1.69 nF
4 Lf r 4  0.15  108

L 0.15
(b) Z r   9
 89 k
CRS 1.69  10  1000

V 2
(c) I S    22.5  106 A
Z r 89  1000 61
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Q3. Determine the resonant frequency ωr of the circuit shown below.

62
 PROBLEMS ON PARALLEL RLC CIRCUIT
Ans: The input admittance is
1 1 2  j 2
Y  j 0.1    0.1  j 0.1 
10 2  j 2 4  4 2
 2   2 
Y   0.1  2 
 j  0.1  2 
 4  4    4  4 
At resonance, ω = ωr , the net susceptance is
zero. i.e.,
2r
0.1r   0  r  2 rad/s.
4  4r 2
Fig. 3. For Q3.

63
 DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE (OR) DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
• The dynamic impedance (dynamic resistance) is the resistance offered by
the circuit to the input signal under resonance condition.

Q1. What is the dynamic impedance in a standard series RLC circuit?

Ans. In a standard series RLC circuit, at resonance the
net reactance becomes zero. Therefore, the input supply
see only resistance. Hence,
dynamic impedance Zdynamic = R.

64
 DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE (OR) DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Q2. What is the dynamic impedance in a general parallel RLC circuit?

Ans. In a general parallel RLC circuit, at
resonance, the net susceptance becomes zero.
Therefore, the input supply see only resistance.
Hence, dynamic impedance Zdynamic = R.

65
 DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE (OR) DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Q3. What is the dynamic impedance in a ideal tank circuit?

Ans. In ideal tank circuit, at resonance, the
circuit acts like a open circuit. Because, in ideal
tank circuit, the RS = 0. Therefore, the
dynamic impedance Z dynamic  

Ideal tank circuit with RS = 0

66
 DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE (OR) DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

Q4. Determine the dynamic impedance of a practical tank circuit?

Ans.
L
Z dynamic 
RS C

Practical tank circuit

67
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
Q1. Two practical coils with internal resistances of R1, R2 has quality factors
of Q1, Q2, respectively. If these two coils are connected in series then
resultant quality factor is…..
Ans.
Q1R1  Q2 R2
R1  R2

68
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
Q2. A series circuit consists of a 0.5 μF capacitor, a coil of inductance 0.32 H
and resistance 40 Ω and a 20 Ω non-inductive resistor. Calculate the value of
the resonant frequency of the circuit. When the circuit is connected to a 30 V
a.c. supply at this resonant frequency, determine: (a) the p.d. across each of
the three components; (b) the current flowing in the circuit; (c) the active
power absorbed by the circuit.
Answer.
400 V, 401 V, 10 V, 0.5 A, 15 W.

69
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
Q3. A circuit consists of a 10 Ω resistor, a 30 mH inductor and a 1 μF
capacitor, and is supplied from a 10 V variable-frequency source. Find the
frequency for which the voltage developed across the capacitor is a
maximum and calculate the magnitude of this voltage.
Answer. 920 Hz, 173 V.

70
 diode bridge

Electronics Overview
 Example: Voltage divider
• Voltage dividers are a classic way to
set a voltage
• Works on the principle that all charge
flowing through the first resistor goes R1
through the second
– so DV µ R-value V Vout
– provided any load at output is 1
negligible: otherwise some current R2 3
goes there too 2
• So Vout = V(R2/(R1 + R2))
• R2 here is a variable resistor, or
potentiometer, or “pot”
– typically three terminals: R12 is fixed,
tap slides along to vary R13 and R23,
though R13 + R23 = R12 always
 Real Batteries: Output Impedance
• A power supply (battery) is characterized by a
voltage (V) and an output impedance (R)
– sometimes called source impedance
• Hooking up to load: Rload, we form a voltage
divider, so that the voltage applied by the battery
R
terminal is actually Vout = V(Rload/(R+Rload))
– thus the smaller R is, the “stiffer” the power supply
V – when Vout sags with higher load current, we call
this “droop”
• Example: If 10.0 V power supply droops by 1%
(0.1 V) when loaded to 1 Amp (10 W load):
D-cell example: 6A – internal resistance is 0.1 W
out of 1.5 V battery – called output impedance or source impedance
indicates 0.25 W output
– may vary with load, though (not a real resistor)
impedance
 Power Supplies and Regulation
• A power supply typically starts with a transformer
– to knock down the 340 V peak-to-peak (120 V AC) to something
reasonable/manageable
• We will be using a center-tap transformer
A A’

AC input CT AC output

B B’

– (A’ - B’) = (winding ratio)´(A - B)

• when A > B, so is A’ > B’
– geometry of center tap (CT) guarantees it is midway between A’
and B’ (frequently tie this to ground so that A’ = -B’)
– note that secondary side floats: no ground reference built-in
 Diodes
• Diodes are essentially one-way current gates
• Symbolized by:
• Current vs. voltage graphs:

acts just like a wire

(will support arbitrary
I I I I
current) provided that
voltage is positive
V V 0.6 V V V
plain resistor diode idealized diode WAY idealized diode

the direction the

arrow points in the
diode symbol is the
direction that current
will flow
no current flows current flows
 Diode Makeup
• Diodes are made of semiconductors (usually silicon)
• Essentially a stack of p-doped and n-doped silicon to
form a p-n junction
– doping means deliberate impurities that contribute extra
electrons (n-doped) or “holes” for electrons (p-doped)
• Transistors are n-p-n or p-n-p arrangements of
semiconductors

p-type n-type
 LEDs: Light-Emitting Diodes
• Main difference is material is more exotic than silicon used in ordinary
diodes/transistors
– typically 2-volt drop instead of 0.6 V drop
• When electron flows through LED, loses energy by emitting a photon of
light rather than vibrating lattice (heat)
• LED efficiency is 30% (compare to incandescent bulb at 10%)
• Must supply current-limiting resistor in series:
– figure on 2 V drop across LED; aim for 1–10 mA of current
 Getting DC back out of AC
• AC provides a means for us to distribute electrical
power, but most devices actually want DC
– bulbs, toasters, heaters, fans don’t care: plug straight in
– sophisticated devices care because they have diodes and
transistors that require a certain polarity
• rather than oscillating polarity derived from AC
• this is why battery orientation matters in most electronics
• Use diodes to “rectify” AC signal
• Simplest (half-wave) rectifier uses one diode:

input voltage

AC source load

diode only conducts voltage seen by load

when input voltage is positive
 Doing Better: Full-wave Diode Bridge
• The diode in the rectifying circuit simply prevented
the negative swing of voltage from conducting
– but this wastes half the available cycle
– also very irregular (bumpy): far from a “good” DC source
• By using four diodes, you can recover the negative
swing:
B & C conduct
input voltage
A B
AC source

A & D conduct
C load
D
voltage seen by load
 Full-Wave Dual-Supply
• By grounding the center tap, we have two opposite
AC sources
– the diode bridge now presents + and - voltages relative to
ground
– each can be separately smoothed/regulated
– cutting out diodes A and D makes a half-wave rectifier

AC source
A B
voltages seen by loads

C + load
D
- load

can buy pre-packaged diode bridges

 Smoothing out the Bumps
• Still a bumpy ride, but we can smooth this out with a
capacitor
– capacitors have capacity for storing charge
– acts like a reservoir to supply current during low spots
– voltage regulator smoothes out remaining ripple

A B capacitor
AC source

C load
D
 How smooth is smooth?
V
• An RC circuit has a time constant t = RC
– because dV/dt = I/C, and I = V/R ® dV/dt = V/RC C R
– so V is V0exp(±t/t)
• Any exponential function starts out with slope =
Amplitude/t
• So if you want < 10% ripple over 120 Hz (8.3 ms)
timescale…
– must have t = RC > 83 ms
– if R = 100 W, C > 830 µF

t
 Regulating the Voltage
• The unregulated, ripply voltage may not be at the
value you want
– depends on transformer, etc.
– suppose you want 15.0 V
• You could use a voltage divider to set the voltage
• But it would droop under load Vin
– output impedance ® R1 || R2 R1
– need to have very small R1, R2 to make “stiff”
– the divider will draw a lot of current Vout
– perhaps straining the source 1 Rload
– power expended in divider >> power in load R2 3

2
• Not a “real” solution
• Important note: a “big load” means a small resistor
value: 1 W demands more current than 1 MW
 The Zener Regulator
• Zener diodes break down at some reverse
voltage
– can buy at specific breakdown voltages
– as long as some current goes through
zener, it’ll work zener voltage
– good for rough regulation
• Conditions for working: high slope is what makes the
– let’s maintain some minimal current, Iz zener a decent voltage regulator
through zener (say a few mA)
Vin
– then (Vin - Vout)/R1 = Iz + Vout/Rload sets the
requirement on R1 R1
– because presumably all else is known
– if load current increases too much, zener Vout = Vz
shuts off (node drops below breakdown) Rload
and you just have a voltage divider with the Z
load
 Voltage Regulator IC
note zeners
• Can trim down ripply voltage to
precise, rock-steady value
• Now things get complicated!
– We are now in the realm of
integrated circuits (ICs)
• ICs are whole circuits in small
packages
• ICs contain resistors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors,
etc.
• A three lead semiconductor device that acts as: Transistor
– an electrically controlled switch, or
– a current amplifier.
• Transistor is analogous to a faucet.
– Turning faucet’s control knob alters the flow rate of water coming out from the faucet.
– A small voltage/current applied at transistor’s control lead controls a larger current flow
through its other two leads.

Water out

Water in
 Transistor Types: BJT, JFET, and
• Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) MOSFET
– NPN and PNP
• Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
– N-channel and P-channel
• Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
– Depletion type (n- and p-channel) and enhancement type (n- and p-channel)

BJT JFET MOSFET

• NPN and PNP.
BJT Types
– NPN: a small input current and a positive voltage applied @ its base (with VB>VE)
allows a large current to flow from collector to emitter.
– PNP: a small output current and a negative voltage @ its base (with VB<VE) allows a
much larger current to flow from emitter to collector.
 NPN BJT: How it works — I
• When no voltage is applied at
transistor’s base, electrons in the
emitter are prevented from passing
to the collector side because of the
pn junction.
• If a negative voltage is applied to
the base, things get even worse as
the pn junction between the base
and emitter becomes reverse-
biased resulting in the formation of
a depletion region that prevents
current flow.
 NPN BJT: How it works — II
• If a positive voltage (>0.6V) is
applied to the base of an npn
transistor, the pn junction between
the base and emitter becomes
forward-biased. During forward
bias, escaping electrons are drawn
to the positive base.
• Some electrons exit through the
base, but because the p-type base
is so thin, the onslaught of
electrons that leave the emitter get
close enough to the collector side
that they begin jumping into the
collector. Increasing the base
voltage increases the emitter-to-
collector electron flow.
• Recall, positive current flow is in
the direction opposite to the
electron flow ®current flows from
collector to emitter.
 NPN Transistor in a Complete Circuit
• Normally OFF.
• No current passes from collector to emitter when base is not activated.

NPN: VB = VE→OFF
 NPN Transistor in a Complete Circuit
• When VB > VE we have an operating circuit.
• Current passes from collector to emitter when base is activated.

NPN: VB > VE →ON

 Transistor Experiment — LED On/Off
• Turning the switch on/off turns the LED on/off.
BJT Voltages
and Currents
 Terminal Voltages

! "# → Base-Emitter Voltage

!$" → Collector-Base Voltage
!$# → Collector-Emitter Voltage
 Terminal Voltages

!"# → Base-Emitter Voltage

!$" → Collector-Base Voltage
!$# → Collector-Emitter Voltage
 Transistor Currents
! " → Base Current
!# → Collector Current
!$ → Emitter Current

Currents in a pnp Transistor

Transistor Currents

Currents in a pnp Transistor

 Transistor Currents
! " → Base Current
!# → Collector Current
!$ → Emitter Current

Currents in an npn Transistor

Transistor Currents
• In pnp transistor, current !" flows into the transistor, while
currents !# and !$
are flowing out.
• In npn transistor, current !" flows out of the transistor, while
currents !# and
!$ are flowing in.
• Hence,
!" = !# + !$
• Almost all of !" crosses to the collector and only a small
portion flows out of the base.
• Also, there is a small leakage current !#$## due to minority
charge carriers.
 Transistor Currents
• Hence we can write,
!" = #$%!& + !"'""
where #$% is called emitter-to-collector current gain, also called
common base dc current gain. Typically its value ranges from 0.96 to
0.995.
• Since !"'"" is very small, it can be ignored. Hence,
!" ≅ #$%!&
Transistor Currents
!" = #$%(!" + !&)
!" = #$%!" + #$%!&

!" − #$%!" = #$%!&

!"(1 − #$%) = #$%!&

#$%
!" =
1 − #$%!
&

!" = #$%
!& 1 − #$%
 Transistor Currents
!C
• But is base-to-collector current gain % #$ .
!"
!&
%#$ =
!"
'#$
%#$ =
1 − '#$
• %#$ is also called common emitter dc current gain. Typically, its value
ranges from 25 to 300. %#$ is also indicated as ℎ)*.
%#$
'#$ =
1 + %#$
 BJT
Amplification
 Current Amplification
• A small change in the base current (Δ!" ) produces a large change in
collector current (Δ!# ) and also a large change in emitter current (Δ!$ ).
• Thus, transistor can be used for current amplification.
• The current gain can be stated in terms of current level changes.

Δ!#
'%& =
Δ!"

• The increasing and decreasing levels of currents may be defined as

alternating quantities.
• !( is ac base current, !& is ac collector and !) is ac emitter current.
Current Amplification

∆#$
%!" =
∆#&
 Current Amplification
• The alternating current gain from base to collector may now be stated as
#"
$!" =
#%
• The ac current gain $!" is also indicated as ℎ '( .
 Voltage Amplification

• A change in input voltage !" produces a change in input current #".

• This results in larger changes in #$ and output voltage !$.
• The changes in output voltage are much larger than the changes in input
voltage.
• Thus, transistor can be used for voltage amplification.
Voltage Amplification
 Voltage Amplification

• Then,
Δ!" = #$%Δ!&
• Now this change Δ!" causes a change in the voltage drop across '1 and
thus produces a variation in collector voltage, given by,
∆(" = ∆!"'1
• The base voltage change ∆(& is the ac input and collector voltage change
∆(" is ac output.
• Since the output is larger than the input, it is a voltage amplifier and the
circuit has a voltage gain.
Voltage Amplification
 Voltage Amplification
• The voltage gain is the ratio of the output voltage to the
input voltage, given by,

Δ"#
$! =
Δ"%
• The increasing and decreasing voltage levels can be defined
as ac quantities.
• The ac signal voltage ! & produces the ac base current '(,
and this generates the ac collector current '), which
produces the ac output voltage ! *. !*
$ !=
• The equation for ac voltage gain is !&
Common Base
Characteristics

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 40

Common Base Circuit

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 41

Common Base Circuit

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 42

Common-Base Input Characteristics
• To investigate the input characteristics, the output voltage !"# is kept
constant and the input voltage !$# is set at several convenient levels.
• At each input voltage, the corresponding input current %$ is recorded.
• A graph is then plotted for !$# vs %$ .
• This is repeated for other values of !"#.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 43

Common-Base Input Characteristics

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 44

Common-Base Input Characteristics
• Since the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the characteristics are
those of a forward-biased pn-junction.
• Also, for a given input voltage !"#, more input current flows when higher
levels of collector-base voltage !%# are used.
• This is because larger collector-base (reverse bias) voltages causes the
depletion region at the collector-base junction to penetrate deeper into
the base, thus shortening the distance and reducing the resistance
between the emitter-base and collector-base depletion regions.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 45

Common-Base Output Characteristics
• To investigate the output characteristics, the input current !" is kept
constant and the output voltage #$% is set at several convenient levels.
• At each output voltage, the corresponding output current !$ is recorded.
• A graph is then plotted for #$% vs !$ .
• This is repeated for other values of !" .

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 46

Common-Base Output Characteristics

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 47

Common-Base Output Characteristics
• The common-base output characteristics show that for each fixed level
of !" , !# is almost equal to !" , and !# appears to remain constant when
$#% is increased.
• There is a very small increase in !# with increasing $#%. This is because
the increase in $#% expands the collector-base depletion region and thus
shortens the distance between the two depletion regions.
• The slope on the output characteristics is also called Early effect.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 48

Common-Base Output Characteristics
• When !"# is reduced to zero, $" still flows. This is because, even when
the externally applied voltage is zero, there is still a barrier voltage
existing at the collector-base junction, and this assists the flow of $" .
• To stop the flow of charge carriers, the collector-base junction has to be
forward-biased.
• The region of the graph for the forward-biased collector-base junction is
known as the saturation region.
• The region in which the junction is reverse-biased is known as the active
region.
• This is the normal operating region for the transistor.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 49

Common-Base Output Characteristics
• If an excessive reverse-bias voltage is applied to the collector-base
junction, the device breakdown may occur.
• Breakdown can also result from the collector-base depletion region
penetrating into the base until it makes contact with the emitter-base
depletion region.
• This condition is known as punch-through or reach-through, and very
large currents can flow when it occurs, destroying the device.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 50

Common-Base Current Gain
Characteristics
• To investigate the current gain characteristics, the output voltage !"# is
kept constant and the input current $% is set at several convenient levels.
• At each input current, the corresponding output current $" is recorded.
• A graph is then plotted for $% vs $" .
• This is repeated for other values of !"#.
• The common-base current gain characteristics can be derived from the
output characteristics as shown.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 51

Common-Base Current Gain
Characteristics

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 52

OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
 AMPLIFIER
¢ Itis an electronic circuit or device which increases the
amplitude of a signal
 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
(OP AMP)
¢ An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain
electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input
and, usually, a single-ended output

¢ Historically an Op Amp was designed to perform such

mathematical operations as addition, subtraction,
integration and differentiation. Hence the name
Operational Amplifier.
 Background
• Originally invented in early 1940s using vacuum tube
technology
– Initial purpose was to execute math operations in
analog electronic calculating machines
• Shrunk in size with invention of transistor
• Most now made on integrated circuit (IC)
• Huge variety of applications, low cost, and ease of mass
production make them extremely popular
ICs
12

OP-AMP INTRODUCTION

¢ Op-amps (amplifiers/buffers in general) are drawn as a

triangle in a circuit schematic
¢ There are two inputs
— inverting and non-inverting
¢ And one output
¢ Also power connections (note no explicit ground)
divot on pin-1 end
V+

2 7
inverting input - 6
output
non-inverting input +
3 4

V-
741 Op-Amp –Internal Circuitry
OP AMP – A MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIER
¢ Differential Amplifierstage
¢ High gain CE amplifier stage
¢ Class B push pull emitter follower

Class B Push
Differential More stages
pull
Amplifier of gain
Amplifier
Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
 Ideal Op Amp Practical Op Amp

¢ Zin = ∞ ¢ Zin = 2MΩ

¢ Zout = 0 ¢ Zout = 100Ω
¢ AV = ∞ ¢ AV = 105
Voltage Transfer Characteristic

Range where
we operate
the op amp as
an amplifier.

Vin
APPLICATIONS
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
Op-Amp Summing Amplifier
Op-Amp Differential Amplifier

If R1 = R2 and Rf = Rg:
 Op-Amp Integrator

Vo = -
Op-Amp Differentiator
Low-pass Filter (active)
• Cutoff frequency

• This works
because the
capacitor needs
time to charge.
High pass filter (active)
Applications of Op-Amps
• Electrocardiogram (EKG) Amplification
– Need to measure difference in voltage from lead 1
and lead 2
– 60 Hz interference from electrical equipment
• Simple EKG circuit
– Uses differential amplifier
to cancel common mode
signal and amplify
differential mode signal

• Realistic EKG circuit

– Uses two non-inverting
amplifiers to first amplify
voltage from each lead,
followed by differential
amplifier
– Forms an “instrumentation
amplifier”
Strain Gauge
Use a Wheatstone bridge
to determine the strain of
an element by measuring
the change in resistance
of a strain gauge

(No strain) Balanced

Bridge
R #1 = R #2
(Strain) Unbalanced
Bridge
R #1 ≠ R #2
 Half-Bridge Arrangement Op amp used to amplify
output from strain gauge

R + ΔR Rf

Vref R + Vcc
+ -
- +
- Vcc +
R
V0
R - ΔR
__
Rf

Using KCL at the inverting and non-inverting

terminals of the op amp we find that è
ε ~ Vo = 2ΔR(Rf /R2)
 Op Amps Applications
• Audio amplifiers
– Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones,
computers, mpg players, boom boxes, etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers
– Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
• Power amplifiers
• Analog computers
– Combination of integrators, differentiators,
summing amplifiers, and multipliers
Basic Electric Circuits

Thevenin’s and Norton’s

Theorems
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
Consider the following:

A
Network • Network
B
1 • 2
Figure 5.1: Coupled networks.

For purposes of discussion, at this point, we consider

that both networks are composed of resistors and
independent voltage and current sources

1
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1 and

we focus temporarily only on Network 1.

Network •A
1 •B
Figure 5.2: Network 1, open-circuited.

Network 1 can be as complicated in structure as one

can imagine. Maybe 45 meshes, 387 resistors, 91
voltage sources and 39 current sources.

2
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

Network •A
1 •B
Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and
read the voltage. We call this the open-circuit voltage.

No matter how complicated Network 1 is, we read one

voltage. It is either positive at A, (with respect to B)
or negative at A.

We call this voltage Vos and we also call it VTHEVENIN = VTH

3
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

• We now deactivate all sources of Network 1.

• To deactivate a voltage source, we remove

the source and replace it with a short circuit.

• To deactivate a current source, we remove

the source.

4
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
Consider the following circuit.
I2
V3
_ + A
R1 R3
R2
R4
_+ V1 _ I1
V2 +
B

Figure 5.3: A typical circuit with independent sources

How do we deactivate the sources of this circuit?
5
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
When the sources are deactivated the circuit appears
as in Figure 5.4.

A
R1 R3
R2 R4

B
Figure 5.4: Circuit of Figure 5.3 with sources deactivated
Now place an ohmmeter across A-B and read the resistance.
If R1= R2 = R4= 20  and R3=5  then the meter reads 5 .
6
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

We call the ohmmeter reading, under these conditions,

RTHEVENIN and shorten this to RTH. Therefore, the
important results are that we can replace Network 1
with the following network.
A

R TH
+_ V TH

B

Figure 5.5: The Thevenin equivalent structure.
7
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to
terminals A-B. A

R TH
+ N e tw o r k
_ V TH
2


B
Figure 5.6: System of Figure 5.1 with Network 1
replaced by the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
We can now make any calculations we desire within
Network 2 and they will give the same results as if we
still had Network 1 connected.
8
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
It follows that we could also replace Network 2 with a
Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance. The results
would be as shown in Figure 5.7.

A

R TH 1 R TH 2
+_ V TH 1 V TH 2 _+


B
Figure 5.7: The network system of Figure 5.1
replaced by Thevenin voltages and resistances.
9
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.1.
Find VX by first finding VTH and RTH to the left of A-B.

12  4 A

+

30 V +_ 6 2 VX
_

B
Figure 5.8: Circuit for Example 5.1.

First remove everything to the right of A-B.

5
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.1. continued
12  4 A


30 V +_ 6


B
Figure 5.9: Circuit for finding VTH for Example 5.1.
(30)(6)
VAB   10V
6  12
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4  resistor
(A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage across the
resistor.
11
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.1. continued
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find
the resistance seen looking in these terminals.
12  4 A

RTH
6


B

Figure 5.5: Circuit for find RTH for Example 5.5.

We see,
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8 
12
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.1. continued
After having found the Thevenin circuit, we connect this
to the load in order to find VX.
R TH A

8 +
V TH + 10 V VX
_ 2
_
B

Figure 5.11: Circuit of Ex 5.1 after connecting Thevenin
circuit.
(10)( 2)
VX   2V
13
2 8
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
In some cases it may become tedious to find RTH by reducing
the resistive network with the sources deactivated. Consider
the following: R TH A


V TH + IS S
_

B

Figure 5.12: A Thevenin circuit with the output shorted.
We see;
VTH
RTH  Eq 5.1
14
I SS
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.2.
For the circuit in Figure 5.13, find RTH by using Eq 5.1.
12  C 4 A
 

30 V +_ 6 IS S

 
D B
Figure 5.13: Given circuit with load shorted

The task now is to find ISS. One way to do this is to replace

the circuit to the left of C-D with a Thevenin voltage and
Thevenin resistance.
15
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.2. continued
Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the left of terminals C-D
and reconnecting to the load gives,
4 C 4 A
 

10 V +_
IS S

 
D B

Figure 5.14: Thevenin reduction for Example 5.2.

VTH 10
RTH   8 
I SS 10
16
8
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.3
For the circuit below, find VAB by first finding the Thevenin
circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
1 .5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20  17 


Figure 5.15: Circuit for Example 5.3.

We first find VTH with the 17  resistor removed.

Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B
with the sources deactivated.
17
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.3 continued
1 .5 A

5
 A
10 

20 V _+ 20 


Figure 5.16: Circuit for finding VOC for Example 5.3.

20(20)
VOS VAB VTH (1.5)(10) 
(20  5)
 VTH  31V
18
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.3 continued

5
 A
10 

20 


Figure 5.17: Circuit for find RTH for Example 5.3.

5(20)
RTH 10   14 
(5  20)
19
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.3 continued
R TH A

14  +
V TH + 31 V VAB
_ 17 
_
B

Figure 5.18: Thevenin reduced circuit for Example 5.3.

We can easily find that,

VAB  17 V
20
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: Working
with a mix of independent and dependent sources.

Find the voltage across the 50  load resistor by first finding

the Thevenin circuit to the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V
100 

6 IS
B


Figure 5.19: Circuit for Example 5.4

21
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: continued
First remove the 50  load resistor and find VAB = VTH to
the left of terminals A-B.
IS A

50  40 
30 
_+ 86 V

6 IS
B


Figure 5.20: Circuit for find VTH, Example 5.4.

 86  80 I S  6 I S 0  I S 1 A
VAB 6 I S  30 I S   36V
22
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: continued
To find RTH we deactivate all independent sources but retain
all dependent sources as shown in Figure 5.21.
IS A

50  40 
30  R TH

6 IS
B

Figure 5.21: Example 5.4, independent sources deactivated.
We cannot find RTH of the above circuit, as it stands. We
must apply either a voltage or current source at the load
and calculate the ratio of this voltage to current to find RTH.
23
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A
6 IS

Figure 5.22: Circuit for find RTH, Example 5.4.

Around the loop at the left we write the following equation:

50 I S  30( I S  1)  6 I S 0
From which  15
IS  A
24 43
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: continued
IS 1A

50  40 
30 
IS + 1 V 1A=I
6 IS

Figure 5.23: Circuit for find RTH, Example 5.4.

Using the outer loop, going in the cw direction, using drops;
  15 
50    1(40)  V 0 or V  57.4 volts
 43 
V V
RTH    57.4 
25 I 1
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.4: continued
The Thevenin equivalent circuit tied to the 50  load
resistor is shown below.
R TH

5 7 .4 

V TH _+ 36 V 100 

Figure 5.24: Thevenin circuit tied to load, Example 5.4.

36 x100
V100   22.9 V
57.4  100

26
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.5: Finding
the Thevenin circuit when only resistors and dependent
sources are present. Consider the circuit below. Find Vxy
by first finding the Thevenin circuit to the left of x-y.
1 0 Ix
x

20  50 

50  60  1 0 0 V +_

IX


y
Figure 5.25: Circuit for Example 5.5.
For this circuit, it would probably be easier to use mesh or nodal
analysis to find Vxy. However, the purpose is to illustrate Thevenin’s
27 theorem.
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.5: continued
We first reconcile that the Thevenin voltage for this circuit
must be zero. There is no “juice” in the circuit so there cannot
be any open circuit voltage except zero. This is always true
when the circuit is made up of only dependent sources and
resistors.
To find RTH we apply a 1 A source and determine V for
the circuit below. 1 0 I
X

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX

Figure 5.26: Circuit for find RTH, Example 5.5.

 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.5: continued
1 0 IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m

Figure 5.27: Circuit for find RTH, Example 5.5.

Write KVL around the loop at the left, starting at “m”, going
cw, using drops:
− 50 ( 1 − I X )+ 10 I X − 20 ( 1 − I X )+ 60 I X = 0

I X = 0. 5 A
29
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5.5: continued
1 0 IX

20  20 
1A
50  60 
V

1 - IX IX
m
n

Figure 5.28: Determining RTH for Example 5.5.

We write KVL for the loop to the right, starting at n, using

drops and find;
−60(0.5)−1x 20+V = 0
or
V  50 volts
 THEVENIN & NORTON
THEVENIN’S THEOREM: Example 5: continued
V
We know that, RTH  , where V = 50 and I = 1.
I
Thus, RTH = 50 . The Thevenin circuit tied to the
load is given below. x

50 

50  _+ 100 V


y
Figure 5.29: Thevenin circuit tied to the load, Example 5.5.

31 Obviously, VXY = 50 V
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:
Assume that the network enclosed below is composed
of independent sources and resistors.

Network

Norton’s Theorem states that this network can be

replaced by a current source shunted by a resistance R.

I R

33
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:
In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit
current of the network, that is, the current obtained by
shorting the output of the network. The resistance is the
resistance seen looking into the network with all sources
deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

IS S R N = R TH
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM:

We recall the following from source transformations.

R
+ V
_ V R I=
R

In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent

circuit of a network, we can obtain the Norton equivalent
by using source transformation.
However, this is not how we normally go about finding
the Norton equivalent circuit.
34
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.6.

Find the Norton equivalent circuit to the left of terminals A-B

for the network shown below. Connect the Norton equivalent
circuit to the load and find the current in the 50  resistor.
10 A

20  40  A


+_ 50 V 60  50 


B

Figure 5.30: Circuit for Example 5.6.

35
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.6. continued
10 A

20  40 

+_ 50 V 60 
IS S

Figure 5.31: Circuit for find INORTON.

It can be shown by standard circuit analysis that

I SS 10.7 A
36
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.6. continued
It can also be shown that by deactivating the sources,
We find the resistance looking into terminals A-B is
RN 55 
RN and RTH will always be the same value for a given circuit.
The Norton equivalent circuit tied to the load is shown below.

1 0 .7 A 55  50 

Figure 5.32: Final circuit for Example 5.6.

37
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.7. This example
illustrates how one might use Norton’s Theorem in electronics.
the following circuit comes close to representing the model of a
transistor.
For the circuit shown below, find the Norton equivalent circuit
to the left of terminals A-B.
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 2 5 IS VX 40 
_

Figure 5.33: Circuit for Example 5.7.

38
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.7. continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 2 5 IS VX 40 
_

We first find; V OS
RN =
I SS

We first find VOS:

V OS = V X = (− 25 I S )( 40 ) = − 1000 I S

39
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.7. continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 2 5 IS VX 40  IS S
_

Figure 5.34: Circuit for find ISS, Example 5.7.

We note that ISS = - 25IS. Thus,

V OS −1000 I S
RN = = = 40 Ω
I SS −25 I S

40
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.7. continued
1 k IS A

+
5V _+ 3 VX 2 5 IS VX 40 
_

Figure 5.35: Circuit for find VOS, Example 5.7.

From the mesh on the left we have;
− 5 + 1000 I S + 3 (− 1000 I S ) = 0
From which,
I S = − 2 .5 mA
41
 THEVENIN & NORTON
NORTON’S THEOREM: Example 5.7. continued

We saw earlier that,

I SS = − 25 I S

Therefore;
I SS = 62 . 5 mA
The Norton equivalent circuit is shown below.
A

I N = 6 2 .5 m A R N = 40 

42 Norton Circuit for Example 5.7

 THEVENIN & NORTON
Extension of Example 5.7:
Using source transformations we know that the
Thevenin equivalent circuit is as follows:

40 

+
_ 2 .5 V

Figure 5.36: Thevenin equivalent for Example 5.7.

43
 circuits

Thevenin and Norton

Electrical Instruments and
measuring devices
When the current passes through the current coil, it creates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The
strength of this electromagnetic field is directly proportional to the amount of current passing through it.

In case of DC current, the current is also in phase with its generated electromagnetic field. The voltage is
dropped across the potential coil and as a result of this complete process, the needle moves across the
scale.
The needle deflection is such that it is according to the product of the current passing and the voltage
dropped, that is, P = VI.
 Measuring current, voltage, and resistance
Ammeter:
A
• measures current (A) I
• connected in series
(current must go through instrument)
Voltmeter: V
• measures potential difference (V) a b
• connected in parallel

Ohmmeter: Ω
• measures resistance of an isolated
resistor (not in a working circuit)
 Effect of ammeter on circuit
Measuring current in a simple circuit: R
• connect ammeter in series
A
Are we measuring the correct current?
(the current in the circuit without ammeter)
V
 Effect of ammeter on circuit
Measuring current in a simple circuit: R
• connect ammeter in series
r
Are we measuring the correct current?
(the current in the circuit without ammeter)
V
• any ammeter has some resistance r.
• current in presence of ammeter is

• current without the ammeter would be

To minimize error, ammeter resistance r must be very small.
(ideal ammeter would have zero resistance)
Example: an ammeter of resistance 10 mΩ is used to measure
the current through a 10 Ω resistor in series with a 3 V battery
that has an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. What is the relative
(percent) error caused by the ammeter?
R=10 Ω
Actual current without ammeter:

r=0.5 Ω

V=3 V
You might see the symbol ε
used instead of V.
Current with ammeter:

R=10 Ω

R
r=0.5 Ω
A

V=3 V
 Designing an ammeter
Galvanometer:
•current flows through a coil in a magnetic field
•coil experiences a torque, connected needle deflects
(see later chapters of this class)
 Designing an ammeter
• ammeter can be based on galvanometer
(for electronic instrument, use electronic sensor instead, analysis still applies)
• simplest case: send current directly through galvanometer,
observe deflection of needle
Needle deflection is proportional to current.
Each galvanometer has a certain maximum
current corresponding to full needle deflection.

What if you need to measure a larger current?

• use shunt resistor
Ammeter uses a galvanometer and a shunt, connected in
parallel: RG galvanometer
G
IG
A ⇒ A RSHUNT B
I
I
ISHUNT
Everything inside the green box is the ammeter.

• Current I gets split into Ishunt and IG

If your galvanometer reads 1A full scale but you want the
ammeter to read 5A full scale, then RSHUNT must result in
IG=1A when I=5A. What are ISHUNT and VSHUNT?
 R
G
IG G
RSHUNT
I A B
ISHUNT

Shunt also reduces resistance of the ammeter:

AExample: what shunt resistance
galvanometer-based is required
ammeter uses for an ammeter
a galvanometer and a to
have aconnected
shunt, resistance in
ofparallel:
10 mΩ, if the galvanometer resistance is
60 Ω?
R
G
G
IG
I R
S
IS

(actually 0.010002 Ω)

To achieve such a small resistance, the shunt is probably a

large-diameter wire or solid piece of metal.
 Effect of voltmeter on circuit
Measuring voltage (potential difference) V
Vab in a simple circuit:
• connect voltmeter in parallel
R=10 Ω
Are we measuring the correct voltage? a b
(the voltage in the circuit without voltmeter)
r=0.5 Ω

ε=3 V
 Effect of voltmeter on circuit
RV
Measuring voltage (potential difference)
Vab in a simple circuit: IV
• connect voltmeter in parallel
R=10 Ω
Are we measuring the correct voltage? a b
(the voltage in the circuit without voltmeter)
• voltmeter has some resistance RV r=0.5 Ω
• current IV flows through voltmeter
ε=3 V
• extra current changes voltage drop across r
and thus Vab
To minimize error, voltmeter resistance r must be very large.
(ideal voltmeter would have infinite resistance)
Example: a galvanometer of resistance 60 Ω is used to
measure the voltage drop across a 10 kΩ resistor in series with
an ideal 6 V battery and a 5 kΩ resistor. What is the relative
error caused by the nonzero resistance of the galvanometer?
Actual voltage drop without instrument: R1=10 kΩ
a b

R2=5 kΩ

V=6 V
The measurement is made with the galvanometer.
60 Ω and 10 kΩ resistors in parallel are
RG=60 Ω
equivalent to 59.6 Ω resistor. G

Total equivalent resistance: 5059.6 Ω R1=10 kΩ

a b
Total current: I=1.186x10-3 A
Vab = 6V – IR2 = 0.07 V. R2=5 kΩ
The relative error is:
V=6 V
I=1.19 mA
Would you pay for this voltmeter?
We need a better instrument!
Example: a voltmeter of resistance 100 kΩ is used to measure
the voltage drop across a 10 kΩ resistor in series with an ideal
6 V battery and a 5 kΩ resistor. What is the percent error
caused by the nonzero resistance of the voltmeter?
R1=10 kΩ
We already calculated the actual a b
voltage drop (2 slides back).
R2=5 kΩ

V=6 V
The measurement is now made with the “better” voltmeter.
100 kΩ and 10 kΩ resistors in parallel RV=100 kΩ
are equivalent to an 9090 Ω resistor. V
Total equivalent resistance: 14090 Ω
R1=10 kΩ
Total current: I=4.26x10-4 A a b
The voltage drop from a to b:
6-(4.26x10-4)(5000)=3.87 V. R2=5 kΩ
The percent error is.
V=6 V
I=.426 mA

Not great, but much better.

 Designing a voltmeter
• voltmeter must have a very large resistance
• voltmeter can be made from galvanometer in series with a
large resistance
RSer RG
a V b ⇒ a G b

Vab Vab

Everything inside the blue box is the voltmeter.

“the galvanometer
Homework reads
hints: “the 1A full scale”
galvanometer would
reads 1Amean a current
full scale” wouldofmean
IG=1Aa would
currentproduce a full-scale
of IG=1A would produce
deflection
a full-scaleofdeflection
the galvanometer needle.
of the galvanometer needle.

If you want the voltmeter shown to read 10V full scale, then the selected RSer must result in IG=1A
when Vab=10V.
 Measuring Instruments: Ohmmeter
• Ohmmeter measures resistance of isolated resistor
• Ohmmeter can be made from a galvanometer, a series resistance, and a
battery (active device).
V RSer RG
G

• Terminals of ohmmeter are connected to unknown resistor

• battery causes current to flow and galvanometer to deflect
• V=I (Rser + RG + R) solve for unknown R

Ω
R=?
Alternatively:
•separately measure current and voltage for resistor
•Apply Ohm’s law
Four-point probe:
A
V
Chapter 29 – Electromagnetic Induction

- Induction Experiments

- Faraday’s Law

- Lenz’s Law

- Motional Electromotive Force

- Induced Electric Fields

- Eddy Currents

- Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations

- Superconductivity
- If the magnetic flux through a circuit changes, an emf and a current are
induced.
- A time-varying magnetic field can act as source of electric field.
Maxwell
- A time-varying electric field can act as source of magnetic field.

1. Induction Experiments (Faraday / Henry)

- An induced current (and emf) is generated when: (a) we move a magnet
around a coil, (b) move a second coil toward/away another coil, (c) change
the current in the second coil by opening/closing a switch.
- Magnetically induced emfs are always the result of the action of non-
electrostatic forces. The electric fields caused by those forces are En (non-
Coulomb, non conservative).

2. Faraday’s Law
Magnetic flux:
! !
Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = ∫ B cos ϕ ⋅ dA
! !
If B is uniform over a flat area A: Φ B = B ⋅ A = B ⋅ A ⋅ cos ϕ
Faraday’s Law of Induction:
- The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux through the loop.

dΦ B - Increasing flux ! ε < 0 ; Decreasing flux ! ε > 0

ε =−
dt
- Direction: curl fingers of
right hand around A, if ε > 0
is in same direction of fingers
(counter-clockwise), if ε < 0
contrary direction
(clockwise).

- Only a change in the flux

through a circuit (not flux
itself) can induce emf. If flux
is constant ! no induced
emf.
 Coil: dΦ B
ε = −N N = number of turns
dt

- If the loop is a conductor, an induced current results from emf. This current
produces an additional magnetic field through loop. From right hand rule,
that field is opposite in direction to the increasing field produced by
electromagnet.

Ex: 29.4 - Generator I: a simple alternator

Exs: 29.6, 29.7 - Generator III: the slide wire generator
3. Lenz’s Law
- Alternative method for determining the direction of induced current or emf.

The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the

cause of the effect.

-The “cause” can be changing the flux through a stationary circuit due to
varying B, changing flux due to motion of conductors, or both.
- If the flux in an stationary circuit changes, the induced current sets up a
magnetic field opposite to the original field if original B increases, but in the
same direction as original B if B decreases.

- The induced current opposes the change in the flux through a circuit (not
the flux itself).

- If the change in flux is due to the motion of a conductor, the direction of the
induced current in the moving conductor is such that the direction of the
magnetic force on the conductor is opposite in direction to its motion (e.g.
slide-wire generator). The induced current tries to preserve the “status quo”
by opposing motion or a change of flux.

B induced downward opposing the change

in flux (dΦ/dt). This leads to induced current
clockwise.
Lenz’s Law and the Response to Flux Changes

- Lenz’s Law gives only the direction of an induced current. The magnitude
depends on the circuit’s resistance. Large R ! small induced I ! easier to
change flux through circuit.

- If loop is a good conductor ! I induced present as long as magnet moves

with respect to loop. When relative motion stops ! I = 0 quickly (due to
circuit’s resistance).

- If R = 0 (superconductor) ! I induced (persistent current) flows even after

induced emf has disappeared (after magnet stopped moving relative to loop).
The flux through loop is the same as before the magnet started to move !
flux through loop of R =0 does not change.
Magnetic levitation:

-The principle of levitation is Lenz' rule.

1) The magnetic field created by the induced current in a metallic sample

due to time-fluctuation of the external magnetic field of the coil wants to
avoid its cause (i.e., the coil's fluctuating magnetic field).
2) Thus, the induced magnetic field in the sample and the external fluctuating
magnetic field of the coil repel each other.

3) The induced magnetic field (and the sample) move away from its cause,
i.e. away from the coil's magnetic field. Then, for a conical coil (smaller
radius at the bottom than at the top) the metallic sample will move upward
due to this levitation force, until the force of gravity balances the force of
levitation. (The levitation force is larger at the bottom of the conical coil than
at the top of the coil).
Induced Current / Eddy current levitation:

- The rail and the train exert magnetic fields

and the train is levitated by repulsive forces
between these magnetic fields.
- B in the train is created by electromagnets
or permanent magnets, while the repulsive
force in the track is created by a induced magnetic field in conductors
within the tracks.
- Problems:
(1) at slow speeds the current induced in the coils of the track’s
conductors and resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to support
the weight of the train. Due to this, the train needs wheels (or any
landing gear) to support itself until it reaches a speed that can sustain
levitation.

(2) this repulsive system creates a field in the track (in front and behind
the lift magnets) which act against the magnets and creates a “drag
force”. This is normally only a problem at low speed.
4. Motional Electromotive Force

! in rod
- A charged particle !
! experiences a
magnetic force F = qv × B that causes
free charges in rod to move, creating excess
charges at opposite ends.

- The excess charges generate an electric

field (from a to b) and electric force (F = q E)
opposite to magnetic force.

- Charge continues accumulating until FE

compensates FB and charges are in
equilibrium ! q E = q v B
Vab = E ⋅ L = v ⋅ B ⋅ L
- If rod slides along stationary U-shaped
conductor ! no FB acts on charges in U-
shaped conductor, but excess charge at
ends of straight rod redistributes along U-
conductor, creating an electric field.
-The electric field in stationary U-shaped conductor creates a current !
moving rod became a source of emf (motional electromotive force). Within
straight rod charges move from lower to higher potential, and in the rest of
circuit from higher to lower potential.
ε = vBL Length of rod and velocity perpendicular to B.

Induced current: ε vBL

I= =
R R
- The emf associated with the moving rod is equivalent to that of a
battery with positive terminal at a and negative at b.

Motional emf: general form (alternative expression of Faraday’s law)

! ! ! ! ! !
dε = ( v × B ) ⋅ dl ε = ∫ ( v × B ) ⋅ dl Closed conducting loop

-This expression can only be used for problems involving moving conductors.
When we have stationary conductors in changing magnetic fields, we need to
use: ε= -dΦB/dt.
5. Induced Electric Fields
- An induced emf occurs when there is a
changing magnetic flux through a stationary
conductor.
- A current (I) in solenoid sets up B along its
axis, the magnetic flux is:

Φ B = B ⋅ A = µ 0 nIA

dΦ B dI
ε =− = − µ 0 nA
dt dt
Induced current in loop (I’): I’ = ε / R

- The force that makes the charges move

around the loop is not a magnetic force. There
is an induced electric field in the conductor
caused by a changing magnetic flux.
-The total work done on q by the induced E when it goes once around the
loop: W = q ε ! E is not conservative.
! !
Conservative E ! ∫ E ⋅ dl = 0
! ! dΦ B (stationary integration path)
∫
Non-conservative E ! E ⋅ dl = ε = −
dt
- Cylindrical symmetry ! E magnitude constant, direction is tangent to loop.
! ! 1 dΦ B
∫ E ⋅ dl = 2π ⋅ r ⋅ E E=
2πr dt

- Faraday’s law: 1) an emf is induced by magnetic forces on charges when

a conductor moves through B.

2) a time-varying B induces E in stationary conductor

and emf. E is induced even when there is no conductor.
Induced E is non-conservative, “non-electrostatic”. No
potential energy associated, but FE = q E.
6. Eddy Currents
- Induced currents that circulate throughout the
volume of a material.

Ex.: B confined to a small region of rotating

disk ! Ob moves across B and emf is induced
! induced circulation of eddy currents.
Sectors Oa and Oc are not in B, but provide return
conducting paths for charges displaced along Ob to
return from b to O.

Induced I experiences FB that opposes disk rotation:

! ! !
F = IL × B (right) ! current and L downward.
(the return currents lie outside B ! do not
experience FB).

-The interaction between eddy currents and B causes

braking of disk.
(a) Metal detector (airport security checkpoint) generates an alternating B0
that induces eddy currents in conducting object (suitcase). These currents
produce alternating B’ that induces current in detector’s receiver (I’).

(b) Same principle as (a).

7. Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations
- A varying electric field gives rise to a magnetic field.
! !
Ampere’s Law ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0 I encl (incomplete)

Charging a capacitor: conducting wires carry iC (conduction current) into

one plate and out of the other, Q and E between plates increase.
! !
∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0iC but also = 0 for surface bulging out

Contradiction?

As capacitor charges, E and ΦE through

surface increase.
ε ⋅ A
q = C ⋅v =  ( E ⋅ d ) = ε ⋅ E ⋅ A = ε ⋅ Φ E
 d 

dq dΦ E
iC = =ε
dt dt
 Displacement current (iD): fictitious current in region between capacitor’s
plates.
dΦ E
iD = ε
dt

Changing the flux through curved surface is equivalent in Ampere’s law to

a conduction current through that surface (iD)
! !
Generalized Ampere’s Law: ∫ B ⋅ dl = µ0 ( I C + I D )encl
Valid for any surface we use: for curved
surface ic = 0, for flat surface iD = 0.
ic (flat surface) = iD (curved surface)

Displacement current density (jD):

iD dE
jD = =ε
A dt

The displacement current is the source of B in between

capacitor’s plates. It helps us to satisfy Kirchoff’s junction’s rule: IC in and ID out
The reality of Displacement Current
- Displacement current creates B between plates
of capacitor while it charges.
(r < R)
! !
∫ B ⋅ dl = 2π ⋅ r ⋅ B = µ0 I encl = µ0 jD A
 iD 
2 2
r r
= µ0   (π ⋅ r 2
) = µ 0 2 iD = µ 0 2 iC
π ⋅R 
2
R R

µ0 r
B= i
2 C
2π R

- In between the plates of the capacitor: (r < R) ! B = 0 at r = 0 (axis) and

increases linearly with distance from axis.

- For r> R ! B is same as though the wire were continuous and plates not
present.
Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism
! ! Qencl
∫ E ⋅ dA = ε0
Gauss Law for E

! !
∫ B ⋅ dA =0 Gauss Law for B (there are no magnetic monopoles)

! !  dΦ E 
∫ B ⋅ dl =µ0  iC + ε 0 dt encl Ampere’s law

! ! dΦ B
∫ E ⋅ dl = − dt Faraday’s law

! ! ! Total electric field = E caused by a distribution of charges

E = Ec + E n at rest (Ec = electrostatic) + E magnetically induced (En,
non-electrostatic).
Symmetry in Maxwell’s Equations
! !
In empty space ic = 0, Qencl = 0 Φ E = ∫ E ⋅ dA
! !
Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA
! ! d ! !
∫ B ⋅ dl =ε o µ0 dt ∫ E ⋅ dA
! ! d ! !
∫ E ⋅ dl = − dt ∫ B ⋅ dA
! ! ! !
F = q( E + v × B)
8. Superconductivity
Hg
- Sudden disappearance
of R when material cooled
below critical T (Tc).
- For superconducting
materials Tc changes when
material under external B0.

- With increasing B0, superconducting transition

occurs at lower and lower T.

- Critical field (Bc): minimum B required to eliminate

SC at T<Tc.

The Meissner effect

- SC sphere in B0 at T > Tc ! normal phase (not SC)

- If T < Tc and B0 not large enough to prevent SC

transition ! distortion of field lines, no lines inside
material.
- If coil wrapped around sphere ! emf induced in coil shows that during
SC transition the magnetic flux through coil decreases (to zero).

- If B0 turned off while material still in SC phase ! no emf induced in coil

and no B outside sphere.

- During SC transition in the presence of B0, all magnetic flux is expelled

from the bulk of the sphere and the magnetic flux through a coil is zero.
The “expulsion” of B is the “Meissner effect”. That results in an increased
B (more densely packed field lines) close to the sides of the sphere.