Welcome to this module on photovoltaic sizing and output.

By the end of this module, you should be

able to identify the main test conditions used in reporting photovoltaic output. You should be able to
interpret photovoltaic specification and labeling. You should be able to identify losses and photovoltaic
systems and analyze solar gain with and without shading. In this lesson, we'll be discussing test
conditions in photovoltaic labeling. In order to discuss tests conditions, let's begin by looking at the need
for solar standard. Irradiance and temperature continuously change both during the time of day, as well
as seasonality. In order to have a standard for testing as well as predicted output, the solar industry has
developed a couple of standards for reporting module performance. We'll review those now. One of the
tests conditions that we've discussed before is known as Standard Test Conditions or STC. Standard test
conditions are defined as an irradiance of 1000 Watts per square meter, and an air mass of 1.5 with a
module cell temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. Another common test condition is known as nominal
operating cell temperature or NOCT. This is also sometimes called PTC or photovoltaics for utility scale
applications test conditions. NOCT is much more common. The NOCT conditions are an irradiance of 800
Watts per square meter, an air mass of 1.5, and a cell temperature of 45 degrees Celsius, with an
ambient air temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. NOCT also includes a wind speed of one meter per
second. NOCT lowers the irradiance which is a bit more realistic. You might notice that one of the major
commonalities that are between STC and NOCT is the variable of temperature. Temperature has a major
impact on operating conditions, and we'll discuss this in the next lesson on array sizing, as well as,
further intellectual code. At this point, it's only important to know that increasing temperature
decreases the operating voltage of the module. We can also explore the practical differences between
STC and NOCT conditions by looking at an I-V curve. We learned how to read an I-V curve in the previous
module where we evaluated maximum power, fuel factor, and efficiency for a module. Note here that
under STC conditions, a module have a higher operating current and the voltage, thus producing a
higher power. Under NOCT conditions, however, the operating current goes down because irradiance is
lower on the 800 watts per square meter. The voltage decreases because the temperature is higher, 45
degrees Celsius instead of 25 degrees Celsius. Because of those factors the peak power is also lower.
Well, these values are for the same module. NOCT conditions are a more realistic view that one could
expect in the field. In array design, individuals do not rely on I-V curves to calculate expected module
performance under STC and NOCT conditions. Instead, some of the module manufacturers will show the
STC and NOCT outputs in their own product labeling. In this case, a module, STC, is shown as having an
average power output of 257.5 Watts over NOCT, the power is only 189.7 Watts. So, well, this is hopeful,
product labeling is not universal and the available information is not always identical. When
performance under both STC and NOCT conditions are available, the installer has a better idea of what
they would expect under real working conditions. So, now let's look a little more closely at module
labeling in photovoltaics. Module spec sheets generally focus on output data under STC. Let's start with
this 255 series module which has an average power of 257.5 watts. Oftentimes, the series name of a
module is connected to the approximate power output of that module. Also, note that some of the
conditions we discussed before are shown including the short-circuit current, the open-circuit voltage,
the current at maximum power and the voltage at maximum power. Not all manufacturers report
module efficiency, but it's a very helpful specification. If you don't have it, you'd have to calculate it
yourself using the module power and the total area of the module. In addition to electrical
characteristics, mechanical specifications will also be shown. Mechanical specifications include the size,
the weight, the thickness, and the frame type, as well as, the number of series cells within the module.
These specifications are very important for a designer or installer so she or he knows the space
requirements for an array, as well as, the predictive power output. We've now defined STC and an
NOCT, as well as, some practical implications of those conditions. We've also looked at common
mechanical and electrical module specification on the spec sheets. In the next lesson, we'll learn how
changes entilted in the orientation can impact electrical output for a module array.

Hi. In this segment we're going to look at the impacts of orientation and tilt on electrical output. By the
end of the segment you should be able to use the insolation data to predict electrical output based on
tilt and using the online program PVWatts, as a resource to calculate output based on array orientation.
As a reminder, we can use the NREL insulation tables to predict the solar insolation at several angles. We
have zero degrees listed, latitude minus 15 degrees. Latitude, latitude plus 15 degrees and 90 degrees,
In order to achieve maximum solar gain module tilt will vary based upon location. For example, at lower
latitudes modules will have shallower tilts because the sun is higher in the sky. So, the module can be
tilted at a shallow angle like latitude minus 15 degrees. In latitudes further from the equator, the
module typically will have a steeper angle because the sun is lower in the sky even in the summer
months. This is summarized in the insolation tables which provide the information on these key module
angles. Note that these are always given at Azimuth angles facing towards the equator. For example, in
the northern hemisphere, the azimuth angle is always due south or 180 degrees. What happens when
this is not the case? Well, there are variations that could occur such as a rooftop not facing due south. In
this case, we could approach due east which would be 90 degrees or we could approach due west which
would be 270 degrees. Calculating for tilt is relatively easy using formulas or the given tables. Accounting
for azimuth angle however is a bit more complex, but very important since insolation can decrease by as
much as 40% or more for modules facing opposite the Equator. Trigonometric mathematical formulas
and vector math can be used to calculate insolation but it's rather complex and beyond the scope of this
course. Instead, computer models are the preferred source to predict the insolation levels because they
can be used for free and they're reliable. PVWatts is one application developed by the National
Renewable Energy Lab or NREL. And allows you to input a latitude or zip code, and it will calculate the
insolation available at that location. After that, you can select the azimuth angle as well as the module
tilt. So, both tilt and azimuth can be addressed in one calculation. We begin by going to PVWatts and
entering a zip code or address. In this case, let's look at Syracuse, New York where SUNI ESF is located.
From that point, you can accept the weather station data that's provided. You can then go to the system
information tab and input a system size as well as a few other parameters including the module type,
system losses, and what we are after, tilt and azimuth. At this point, I'm going to use a fixed system size
of five kilowatts. I will also select the standard module type in a fixed roof mount array type. We'll use
the default system losses of 14.08 percent. Optimal tilt will change based upon latitude and may be
limited by the roof space or ground mounted space that you have available. In our location in Syracuse
New York, the typical roof pitches around 28 to 31 degrees. Which also happens to map to the insolation
levels of latitude minus 15 degrees. By inputting a tilt of 28 degrees and azimuth of 180 degrees, we get
a projected system output of 5,847 kilowatt hours per year. If we go back and change the tilt to 45
degrees, which would be a very steep roof pitch, we see the output decreases only slightly to 5,805
kilowatt hours per year. Now, let's see what happens when the roof does not face due south. I'll switch
the tilt back to 28 degrees and change the azimuth to be 90 degrees, which is due east. Under these
conditions, the energy production decreases significantly to 4,842 kilowatt hours per year. A loss of over
1,000 kilowatt hours per year from the more optimal design. Likewise, if I change the azimuth to due
north or zero degrees instead of towards the equator, it decreases even further to 3,607 kilowatt hours
per year, or 62% of the annual production and optimal conditions. If we combine some of these non-
optimal conditions it can make the situation even worse. For example, if I change the tilt again to 45
degrees with the azimuth still at zero degrees or due north, the projected energy production is only
2,718 kilowatt hours per year. Less than half the annual production of the same PV system set up at a
more optimal position, So, while the system may be capable of producing 5,847 kilowatt hours of
electricity per year at a given location, site related restrictions that don't allow for optimal tilt or azimuth
angles will result in less energy being produced. These calculations show us how deviations from optimal
configurations affect energy production. Specifically, variations in azimuth affect energy production
more than changes in tilt. Combining changes in both tilt and azimuth can drastically affect solar energy
production in real-world situations. PVWatts is an excellent tool for designing and predicting electrical
output in the financial return for photovoltaic system. We'll return to use this tool later on as we learn
more about designing solar arrays and accounting for system temperature in shading. In the next lesson,
we'll learn why and how to use temperature as a factor for calculating voltage and solar modules in
arrays.

Welcome to the segment on temperature dependent output for photovoltaic systems. In this lesson,
we'll learn how to calculate the output voltage for photovoltaic modules and arrays based upon
temperatures that deviate from standard temperature conditions. Let's begin by looking at what
happens to voltage when temperatures are higher or lower than STC conditions. As a rule, output
voltage will always decrease with increasing temperature, and output voltage will always increase with
decreasing temperature. Practically, this means that under cold weather conditions, we'll always have a
higher voltage, which could be a concern for safety. However under hot weather conditions, we'll always
have a lower voltage, which could be a concern for inverter turn-on and output. There are two ways that
we'll learn how to calculate the voltage under non-STC conditions. One is by looking at the listed voltage
temperature coefficient, and the other is looking at the percent of voltage change from STC. As a
reminder, all photovoltaic systems are rated under STC or standard test conditions which are defined as
1000 Watts per square meter at 25 degrees Celsius, and an air mass of 1.5. Under these conditions,
open circuit voltage and maximum power voltage are defined and fixed. Any changes from those
temperature conditions will result in a change in voltage. Luckily for us, voltage temperature coefficients
are listed by module manufacturers and allow us to calculate this change. For silicon, those coefficients
tend to be around negative two millivolts per degree Celsius or 0.002 volts per degree Celsius. This is a
value per individual Silicon cell. However, there are multiple cells in a module and numerous modules in
an array. So, while the voltage change may seem fairly low for a single cell, it results in a significant
deviation from STC ratings for an array. Let's begin by looking at the mathematical formula used to
predict the voltage at a given temperature. In this case, we'll start with looking at cold temperature
conditions. This is important for safety reasons again because voltage can increase significantly when it
is very cold outside. This can damage equipment and cause a fire. In general, we start with the voltage at
STC for our voltage of interest, either the open-circuit voltage or the maximum power voltage. If we
have cold low sun conditions such as a very cold clear winter morning, this will be just enough to
generate a voltage in the photovoltaic, but no current. That's identical to open circuit voltage conditions.
So, to calculate the real voltage, we'll need to combine the open circuit voltage as standard test
conditions with the voltage calculated by the voltage temperature coefficient at a temperature of
interest. So, how do we get that temperature of interest? Well, we need the maximum low temperature
ever recorded for that location where the array will be placed. This is most easily found by consulting
online resources for weather and climate. In the United States, we could use NOAA or the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, or online commercial sources to get these data. Also
note that we must always work in the temperature in units given by the cell manufacturer, which are
typically Celsius or Kelvin. Once we know the maximum low temperature, we have to look at the
specifications for an individual photovoltaic module. Let's suppose we have a module where the open-
circuit voltage is listed as 64.9 volts, and it has a temperature coefficient of negative 0.175 volts per
degree Celsius. Let then put this in a location where the lowest recorded temperature is negative 20
degrees Celsius, which is quite cold. We would first subtract the STC, 25 degrees Celsius, from the
negative 20 degrees Celsius temperature of interest to give negative 45 degrees Celsius which is the
deviation in temperature from STC. We then multiply that value of negative 45 degrees Celsius by the
temperature coefficient of negative 0.175 volts per degrees Celsius which gives us a product of 7.822
volts which is the voltage deviation from STC. Summing these 7.875 volt deviation to with the 64.9 volts
at STC, gives us a new voltage of 72.78 volts which is higher than the STC voltage for Voc conditions. This
makes sense because, as we just discussed, voltage will increase when the temperature decreases from
STC conditions. Now, let's do the calculation for warm weather conditions. The calculation is very similar
but we have to think about when warm weather conditions actually occur. Well, this is going to be
typically during the summer at the highest point in the day. So, the module is outputting a maximum
power and thus a maximum voltage. So, in this case, we'll be looking at the voltage at maximum power
or Vmp instead of the Voc. In this calculation, we don't have to look at the maximum high temperature
ever recorded because we're concerned about safety associated with high voltages. High temperatures
mean low voltages. So, we're looking at the minimum voltage that we could expect under full sunlight
operating conditions. This will impact things such as the turn-on voltage for the inverter but not safety.
Consider a location where the average highest is 29 degrees Celsius. That's the ambient air temperature.
But we also need to consider what happens when a module is on a roof top. The National Electric Code
in the United States and accepted international standards for rooftop temperatures is 30 degrees Celsius
above the ambient air temperature. This means we would sum 29 degrees Celsius ambient air temp
with the 30 degrees Celsius rooftop adder to give an operating temperature of 59 degrees Celsius on the
roof. Looking at model specifications, the maximum power voltage will always be lower than the open-
circuit voltage. In this case, the maximum power voltage is 54.7 volts at STC. So, we would subtract the
STC 25 degrees from the 59 degree rooftop temperature which gives us 34 degrees Celsius. We then
multiply that temperature by the temperature coefficient of negative 0.175 volts per degree Celsius. The
product, negative 5.95 volts, is then added to the maximum power voltage at STC, and we get a new
voltage of 48.75 volts. Notice that this voltage is under warm conditions. Meaning that the operating
voltage is actually lower than under STC conditions. When considering the voltage under warm weather
conditions, 30 degrees Celsius is not always the best value to choose when designing system
temperatures. Deviations from that value will be based upon empirical data that you can find online for
temperatures and combining that with the National Electric Code or other sources. Suffice to say the
further away from the rooftop, the lower the temperature adder will be. We'll come back to this again
when we do site-based design in the next course.
Now that we looked at how to use the voltage temperature coefficient to calculate operating voltage,
we'll also learn how to use the percent temperature coefficient to perform similar calculations. Some
specification sheets list the percent temperature coefficient instead of the voltage temperature
coefficient. When this occurs, you'll see that the value is listed as a percent per degree Celsius. An
example might be where a photovoltaic module has a percent temperature coefficient of negative 0.36
percent per degree Celsius. This means that for every degree change in temperature, the module's
open-circuit voltage or maximum power voltage will change in the opposite direction by 0.36 percent.
We can take an example under cold conditions, where a module has an open-circuit voltage of 38.3 volts
and a temperature coefficient of negative 0.36 percent per degree Celsius. First, we're going to subtract
the STC 25 degrees Celsius from the temperature of interest which is negative 20 degrees Celsius. We
then multiply that value by negative 0.36 percent, and we get positive 16.2 percent. If we add 16.2
percent to 100 percent, we get 116.2 percent. Finally, multiplying 116.2 percent by the original open-
circuit voltage at STC which is 38.3 volts, we get 44.51 volts per module. Checking again, the module
voltage under these conditions is higher than the original VOC because the temperature is colder than
under STC conditions. Applying the same methods for warm temperature conditions, we have a module
which has a maximum power voltage of 31 volts, in an ambient temperature of 29 degrees Celsius
outside. As we discussed before, the rooftop temperature is considered to be 30 degrees Celsius above
the ambient temperature which gives us 59 degrees Celsius. We subtract 25 degrees Celsius from 59
degrees Celsius and then multiply that value by negative 0.306 percent to get a negative percentage.
Adding that product to 100 percent gives us only 87.76 percent. Multiplying that maximum power
voltage of 31 volts gives us 27.2 volts per module which is lower than the maximum power voltage as
standard test conditions. So, there are several ways to complete these calculations as there's relatively
simple arithmetic, but the order of the coefficients does change. There may be another way that you
find easier to use such as removing their percentages or using just decimals. In either method that you
use, I'll just check that your answer makes sense once you get your final voltages. In the end, you should
now be able to locate the absolute low temperature for a location using a weather resource as well as
determine the average high temperature for a location using a similar weather source. You should also
know when to use those high and low temperatures to determine open-circuit voltage or the maximum
power voltage. Finally, you should be able to explain why it is important to calculate those operating
voltages based on temperatures. In the next lesson, we'll learn how to calculate true installation when
they're Shane involved in an array design.

Welcome to this lesson on calculating energy loss due to shading. By the end of this lesson, you should
be able to use a Solar Pathfinder shading tool to identify the shading or location as well as calculate the
energy lost due to shading. To begin, let's look at why shading is so important. As we've discussed
before, solar cells are wired in series within a module. Solar modules also tend to be wired in series.
When shading occurs from a tree or another object, sunlight doesn't hit that portion of the array. That
means that any shaded modules become an electron sink instead of an electron source. This can
significantly decrease the overall power output of that module. Shade analysis is very important to
maximize the energy production from the solar module and even some incentive programs who derate
their incentives based upon the amount of shade that strikes an array. For this reason, it's very
important to both understand how to measure shade and to calculate the energy lost from that shading.
There's one very simple way to determine if there's a potential for shade on a rooftop. Using some
trigonometric formulas, as long as the distance between a potential shading object in the solar array is
at least three times the object's height, it won't shade the array during normal daylight hours. For
example, a solar array we need to be at least 90 meters away from a tree that is 30 meters in height.
Unfortunately, all this allows us to do is determine if there is shade or not. It does not allow us to
calculate what percent of an array is going to be shaded or measure how much of the year it will be
shaded. To do that, we'll need a tool to help us analyze the amount of shade for that location. One of
the best tools available for this analysis is the Solar Pathfinder. The Solar Pathfinder uses a convex plastic
lens that allows us to see the full sky in one location. The easiest way to use it is to place it in the lowest
two corners of a proposed rooftop project. If there's no shading in those locations, typically there'll be
no shade on the entire rooftop. So, let's look at how the Solar Pathfinder charts are arranged and
designed. First, the Solar Pathfinder charts are available from the manufacturer for Northern as well as
Southern Hemispheres and force specific latitudes. We're going to focus on the Northern Hemisphere
for this lesson. In this example, the Pathfinder chart is set for latitudes 37 to 43 degrees North. Notice
that there's a set of numbers on the bottom, curving from five to 12 and then back to seven. This
corresponds to solar time. In the grid above those numbers, there are several markings ranging in
months throughout the year beginning with June at the bottom and December all the way at the top.
Also, notice that the summer months are at the bottom of the Solar Pathfinder towards the user and the
winter months are going to be at the top of the Solar Pathfinder facing South toward the equator. This
ordering corresponds to the height of the sun above the horizon during the seasons. The sun is lower in
the sky in the winter months creating more shade. Next, note that each grid within those months is
broken into integer values such as two, three, four, five. If you look at the words in the arc around the
Pathfinder, it states, "Unshaded grid area numbers give percentage of total daily radiation for all South
facing surfaces during each half hour average for each month." Finally, at the very top, there's another
piece of information indicating magnetic declination West of North or East of North. We'll begin by
talking about that declination value. Traditional compasses use Magnetic North as a way to determine
the northern and southern directions. For geological reasons, magnetic declination does not always
match with true solar declination. It can be as far off as 15 year, 20 degrees based on a specific location.
When using a magnetic compass, we need to correct for the magnetic declination. So, the sun's location
and potential shading are represented correctly in the Solar Pathfinder. Magnetic declination maps are
available for all locations on the earth surface and I'm going to be using one provided by the US
Geological Survey. In our location of Syracuse, New York in the United States, the magnetic declination is
negative 12 degrees or 12 degrees West of North. We first align the compass to magnetic north and
then unlock the brass tab, which is at the bottom and rotate the whole Pathfinder body using the bubble
level, so that it's actually facing true geographic North. So, I'm going to turn to negative 12 degrees. That
additional piece of hardware on the Solar Pathfinder can then be locked down. So, we're going to push
that tab and the bubble level allows us to mount the Solar Pathfinder, so it's flat even when placed on
slanted surface. So, to do that, we can use a tripod and simply place the tripod in front of us and put
that bubble level, so it's flat. We can then place the convex lens on the top of the Pathfinder. So, the
open area is facing towards the south or towards the user. The Pathfinder will allow us to then look at
direct due South because we've made the corrections with the magnetic declination. Now, as we look at
the surface of this lens, we can see any shading that may occur from objects in the distance. Those
objects show up as essentially a dim shade over this lens. It's actually easier to use the Solar Pathfinder
under cloudy or hazy conditions rather than under direct sunlight conditions where there's glare. The
Pathfinder can also be used at anytime of the year and predict shading for the full year. So, it's not
necessary to go out and analyze shade during several different times of the year. Once we have the
image of the shaded objects projected onto the Solar Pathfinder surface, you can use a white CRAN or a
piece of chalk to outline the shaded area going underneath this lens. Always be sure to be a bit more
liberal with the area that you outline. So, for example if there's a tree and there are no leaves on the
tree, you'd want to include where you think the tree leaves might be. You may even want to predict
where a tree or another object may be in another five to 10 years to be more or less realistic with your
longitudinal assessment. Another option is to take a picture of the Pathfinder, but just be careful about
glare and contrasts in the photo. So, you'd want to take something, a photo always on the northern side
of the lens, so you can see the southern shading. That's the extent that we'll use the Pathfinder outside.

Now let's analyze the data we obtained from the pathfinder. The manufacturer provides software for
purchase to automate the analysis. But we're going to do it by hand in this case. I'm mostly going to use
a mock example to simplify the analysis. After removing the paper from the pathfinder or opening the
photo, notice that the shade crosses several months within a gridded area. We're going to now count up
those numbers that are within the shaded area of the grid by month. If we look at the wording on the
arc of the solar Pathfinder again, Note, it gives the word-state, shaded grid numbers give percent of
total radiation for all south-facing surfaces. The numbers are listed in half-hour increments. So each
number that is within the shaded area corresponds to a percentage of sunlight that is lost that month. In
this case, for the month of December, we have 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8. That totals to 37 or 37%. This means that
37% of the total light in December is lost on this array due to shading. Likewise, we can add up the
numbers for January, October, November, and February, giving 37, 26, 36, and 32%. In general, if there's
any area of shade in the summer months, you're almost always guaranteed to have shade in the winter
months as well. The only exception would be an object like a vent or a chimney that might have some
odd shade characteristics. We usually simply plan the array around those objects on the rooftop. The
next step is to take the number of the sun hours that are available and multiply them by the percent
that's lost due to shading. You can get the sun hours using the enral DataTables or using another
resource for monthly hours of sunlight like within PVWatts. It's important for this exercise to have
monthly insulation values. Not just the yearly average. The [INAUDIBLE] tables give an average daily
hours of sunlight. So we need to first multiply the average daily hours by the number of days in the
month. We then take that total and multiply by the percentage lost each month, given by the
[INAUDIBLE] The next step is to sum all of the hours lost due to shading and subtract the total annual
installation from that number. In this example, 37% of the sunlight hours are lost due to shade in the
month of December. December has 31 days, so I multiply the sun hours in December, 2.1 kilowatt hours
per square meter per day By 31 days, and then multiply that by 0.37. That gives me a value for 24 full
sun hours, or kilowatt hours, which are lost due to shading. If I follow that calculation through for all the
individual months of shading, I obtain 143.7 kWh lost due to shading. Location would normally receive
1569.5 kWh per year. So, I then subtract 143.7 kWh hours from 1569.5 kWh per year, and I get the true
annual insolation of 1425.8 kilowatt hours per year. The last step would to be divide the true hours of
insolation by the original annual hours of insolation, to get the percentage of sunlight available during
the year. In this case, it would be 90.8%, meaning 9.2% is lost due to shade. While any shading is bad,
incentive derating tends to occur when energy lost, due to shade exceeds 20%. Although staying under
10% is preferred. There are other ways to calculate shade. One of them being using the software that's
provided with the Solar Pathfinder. While that's more efficient from a time standpoint, it's an extra
purchase, and if there are not a lot of arrays that you're designing, using the Solar Pathfinder tool and
doing it manually may be sufficient. So in summary, the steps for chain analysis are to use the solar
pathfinder and place at the lowest two points of the roof. For a roof top system or on a proposed
project area for a ground mount system. Obtain a photo or trace the area that's going to be shaded. Add
the total hours lost due to shading for each month. Multiply the percentage of shade by the total
kilowatt hours of sunlight per month, and by the days in the month. And then subtract the hours lost
due to shade from the annual kilowatt hours of insolation. If you're more advanced, and doing a lot of
solar designs, it may be advantageous to use an electric tool such as the Solmetric SunEye. This
electronic device takes a digital image of the sky using a fish eye lens to get that 180 degree
hemispherical view. The advantage of the SunEye is that it will provide an immediate digital analysis of
shading structures, but it does come with a cost. You can also add in, insert or remove structures
planning for the future to help answer that question, well, what would happen to solar access if we cut
down a tree. Or what would happen if this tree grows ten feet higher? Another advantage is that the
system automatically corrects for asthma and gives you an idea of what times of year are contributing to
the majority of shading loss when not facing directly towards the equator. That's something that we
have to do manually now. In the next segment, we'll compare the energy output predicted by a tool like
PBWatts with the analysis provided by the Solar Pathfinder, to calculate a more accurate foldable take
electrical output.

In this brief segment, we're going to look at how to use the shade analysis data to predict the true
photovoltaic electrical output. In the last segment, our shade analysis calculated that 9.2 percent of the
solar insulation would be lost per year due to shade. While 37 percent of the installation was lost due to
shade in December alone, that month has a relatively small amount of total annual insolation. While
large amounts of shading can occur in certain months, as long as the months that with high insolation
are not shaded, the total percentage lost due to shade may not be very large. So, if we look at a PD
Watson analysis for our location in Syracuse New York, a large portion of the solar insolation comes in
the months of June, July, and August, instead of minimum in December and January. Once we have the
total loss due to shading for those months, the next step is to multiply the percentage lost by the total
insolation given by the PV wise calculation. In this example, the system that we've designed is projected
to produce 4,941 kilowatt hours of electricity per year. Because 9.2 percent of the insulation is lost over
the course of a whole year, electricity generated will also decrease by that same percentage. This results
in a projected electrical generation of 4,486 kilowatt hours per year. Now, this is an annual calculation,
but there are times that we might want to do a shading and insolation reduction analysis by month. This
would be the case for a site that would only use solar during part of the year such as a cabin or a site
that has partial usage, and you're living off grid and using batteries as an electrical storage source. In this
case, we would need to look at the insolation that lost due to shade and electrical production month by
month instead of annually. This concludes the module on photovoltaic sizing and output. In the next
module, we'll learn about site surveying and grid-tied design.

Reading 1

Finding critical temperature data

Temperature data

There are two critical pieces of temperature information you will need when designing a PV system for a
site.

Probably most important is the record low temperature. A drop in temperature from the STC 25ºC is
going to result in an increase in voltage, and for a PV system the worst case scenario would be under
Voc conditions. The consequences would be a higher than expected voltage output from an array that
could be damaging to an inverter.

The other key temperature is the average high temperature during the warmest month of the year for
that location. An increase in temperature above STC would result in a drop in voltage output, which is
less of a safety concern but could cause problems resulting in insufficient voltage to turn on an inverter.
Record high temperature is less critical since there isn't a safety concern. The warmest month's average
high is a better predictor of the typical voltage drop the system will experience year after year.

There are a number of resources to find local temperature records. In the US, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Weather Service and National Centers for Environmental
Information have those records, but they can be a little difficult to quickly find those two key
temperature points. The Weather Channel's website is one of the easier places to quickly find both the
average high and record low temperature for a location, and to be able to access that data in either ºF
or ºC.

Finding temperature data from [Link]

1. Go to [Link]

2. Type the name of the desired locating in the search bar at the top of the page.

3. Once you come to the page displaying the local weather, if you are using a computer select
“Monthly” in the list of forecast types near the top of the page. If you are using a mobile device,
the forecast menu appears at the bottom of your window and you need to select MORE >
WEATHER > MONTHLY FORECAST.

4. Depending on your location and preferences, temperature will be displayed in either Fahrenheit
or Celsius. Celsius will be more helpful for the calculations, so you may want to change the
temperature setting if it is not already displaying in ºC. Using a computer, the unit setting will be
displayed in the same top bar to search for locations. Click on the units and a drop down will
appear allowing you to select your unit preference as well as options to select different regions
and languages. If you are using a mobile device, the unit change is located in the MORE menu in
the forecast bar.

5. When you have the monthly forecast displaying, scroll down past the monthly calendar to the
line graph displaying the values of the average high and low temperatures for each month, the
record high and low temperatures for each month, and the Average Precipitation for each
month. You usually have to do a bit more scrolling on the mobile version to get to the graph.
Clicking on any of the colored labels at the top of the graph turns the visibility of that data set on
and off.
 6. Use the average high line and data (the orange top line) to identify the month with the greatest
average high temperature and record that temperature for your location.

7. Use the record low line and data (the gray line, second from the bottom) to identify the month
with lowest temperature ever observed for your location and record that temperature.

Reading 2

Tools for Measuring Shading

Solar Pathfinder

The Solar Pathfinder is a manual tool that can be coupled with digital analysis. For more information
about the equipment you can check the company's Overview of using the Solar Pathfinder and the
Manual for the Solar Pathfinder. These include written explanations of using the Solar Pathfinder along
with some field pictures.

Solmetric Sun Eye

Completely digital tools for analyzing shading at a location are more expensive, but may be a worthwhile
investment for people who have to do a lot of site evaluations for system designs. You can learn more
about one such digital tool at the Solmetric Sun Eye product page.

Other Tools

In this course we are focusing on tools for measuring shading at a location during a physical site visit,
however, there are other advanced software tools that can estimate shading for a location without you
having to physically be at a site. In course 3 of the specialization we'll take a look at some of these types
of tools that can model shading using remotely sensed data (think along the lines of satellite imagery) to
simulate 3 dimensional models of a site and how the incoming sunlight and shading change over the
course of a year. These types of tools can mean a further investment in software and sometimes the
hardware necessary to run the software, which may not be practical depending on what scale a business
is operating at. The more site evaluations, proposals, and installations that you have to do, the more
having a tool that can quickly assess and generate a report on shading at a site may be a valuable
investment.