Senior design project –2024

CHAPTER-1

Introduction:

[1] Overexploitation of natural resources, especially the mining of sand and gravel, has
led to serious environmental degradation in many countries and regions. Due to the protection of
the natural topography, restrictive policies have been introduced to address the sand quarrying
and mining activities. On the other hand, over the past few decades, the increasing development
of urbanization and the construction industry have consumed a massive amount of natural
resources, especially coarse and fine aggregates for concrete production. The mining of natural
aggregates is gradually becoming prohibited, leading to severe shortages of raw materials for
concrete production. The construction industry is under increasing pressure to adopt sustainable
practices due to environmental concerns and the depletion of natural resources, so Recycled
coarse aggregates (RCA), derived from crushed concrete and construction debris, provide an
eco-friendly alternative to natural aggregates.

Figure 1 Mining of coarse aggregates

Fly ash (FA), a type of solid by-product, is produced during coal combustion in power
plants. Due to the low cost and abundant availability of coal, the huge use of coal to meet the
demand of growing energy has generated an exponential increase in the amount of FA. Estimates
indicate that global annual production of FA has reached approximately 600–800 million tons,
among which China and India account for approximately 18%. However, according to these
statistics, less than 30% of total global FA production was used, and most residual FA was stored
in landfills or disposed of by simple stacking, occupying vast tracts of land and causing serious
pollution to groundwater sources, the soil, and the air due to its leach ability, radioactivity, and
toxicity. However, previous studies have reported on the high abundance and wide variation of

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valuable elements (Si, Al, Fe, and Ca) in FA, which could certainly contribute to its effective use
in the construction industry. Moreover, excessive environmental pressure and impending strict
disposal restrictions are driving proposed effective and feasible treatment methods for massive
amounts of piled FA. Studies have comprehensively explored the use of FA. Reports have shown
that FA can be used for soil improvement, ceramic and zeolite production, wastewater treatment,
and as a filler in polymers. However, the consumption of FA does not match growing
production. FA used in blended cement is an established innovation, however, its use in concrete
has to conform to guidelines, such as the ASTM C618 standard in the United States and the
European Standard EN 450–1 in Europe. As a result, FA below a certain standard will be
abandoned. Therefore, there is an urgent need to propose a value-added and high-volume
recycling method to expand the application range of FA, and the use of FA in the manufacturing
of artificial aggregate is undoubtedly worthy of consideration.

Two major methods are currently used to manufacture artificial aggregates high-temperature
sintering and cold-bonding pelletization. The former has been widely used due to the high
performance of its synthetic aggregates, however, it has shortcomings, including the
consumption of more energy and the production of more CO 2, which do not meet the goal of
carbon neutrality. Therefore, to reduce excess environmental burden, cold-bonding pelletization
for aggregate production was proposed. However, most researchers have paid more attention to
cold bonding with Portland cement. As possible substitute binders for ordinary Portland cement,
alkali activated materials have enormous application prospects, however, their value and
application as aggregates are far from being fully investigated. This project investigates the use
of a composite mix of fly ash coarse aggregates, recycled coarse aggregates, and conventional
coarse aggregates to enhance the sustainability and performance of concrete. In this study,
artificial aggregates based on alkali-activated technology were manufactured, where fly ash (FA)
and a blended sodium silicate/hydroxide solution were used as alkali-activated solution to
prepare a fly ash pellets by pelletization technology respectively. As we can’t replace entirely
conventional coarse aggregates from concrete in structural elements such as beams, columns etc.
so an attempt is made to study of using combination of fly ash and recycled coarse aggregates
with conventional aggregates in concrete. The study aims to evaluate how the integration of
these materials affects concrete properties such as strength, durability, workability, and
environmental impact.

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CHAPTER-2

Literature review:

Zhenlin Li [1] “Research on the durability and Sustainability of an artificial lightweight

aggregate concrete made from municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash (MSWIBA)”, This
study chooses to use three common cementing materials, Portland cement (OPC), ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and fly ash (FA), as the binder for the production of three
artificial lightweight coarse aggregates (ALCAs) through cold bonding with municipal solid
waste incineration bottom ash (MSWIBA) in which MSWIBA accounts for 70% of the total
content by volume. In this study, three ALCAs were used to replace 0%, 30%, 60%, and 100%
of natural aggregates used in the production of concrete. Through capillary water absorption and
rapid migration of chloride ions, the effect of the replacement amount of ALCAs on the
durability of concrete was explored. Additionally, in accordance with the Material Sustainability
Index (MSI), a statistical analysis of the CO 2 emissions, energy consumption and cost of the
concrete made of the three ALCAs was carried out. Studies have shown that ALCAs can
improve the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) and pore structure of concrete, thereby improving
the ability of concrete to resist chloride ion penetration. In addition, the use of ALCAs can
reduce the cost of concrete. Among the ALCAs used in this study, those which use GGBFS and
FA as adhesives (without OPC) can improve the durability of concrete the most and reduce
CO2 emissions.

Alberto Ferraro [2] “Production & characterization of lightweight aggregates from municipal
solid waste incineration fly-ash through single & double-step pelletization process”, The
performance of a cold-bonding pelletization process was investigated for lightweight
aggregates (LWAs) production from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly-ash (FA), by
including multiple waste materials in the aggregate mixture. Before pelletization, FA was pre-
treated by washing with water, which led to a reduction of chloride (66.79%) and sulphate
(25.30%) content. This was further confirmed by XRF and XRD analyses, which showed a
reduction of chloride elements and the content of chlorine crystalline phases. The pelletization
process was carried out using both single- and double-step methods. For single-step pelletization,
all the mixtures contained 80% FA, combined with various compositions of cement (5, 10, and
15%) and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) (5, 10, and 15%). For the double-step
pelletization 30% of cement and 70% of marble sludge (MS) were added to each of the previous

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mixtures. The apparent density of all the aggregates varied between 1.60 and 1.87 g cm−3,
suggesting their suitability to be classified as LWAs. Aggregates produced from double-step
pelletization showed improved characteristics, with water absorption capacity and open porosity
generally lower compared to the corresponding aggregates from the single-step pelletization. The
best values of compressive (crushing) strength (almost 11 MPa) were observed for double-step
pelletization aggregates with initial cement: GBFS mixture of 15%:5%. Results from leaching
tests showed an overall significant release of chloride and sulphate. Nevertheless, leaching from
double-step pelletization aggregates was reduced by 1.73-4.02 times for chloride and 1.58-5.67
times for sulphate, further suggesting that better performances are achievable through the
addition of an aggregate second layer.

Sandeep Singh [3] “Development of angular-shaped lightweight coarse aggregate with low
calcium fly ash using autoclave curing - Experimental and microstructural study” A novel
technique is proposed in the present study to manufacture angular shaped fly ash aggregate from
low calcium fly ash which involves a compaction-extrusion for agglomeration and autoclave or
water bath curing for hardening. Cylindrical specimens with different fly ash-lime-cement mix
proportions and curing combinations were prepared. Angular shaped fly ash aggregate was
obtained by crushing the cured cylindrical specimens. The influence of curing on the unconfined
compressive strength of cylindrical specimens and the aggregate impact value of the developed
coarse aggregate in a hot water bath and autoclave were investigated. X-ray diffraction
patterns, field emission scanning electron microscopy images and thermo-gravimetric analysis
were carried out to study the effect of binder content, curing technique, steam pressure, and
curing period on strength of aggregate. The autoclave curing method was found to be more
effective in hardening the fly ash-binder mix compared to water bath curing for low calcium fly
ash. The present work proposes a quick, cost-effective procedure (mixing, compaction-extrusion,
curing, and crushing) for producing angular-shaped coarse aggregate from low-calcium fly ash.
The developed lightweight fly ash aggregates have suitable angularity with rough surfaces for
better interlocking and excellent mechanical properties (toughness, hardness, abrasion and
soundness), meeting the criteria of aggregate for structural concrete and pavements.

Biqin Dong [4] “Fly ash-based artificial aggregates synthesized through alkali-activated cold-
bonded pelletization technology”, In this study, artificial aggregates based on alkali-activated
technology were designed and manufactured, where fly ash (FA) and a blended sodium
silicate/hydroxide solution were used as the precursor and activator, respectively. The
mechanical properties, densities, water absorption, reaction products, internal pore distribution,
and carbonation resistance of the produced artificial aggregates with different alkali content and
activator modulus were investigated to ensure their usability in concrete. The experimental
results showed that the artificial aggregate with an alkali content of 5.5% and an activator
modulus of 1.5 was found to be the optimal formulation in this study, considering the varied

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properties and the dosage of activator. The strength of long-term cured aggregates increased
slightly when the modulus was increased from 1.2 to 1.5, but decreased significantly when the
modulus was further increased to 2.0. The qualitative and quantitative analysis results of X-ray
computed tomography images further revealed that the bulk pores inside the aggregate were
mainly concentrated in the center, while the capillary pores were primarily distributed near the
surface. This study provided the understanding of the internal pore distribution of artificial
aggregates synthesized by disc granulation for possible application in concrete.

Jun Liu [5] “The impact of cold-bonded artificial lightweight aggregates produced by municipal
solid waste incineration bottom ash (MSWIBA) replace natural aggregates on the mechanical,
microscopic and environmental properties, durability of sustainable concrete”, In this study
MSWIBA is recycled by manufacturing artificial light coarse aggregates (ALCAs) and used as
coarse aggregates to partially replace natural aggregates (NAs) to design green concrete. In this
work, ALCAs made of MSWIBA replaced NAs with different percentages (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100%) to manufacture artificial lightweight coarse aggregate concrete (ALCAC). The
influence of specific gravity, compressive strength, splitting strength, carbonization performance
and micro properties of ALCAC were studied. It was observed that with an increase in the
replacement rate of ALCAs, the specific gravity of ALCAC decreased by up to 12.1%, and the
mechanical properties also declined. However, the compressive strength can still reach more than
30 MPa, and the splitting strength can reach more than 3.3 MPa. In addition, an increase in the
ALCA content also led to an increase in the ALCAC matrix pores, and CO2 was more likely to
invade the concrete interior, which increased the depth of concrete carbonization. The hydration
products of ALCAC make the interface zones (ITZs) rougher, and the bonding effect in the ITZ
area is significantly better than that of NAC. Compared with fly ash (FA) light aggregate
concrete, ALCAC has lower energy consumption and CO2 emissions. This study provides insight
into the recycling of MSWIBA and application of ALCAs for sustainable RC structures

Sushree Sunayana [6] “Partially fly ash incorporated recycled coarse aggregate based concrete:
Microstructure perspectives and critical analysis”, This paper presents experimental investigation
of the microstructure of partial cement substituted fly ash incorporated recycled aggregate
concrete (FARAC). Testing techniques such as thermo-gravimetric analysis, scanning electron
microscopy, nano-indentation and X-ray tomography were adopted for this study. Effects of
parameters like (i) percentage of fly ash (20% and 30% as cement replacement by weight), (ii)
particle packing mix design and conventional method, (iii) curing ages (7, 28 and 90 days), and
(iv) coarse aggregate types (100% natural or recycled) are examined. Degree of hydration of
FARAC, though higher than natural aggregate concrete, did not translate directly into
compressive strength due to formation of more loosely connected low density C-S-H confirmed
by SEM images. It is observed that micro-cracks pass mostly through the old and fresh bulk
paste rather than the old ITZ in 90 days cured concrete. Thickness of the old ITZ as well as

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heterogeneities of the new ITZ reduced in FARAC. Upto 30% fly ash can compensate higher
porosity of RAC through formation of spherical smaller-size pores
Puput Risdanareni [7] “The effect of NaOH concentration on the mechanical and physical
properties of alkali activated fly ash-based artificial lightweight aggregate” In this research, the
NaOH concentration of the activator was varied (4 M, 6 M or 8 M) in order to obtain the
optimum for producing LWA. Sodium silicate was combined with the sodium hydroxide in a
weight ratio of 1.5. The LWA were produced by adding the activator to the fly ash in a pan
granulator and the particles of 2–4 mm diameter were used to replace the fine natural aggregates
in the mortar. The mechanical and physical properties of the produced LWA were investigated,
such as water absorption, density, porosity, particle size distribution, crushing resistance, and
mineralogy, as well as the compressive strength of the resulting mortar. The results showed that
increasing the concentration of NaOH up to 8 M had no significant effect on the density, water
absorption, particle size distribution, mineralogy and the crushing strength of resulting LWA. A
significant decrease in the amount of macropores occurs when the concentration of NaOH is
increased from 4 M to 6 M. The maximum compressive strength of 64 N/mm2 at 28 days could
be achieved by mortar containing LWA with 8 M NaOH. The properties of fly ash-based LWA
in this research were comparable with LWA generated from commercial expanded clay.

Feras Tajra [8] “The production and properties of cold-bonded aggregate and its applications in
concrete”, This study focuses towards the production of artificial aggregates, as an alternative to
natural ones. Artificial aggregates are produced either by sintering or cold bonding method.
Compared with the sintering method and besides being an effective recycling solution for a wide
variety of wastes and by-product materials, the cold bonding method is characterized by minimal
energy consumption, low pollutant emissions and low investment requirements. The use of cold-
bonded aggregate as a potential construction material in concrete production is summarized in
this manuscript. The paper discusses factors influencing manufacturing productivity and the
properties of cold-bonded aggregate, such as pelletizer disc angle and speed, pelletization
duration, water content and the types of raw materials and binders used. The physical properties
of cold-bonded aggregates made of different waste materials and binders are presented. The
mechanical characteristics, thermal properties and durability of concrete made of cold-bonded
aggregates are also reviewed. The literature in the field has established the potential of using
cold-bonded aggregates as sustainable materials in the production of normal-weight concrete, as
well as structural and nonstructural lightweight aggregate concrete.

Vivian W.Y. Tam [9] “A review of recycled aggregate in concrete applications (2000–2017)”,
The main aim of this study is to review the literature on the production and utilisation of recycled
aggregate in concrete, concrete pavements, roadway construction, and other civil engineering
works and some discussion on the savings on CO2 emissions have been included. The globally
published data on recycled aggregate standards (normative documents) of various countries have

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been systematically analysed and evaluated, and some barriers mentioned. This review may help
to alleviate the concerns of consumers and encourage and further promote the use of recycled
aggregate on a larger scale in civil engineering projects.

P. Tang [10] “Employing cold bonded pelletization to produce lightweight aggregates from
incineration fine bottom ash”, Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) bottom ash fine
particles (0–2 mm, BAF) are a potential building material, but their possible environmental risk
and poor physical properties hinder their application scale. In this study, the cold
bonded pelletizing technique is applied to produce artificial lightweight aggregates using BAF
and other industrial waste powders, as a way of recycling BAF mainly. The properties of the
produced aggregates are determined and compared with other artificial aggregates. Moreover,
the growth mechanism of the pellet with BAF and the role of BAF on pellet strength are
addressed. The leaching properties of this aggregate are evaluated according to the
environmental legislation. In addition, this aggregate is used as natural aggregate replacement in
concrete to investigate its influence on concrete properties

Erhan Güneyisi [11] “Durability aspect of concretes composed of cold bonded and sintered fly
ash lightweight aggregates”, This study reports the finding of an experimental study carried out
on the durability related properties of the lightweight concretes (LWCs) including either cold
bonded (CB) or sintered (S) fly ash aggregates. CB aggregate was produced with cold
bonding pelletization of class F fly ash (FA) and Portland cement (PC) while S aggregate was
produced by sintering the fresh aggregate pellets manufactured from FA and bentonite (BN).
Two concrete series with water-to-binder (w/b) ratios of 0.35 and 0.55 were designed.
Moreover, silica fume (SF) with 10% replacement level was also utilized for the purpose of
comparing the performances of LWCs with and without ultrafine SF. The durability properties of
concretes composed of CB and S aggregates were evaluated in terms of water sorptivity, rapid
chloride ion permeability, gas permeability, and accelerated corrosion testing after 28 days of
water curing period. The compressive strength test was also applied to observe the strength level
at the same age. The results revealed that S aggregate containing LWCs had relatively better
performance than LWCs with CB aggregates. Moreover, the incorporation of SF provided
further enhancement in permeability and corrosion resistance of the concretes.

Niyazi Ugur Kockal [12] “Durability of lightweight concretes with lightweight fly ash
aggregates”, This paper presents the effects of aggregate properties such as strength, porosity,
water absorption, bulk density and specific gravity on the strength and durability of lightweight
fly ash aggregate concrete (LWAC). The influence of properties of four aggregates (sintered
lightweight fly ash aggregates, cold-bonded lightweight fly ash aggregate and normalweight
aggregate) on mechanical and durability properties of concrete is discussed. Experimental results

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revealed that durable high-strength air-entrained lightweight concretes could be produced using
sintered or cold-bonded lightweight fly ash aggregates, having comparable performance with the
normalweight concretes. The use of lightweight aggregates (LWA) instead of normalweight
aggregates in concrete production decreased the strength and stiffness due to the higher porosity
and lower strength of the aggregate included in the concrete. However, permeability of sintered
fly ash aggregate lightweight concretes was comparable and slightly lower than normalweight
concrete whereas permeability of cold-bonded fly ash lightweight concrete was greater than the
others. All concretes had a durability factor greater than 85, which met the requirements by
showing quite perfect resistance to freeze–thaw.

S. Geetha [13] “Reuse potential of low-calcium bottom ash as aggregate through pelletization”,
This paper explains the use of bottom ash through pelletization. Raw bottom ash could not be
pelletized as such due to its coarseness. Though pulverized bottom ash could be pelletized, the
pelletization efficiency was low, and the aggregates were too weak to withstand the handling
stresses. To improve the pelletization efficiency, different clay and cementitious binders were
used with bottom ash. The influence of different factors and their interaction effects were studied
on the duration of pelletization process and the pelletization efficiency through fractional
factorial design. Addition of binders facilitated conversion of low-calcium bottom ash into
aggregates. To achieve maximum pelletization efficiency, the binder content and moisture
requirements vary with type of binder. Addition of Ca(OH)2 improved the (i) pelletization
efficiency, (ii) reduced the duration of pelletization process from an average of 14–7 min, and
(iii) reduced the binder dosage for a given pelletization efficiency. For aggregate with clay
binders and cementitious binder, Ca(OH)2 and binder dosage have significant effect in reducing
the duration of pelletization process

Gökhan Baykal[14] “Utilization of fly ash by pelletization process; theory, application areas and
research results”, Although pelletization process is a world wide known technique in the
production of artificial aggregates, it has not been widely used in construction sector. The 1985
figures show that overall pellet production for use as metallurgical product was 435 million tons
and with respect to statistical figures that belong to 1989 the agglomerated product use in
construction sector as lightweight aggregate was only 1.2 million tons. The reasons of low
utilization of coal combustion by-products as lightweight aggregates in the construction sector
are: — the availability of natural resource products and relatively higher costs of agglomeration
process due to initial investments and — energy requiring curing procedures to obtain
adequate strength for construction applications (e.g. steam curing and sintering). However,
depending on the agglomerated materials’ properties and process efficiency, artificial aggregates
with adequate engineering performance may be produced by moisture treatment under
atmospheric conditions. In this study, the engineering performance of moist cured fly ash pellets
including the effect of lime and cement additions both for geotechnical application and concrete

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production purposes were investigated and the results obtained are quite satisfactory for the
related design requirements.
Pengfei Ren [15] “Performance investigation of the artificial aggregate by integrally recycling
incineration bottom ash and fly ash”, This study aims to develop artificial aggregates (AAs) by
integrating IBA with a low-alkalinity binder comprising incineration fly ash (IFA) and blast
furnace slag (GGBS). The synergetic effects of using IBA with IFA-GGBS binders in AAs are
investigated and compared to integrating IBA with IFA-OPC binders. The impacts of IFA and
IBA contents on physico-mechanical properties and mineralogical characteristics of AAs are also
assessed. The results show that AAs achieve a loose bulk density ranging from 890 to
1072 kg/m3, with the highest strength of 5.7 MPa recorded for GGBS-based aggregates with
40 % IBA. The pozzolanic reaction of GGBS-IFA contributes to a robust binder that facilitates
interlocking within the system. The relatively low alkalinity associated with the pozzolanic
reaction between GGBS and IFA suppresses the potential expansion reaction, ensuring the safe
application of AAs in concrete. Moreover, the internal curing of GGBS-based AAs and their
interaction with the cement matrix densify the microstructure of the interface transition zone,
resulting in excellent compressive strength of AAs-contained concrete (>45 MPa), which
surpasses that of conventional concrete.

K.N. Shivaprasad [16] “Determination of optimized geopolymerization factors on the properties

of pelletized fly ash aggregates”, This research investigates the effect of geopolymerization
factors on the pelletization in the production of artificial fly ash aggregates. The proportion of
pelletized fly ash aggregate mixes was designed through Taguchi’s L9 orthogonal array. The
properties of the aggregates produced from the optimal mixes were characterized according to
the standard specifications. The effect of geopolymerization factors such as Na 2O content, water
content, and curing regime on the properties of the pelletized fly ash geopolymer aggregates was
determined through response indices at the age of 14, 28 and 56 days. In addition, Grey relation
based analysis was performed to identify the most critical parameter for optimization among
three geopolymerization factors selected in this investigation, for the production of pelletized fly
ash geopolymer aggregates. It is observed from the response indices and Grey relation results
that the impact value of the aggregates and crushing strength of individual pellets is governed by
heat curing and high water content at the age of 14 and 28 days. However, at the age of 56 days
these response indices are significantly governed by the solution curing and high water content.
It was also noted that the minimum Na 2O content of 3.5–4.5% is adequate for the production of
pelletized fly ash aggregates.

Mehmet Gesoğlu[17] “Effects of fly ash properties on characteristics of cold-bonded fly ash
lightweight aggregates” ,The study presented herein provides a new insight into the effects of
physical and chemical properties of the fly ash on the characteristics of the cold-bonded fly ash

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lightweight aggregates. LWAs were manufactured through the cold-bonding pelletization of two
fly ashes differing in their physical and chemical properties. Moreover, one type of the LWAs
was surface treated by water glass. The produced fly ash aggregates were then examined by
means of ESEM micrograph, EDX spectrum, and XRD pattern to resolve the microstructural and
the mineralogical characteristics of the LWAs. The findings of the study revealed that the fly ash
with higher specific surface and with lower CaO content yielded higher strength LWAs.
Furthermore, the surface treatment with water glass provided a marked increase in the aggregate
strength and a reduction in the water absorption. The LWCs made with such LWAs had a
compressive strength of as high as 60 MPa.

Gopal Bharamappa Bekkeri [18] “Producing of alkali artificial aggregates by pelletization of fly
ash, slag and seashell powder”, The current study encompasses the production of alkali-activated
artificial aggregates through cold-bonding pelletization technique using three different raw
materials, including fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, and seashell powder in binary
and ternary blending combinations. The cold bonding was achieved by alkali activation of
binders with the aid of a sodium-based alkaline solution, which acts as an activator and hydrating
liquid. The fresh artificial aggregates were subjected to surface treatment using the same alkaline
solution to enhance their characteristics. The mechanical properties of artificial aggregates
confirmed their potential as a substitute for conventional aggregates by exhibiting crushing and
impact values of 18.19–27.53% and 12.06–18.85%, respectively. The microstructural and
mineralogical characteristics depicted dense microstructure and compact matrix. The study
concludes that artificial aggregates can effectively replace natural coarse aggregate in making
structural concrete with many economic, environmental, and technical advantages.

Jun Liu [19] “The performance and microstructure of alkali- activated artificial aggregates
prepared from municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash”, This study used MSWIBA and
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) as precursors for alkali-activated aggregates
(AAAs), activated by a mixture of sodium hydroxide solutions and sodium silicate. The physical
and mechanical properties of AAAs, including water absorption, apparent density, crushing
strength and carbon-resistance, were investigated at different NaOH concentrations. In addition,
the microstructure, mineral composition, aggregation, porosity and heavy metal leaching
behavior of AAAs were analyzed by SEM, XRD, FTIR, TGA, MIP and ICP techniques. All
AAAs exhibited a consistent particle size distribution, characterized by apparent densities
spanning the range of 1633–1940 kg/m3. The leaching levels of heavy metals align with the
standards established by Chinese regulations. Among the different activator concentrations
tested, aggregate (M4) displayed superior single-particle crushing strength (3.90 MPa) and better
carbonization resistance. It also used a lower concentration of NaOH, which enabled more cost-
effective and eco-friendly production. Overall, the findings suggest that MSWIBA can be a

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viable precursor for producing sustainable lightweight concrete, with 4 M NaOH being the
optimal activator concentration for achieving the best performance.
P. Gomathi [20] “Accelerated curing effects on the mechanical performance of cold bonded and
sintered fly ash aggregate concrete” ,This study investigates the mechanical performance of
concrete incorporating fly ash based light weight aggregates. Comparative assessment on the
physical and mechanical properties of cold bonded and sintered fly ash aggregates were
evaluated systematically. Design concrete mixes were theoretically arrived using aggregate
packing concept with different combinations of two phase system (mortar and fly ash aggregate).
Experimental test results indicated favorable mechanical strength improvements of concrete
incorporating sintered fly ash aggregates compared to cold bonded aggregates. Test results also
demonstrated that the composite strength of concrete was found to be improved when the ratio of
volume of coarse aggregate to volume of cement mortar is lower. Most notably, the sintered fly
ash aggregate (62%) substituted concrete mixes exhibited a maximum compressive strength of
39.97 MPa when subjected to hot water curing. In general, favorable strength gain properties
were noted in the case of fly ash aggregate concrete specimens exposed to either accelerated
steam or hot water curing. Effects on the strength properties of various fly ash aggregate
concretes subjected to various durability tests were also reported in this study.

Dohoon Kim [21] “Developing geopolymer concrete by using cold-bonded fly ash aggregate,
nano-silica, and steel fiber” ,This experimental study presents the effect of nano-silica and steel
fiber on the transport properties and compressive strength of alkali-activated slag/fly ash
concrete incorporated cold-bonded fly ash aggregate. In order to reduce energy consumption and
provide environmental impact, the cold-bonded process was used to manufacture cold-bonded
fly ash aggregate. Twenty four geopolymer concrete mixtures incorporated cold-bonded fly ash
aggregate, nano-silica, and steel fiber were produced with sodium hydroxide concentration of
12 M and cured at ambient temperature. Transport properties of geopolymers were examined
through water penetration, water sorptivity, and gas permeability at 28 and 90 days. Results
indicate that geopolymer concrete incorporated cold-bonded fly ash aggregate can be produced
with compressive strength as high as 28.23 and 36.62 at 28 and 90 days, respectively. However,
2% nano-silica and 1% steel fiber volume fraction were the most significant parameters that
caused remarkable improvement of investigated properties. Moreover, the incorporation of waste
materials in aggregate and geopolymer concrete production can alleviate environmental
problems.

Qingxin Zhao [22] “Investigation of various curing methods on the properties of red mud-
calcium carbide slag-based artificial lightweight aggregate ceramsite fabricated through alkali-
activated cold-bonded pelletization technology”, Industrial solid wastes red mud and calcium
carbide slag are used to prepare lightweight aggregate ceramsite by cold-bonded pelletizing
technology in this study. The effects of mixing water and curing method on the physical
properties of ceramsite were investigated, including natural curing (in air at 20 °C), sealed

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curing, water curing, hot air oven curing, steam curing, and CO 2 curing. The results showed that
the lightweight aggregate had the lowest cylinder crush strength, the lowest apparent density, and
the highest water absorption after natural curing. The highest cylinder crush strength of 8.7 MPa
was obtained by steam curing at 60 °C for 12 h, which was 180.65% higher than that of natural
curing because the high temperature promoted the hydration reaction thus the formation of C-
(A)-S-H gel and hydrotalcite. CO 2 curing at 60 °C significantly reduced the water absorption of
the lightweight aggregate by 50% and by 38.03% as compared to that obtained by natural curing
and steam curing at 60 °C for 12 h, respectively. During CO2 curing, the reaction between
CO2 and Ca(OH)2 from the calcium carbide slag can form a dense layer of CaCO 3, increasing the
structural compactness and reducing the water absorption.

Anja Terzić [23] “Artificial fly ash based aggregates properties influence on lightweight concrete
performances”, The effect of the application of pelletized fly ash based aggregates obtained
through different processing techniques on the behavior of lightweight concretes was analyzed.
Experimental program implied production of four lightweight artificial aggregates—cold bonded
and sintered pellets based on either mechanically activated or non-activated low-calcium fly ash
and water glass. The lightweight concrete behavior was compared to that of normal-weight
concrete through compressive strength, flexural strength, porosity, shrinkage, and modulus of
elasticity investigation. Differences in concretes characteristics were discussed with SEM
imagining support. The statistical analysis of lightweight aggregate and ash properties
contribution on concrete performances was realized by analysis variance model (ANOVA).
Optimal production combination that maximizes lightweight concrete performance was
determined by employing response surface methodology. An increase in
concrete strength induced by the increase in ash fineness was noticed. Mechanical activation also
had effect on the pellets sintering period and sintering temperature reduction. The 28- and 56-day
lightweight concrete specimens exhibited properties that met the requirements for normal-weight
concretes. Finally, the ideal combinations of ash pellets production parameters and properties
that gave the lightweight concrete with behavior matching to that of standard concrete were
established. The production capability of lightweight concrete with advanced performances
based on artificial aggregate approves the principle of waste material reusing and enables cleaner
and economically sustainable concrete manufacturing procedure.

Dohoon Kim [24] “Development of lightweight and low-crystalline artificial aggregate using
cementless fly ash binder for thermal neutron shielding concrete manufacture” ,This study
developed artificial lightweight aggregates (CNF aggregates) using a Ca(OH) 2–Na2CO3-activated
fly ash (CNF) binder system and boron compounds (H 3BO3 and Na2B4O7) for thermal neutron
shielding through cold-bonding pelletization. The study demonstrated that the CNF aggregates
having 5 wt% H3BO3 and Na2B4O7 were lightweight and adequate for structural use, satisfying
ASTM C 330, Korean CSD, and KS F2527. The CNF aggregates were safe from heavy metal
toxicity and did not noticeably lose boron due to leaching. In addition, these aggregates had only

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a small amount of quartz and thus had considerably lower risks of neutron-induced volumetric
aggregate expansion in PC concretes than crushed (or natural) aggregates. The use of the CNF
aggregates in PC concrete production was excellent in increasing the thermal neutron shielding
performance of PC concrete. The thermal neutron shielding efficiencies of the PC concretes with
CNF aggregates having 5 wt% H3BO3 and Na2B4O7 were 96.6 % and 99.3 %, respectively. In
addition, the compressive strengths of PC concrete with these CNF aggregates were high enough
(29.2–30.2 MPa) to satisfy the structural lightweight aggregate concrete requirement (>17 MPa)
according to ACI 213.

Pengfei Ren [25] “A novel use of incineration bottom ash for H 2 aeration in the production of
artificial lightweight aggregates”, This study aims to fully upcycle aluminum (Al) content in
municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (IBA) for H 2 aeration in the production of
lightweight artificial aggregate through alkali activation. To achieve this, the glass particles (GP)
in IBA were ground into powder and used as the precursor for NaOH, while the remaining IBA
(RIBA), rich in Al, served as the foaming agent. The results showed that RIBA particles
(<300 μm) can be used to produce lightweight AA with a loose bulk density ranging from 780 to
840 kg/m3, comparable to sintered fly ash aggregates, and a wide pore size distribution ranging
from 0.02 mm to over 1 mm. The inclusion of finer RIBA particles (<75 μm) enhanced the
homogeneity of the pore structure, resulting in aggregate strengths of 0.4–0.6 MPa. Moreover,
increasing the GP content in IBA up to 40% further boosted the aggregate strength to 1.1 MPa by
refining the pore structure and promoting more (C)-N-A-S-H gels with Q 4 structures. To ensure
sufficient geopolymerization reactions and achieve high strength in the AAs, the alkali
concentration should be kept above 3 mol/L. The proposed strategy for lightweight AA
production reduced the global warming potential by about 20% compared to the conventional
sintered method, offering a more environmentally friendly approach.

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CHAPTER-3

3.1 Problem statement:

Production of sustainable concrete requires to optimize the energy consumption and efficient use
of the constituent materials. As coarse aggregate (CA) constituting about 75% of concrete, the
demand for CA is ever increasing. With the increasing demand for CA and the dwindling natural
resources, attempts are made to explore alternate to CA. Fly ash due to its pozzolanic properties
is being used as a admixture in making concrete. Studies indicate the feasibility to produce CA
using fly ash through geo-polymeric action and pelletization process. The feasibility of
production of CA using fly ash and the use of such aggregate in combination with recycled and
natural aggregates in making of sustainable concrete needs to be studied.

3.2 Objectives:

1. To produce coarse aggregate using fly ash from thermal power plant by pelletization process.
2. To assess the feasibility of using fly ash aggregates in concrete production.
3. To assess the strength properties of concrete made with fly ash aggregates and recycled
coarse aggregates in combination with conventional aggregates.

3.3 Scope:

To Investigate the feasibility of producing artificial coarse aggregates from fly ash and assess
their performance as replacements for natural coarse aggregates in concrete. Address the
environmental benefits and potential challenges associated with using fly ash-based aggregates.

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CHAPTER-4

4.1 Methodology and materials

Fly Ash:

Figure 2 Fly ash

Fly ash (FA), a type of solid by-product, is produced during coal combustion in power plants,
however, according to the statistics, less than 30% of total global FA production was used, and
most residual FA was stored in landfills or disposed of by simple stacking. Fly ash primarily
consists of silica, alumina, and iron oxide. There are two types of classification of fly ash.

Class F Fly Ash:

 Source: Produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal (harder, higher-grade coal).

 Composition: Contains low calcium content (less than 10%). It is rich in silica, alumina,
and iron oxide.

 Properties: It is less reactive and has pozzolanic properties, meaning it can react with
lime and water to form compounds that have cement-like properties.

 Low calcium because it contains less than 10% calcium oxide (CaO).

Class C Fly Ash:

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 Source: Produced from burning lignite or sub-bituminous coal (lower-grade coal).

 Composition: Contains high calcium content (more than 20%), making it more
cementitious.

 Properties: Class C fly ash is more reactive than Class F and can react with water to form
cementitious compounds, contributing to higher early strength.

 High calcium because it contains more than 20% calcium oxide (CaO).

Figure 3 Popular Concrete Pvt Ltd in Kakti Belgaum

2. Alkali activated solution (Activator):

Alkali-activated solutions are a type of binder or cementing material created by activating

aluminosilicate materials (such as fly ash, slag, or metakaolin) with an alkaline solution,
typically made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), sometimes in
combination with sodium silicate (Na₂SiO₃) or potassium silicate (K₂SiO₃). These solutions
react with the aluminosilicate materials in a process called alkali activation, leading to the
formation of a solid material with cement-like properties. Common alkali activators include
sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate. These substances help to activate the fly ash and enhance
its binding properties.

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Sodium silicate: Figure 4 Sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide

Na₂O – 17%

SiO₂ – 36%

Sodium Hydroxide:

Concentration – 4M solution

Weight ratio:

Sodium silicate = 1.5*Sodium hydroxide

Alkali activator = 0.25*Fly ash

4.2 Aggregates pelletization:

Pelletization is a process used to create artificial coarse aggregates by agglomerating finely

ground materials into pellets or small spherical masses in addition of alkali activated solution.
These pellets are then hardened and used as a substitute for natural coarse aggregates in
construction, particularly in concrete production. Pelletization can be applied in the production of
various types of artificial aggregates, including those made from industrial by-products such as
fly ash, slag, or recycled concrete.

4.3 Steps involved in production of aggregates:

• Artificial fly ash aggregates (AFAA) was produced using a pan mixer.

• First, the FA was poured into a disk and stirred for 1 min.

• Then, the alkali-activator liquid was sprayed slowly into the disk to pelletize the powder
for approximately 10 min.

• Later it is sieved through 12.5mm & 4.75mm size sieve.

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• Afterward, the desired shape of aggregates 4.75–12.5mm in size was obtained in the form
of pellets and it is then cured in oven at 90ºC for 24hrs.

Figure 5 Formation of pellets in pan mixer

Recycled coarse aggregates (RCA):

Recycled coarse aggregates are materials obtained by processing and reusing waste concrete or
masonry from construction and demolition sites. Instead of being disposed of in landfills, these
materials are crushed and screened to produce aggregates that can be used in new construction
project. This practice not only conserves natural resources but also reduces the environmental
impact of construction activities.

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Figure 6 Recycled aggregates from Rock crystals Chickkajala, Bengaluru

20mm down size
4.4 Mix design:
1. Grade of concrete = M20
2. Type of cement and grade = OPC 43 grade
3. Max nominal size of aggregates = 20mm
4. Exposure condition = Moderate
5. Minimum cement content = 300 kg/m3 (as per IS 456 table no 5.)
6. Workability in terms of slump = 100mm (as per IS 456 clause no 1.7)
7. Transportation time = 30 min
8. Method of placing = Pumping
9. Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3
10. Fine aggregate = Zone II
11. Type of course aggregate = crushed angular aggregate
12. Water cement ratio = 0.5 (IS 456 table 5.)
13. Standard deviation = 4.0 (IS 10262 table 2.)

Test data of materials

1. Specific gravity of cement = 3.16

2. Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.46
3. Specific gravity of course aggregate = 2.73
4. Specific gravity of water = 1.6

Calculation of target strength

Fck = fck + 1.65*S = 20+ 1.65*4 = 26.6 N/mm2

F’ck =fck + x = 20 +5.5 = 25.5 N/mm2

Target strength = 26.6 N/mm2

Calculation of w/c ratio:

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From fig 1 of IS 10262 – 2019 for 26.6 N/mm2

W/C ratio = 0.54

Determination of water content

Max water content for 20mm course aggregate = 162 kg

162 + 6/100 * 162 = 174 kg

Calculation of cement content

W/C = 0.54

C = 174 / 0.54 = 322.2 kg /m3 > 300 kg /m3

C= 323 kg/m3

Calculation of volume of course aggregate and fine aggregate

IS 10262 Table 5

Zone II = 0.62

Since the concrete is to be pumped the course aggregate is reduced by 10%

Volume of course aggregate = 0.62- (10/100 * 0.62) = 0.559

Volume of F.A = 1- 0.559 = 0.441

Design Mix calculation

1. Volume of concrete = 1m3

2. Volume of cement = (323 / 3.15* 1000) = 0.103 m3
3. Volume of super plasticizers = 0
4. Volume of entrapped air, V = 0.01 m3 as specified in Table 3 10262-2019,
Volume of water = 0.172 m3
5. Volume of all aggregate = [1-(Vc+Vw+Vsp+Va)] = [1- (0.103+0+0.172+0.01)] =
0.715m3
6. Mass of course aggregate = vol. of all aggregate * proportion of C.A * specific gravity *
1000 =0.715*0.559*2.73*1000 = 1091.14 kg

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7. Mass of fine aggregate = 0.715*0.441*2.46*1000 = 775.67

Proportion of trail mix

1. Cement = 323 kg/m3

2. Water 174 kg/m3
3. Course aggregate = 1091.14 kg/m3
4. Fine aggregate = 775.67 kg/m3
5. W/C Ratio = 0.54
6. Proportion = 1:2.45:3.44

4.5 Trail mix results:

Type of concrete No. of days Compressive strength (N/mm²)

Conventional concrete 7 days 15.26

28 days 27

Table 1 Trail mix results

4.6 Combinations of coarse aggregates:

Type of coarse
Mix-1 Mix-2 Mix-3 Mix-4
aggregate

Fly ash coarse

10 20 30 40
aggregates (FA)

Recycled coarse
40 30 20 10
aggregates (RA)

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Normal coarse
50 50 50 50
aggregates (NA)

Table 2 Combinations of coarse aggregates

CHAPTER-5
Results:
5.1 Tests conducted on Recycled and Fly ash aggregates:
1. Specific gravity
2. Sieve analysis & gradation
3. Impact test
4. Water absorption test

5.2 Specific gravity and Water Absorption Test

Recycled Aggregates

Mass of saturated aggregates in water with basket, W1= 1886gm

Mass of empty basket in water, W2=624.5gm

Mass of saturated aggregate in water, WS=W1-W2=1261.5gm

Mass of saturated surface dry aggregates in air, W3= 2146gm

Mass of oven dry aggregates, W4= 2048.1gm

Mass of water equal to the volume of aggregates, W3-WS= 884.5gm

Specific gravity =W4/(W3-WS) = 2.32

Water absorption =(W3-W4)/W4*100 = 4.78%

Fly Ash Aggregates

Mass of saturated aggregates in water with basket, W1= 1653gm

Mass of empty basket in water, W2= 624.5gm

Mass of saturated aggregate in water, WS=W1-W2= 1028.5 gm

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Mass of saturated surface dry aggregates in air, W3= 2281 gm

Mass of oven dry aggregates, W4= 2101.9 gm

Mass of water equal to the volume of aggregates, W3-WS= 1252.5 gm

Specific gravity =W4/(W3-WS) = 1.70
Water absorption =(W3-W4)/W4*100 = 8.52%
2.5 2.32

2
1.7
Specific gravity

1.5

0.5

Type of aggregate

Recycled coarse aggregates Fly ash coarse aggregates

Figure 7 Specific gravity results

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9.00% 8.52%

8.00%

7.00%
water absoprtion in %

6.00%

5.00% 4.78%

4.00%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00%

Type of aggregate

Recycled coarse aggregates Fly ash coarse aggregates

Figure 8 Water absorption results

5.3 Sieve analysis and gradation:

Sieve analysis of Fly ash aggregates

Weight Limit as
Percentage weight Cumulative %
IS sieve retained in % Passing per IS
retained in (gms) weight retained
(gms) 383
40 0 0.00 0.00 100 100
20 2861.6 57.23 57.2 43 85-100
16 650 13.00 70.2 30 -
12.5 407.6 8.15 78.4 22 -
10 494.9 9.90 88.3 12 0-20
4.25 472.5 9.45 97.7 2 0-5
Pan 113 2.26 100.0 0 -

Sieve analysis of regular aggregates

Weight Limit as
Percentage weight Cumulative %
IS sieve retained in % Passing per IS
retained in (gms) weight retained
(gms) 383
40 0 0.00 0.0 100.0 100
20 1492.2 29.84 29.8 70.2 85-100
16 1200.8 24.02 53.9 46.1 -

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12.5 1042.4 20.85 74.7 25.3 -

10 905.4 18.11 92.8 7.2 0-20
4.75 338 6.76 99.6 0.4 0-5
Pan 20.9 0.42 100.0 0.0 -

Sieve analysis of recycled aggregates

Weight Limit as
Percentage weight Cumulative %
IS sieve retained in % Passing per IS
retained in (gms) weight retained
(gms) 383
40 0 0.00 0.00 100 100
20 250.8 5.02 5.0 95 85-100
16 1928.1 38.56 43.6 56 -
12.5 1918 38.36 81.9 18 -
0 809.4 16.19 98.1 2 0-20
4.75 88.9 1.78 99.9 0 0-5
Pan 3.4 0.07 100.0 0 -
Table 3 Sieve analysis results

120

100

80
% of passing

60

40

20

0
4.25 10 12.5 16 20 40

Sieve size in mm

Fly ash aggregates regular aggregates Recycled aggregates

Figure 9 Particle size distribution of aggregates

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Particle size distribution for combinations

120

100

80
% of passing

60

40

20

0
4.25 10 12.5 16 20 40 40 20 16 12.5 10 4.25

Sieve size in mm

mix 1 mix 2 mix 3 mix 4

Figure 10 Particle size distribution of different mixes

5.4 IMPACT VALUE TEST OF AGGREGATE:

AIV=W5/W3 x 100

W5=W4-W1

W3=W2-W1

OBSERVATION:-

SL Type of Weight Weight of Weight of Wt of Aggregate

No. aggregate of Empty mould + Aggregates Aggregate Impact Value
Mould Aggregate (W3 gms) passing (AIV) in %
(W1 s (W2 W3=W2-W1 through 2.36 =W5/W3x100
gms) gms.) mm sieve (W5
gms)

1 Fly ash 853 1070.5 217.5 39.09 17.93

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aggregate

2 Recycled 853 1160 307 53 17.26

Aggregate

RESULT

For Fly ash aggregates, Aggregate Impact Value = 17.93 %

For Recycled aggregates, Aggregate Impact Value = 17.26%

Table 4 Impact value test

18.00% 17.93%

17.80%

17.60%
impact value

17.40%
17.26%
17.20%

17.00%

16.80%
Type of aggregate

Recycled coarse aggregates Fly ash coarse aggregates

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Figure 11 Impact test results

5.5 Workability test of concrete:

1. Slump cone test

2. Compaction factor

Mix-1 Mix-2 Mix-3 Mix-4

FA 10% FA 20% FA 30% FA 40%
RCA-40% RCA-30% RCA-20% RCA-10% Remarks
Type of test NA 50% NA 50% NA 50% NA 50%

Slump cone 30cm 30cm 30cm 30cm True slump

Compaction 0.91 0.9 0.9 0.9 Medium

factor workable

Table 5 Workability test results

5.6 Tests conducted on concrete cubes:

1. Compressive strength test

2. Water absorption test

7-days compressive strength test:

Compressive Average compressive

Weight of
Specimen Trial no. strength (7 days) strength (7 days)
specimen in kg
N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 1 1 8.044 23.11 22.81

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FA-10% 2 8.09 23.55

RCA-40%
NA-50% 3 8.1 21.77

Compressive Average compressive

Weight of
Specimen Trial no. strength (7 days) strength (7 days)
specimen in kg
N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 2 1 7.882 21.77

FA-20%
2 8.2 15.56 18.81
RCA-30%
NA-50% 3 8.144 19.11

Compressive Average compressive

Weight of
Specimen Trial no. strength (7 days) strength (7 days)
specimen in kg
N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 3 1 7.91 12.44

FA-30%
2 7.79 15.56 13.33
RCA-20%
NA-50% 3 7.78 12

Compressive Average compressive

Weight of
Specimen Trial no. strength (7 days) strength (7 days)
specimen in kg
N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 4 1 7.648 16.88

FA-40%
2 7.946 17.33 16.88
RCA-10%
NA-50% 3 7.986 16.44

Table 6 Compressive strength results (7-days)

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Avg compressive strength (7 days)

25.00 22.81
20.44
Avg compressive strength 20.00
16.88
(N/mm2) 15.00 12.22
10.00

5.00

0.00

Type of mix
M1 FA10, RA40, NA50 M2 FA20, RA30, NA50
M3 FA30, RA20, NA50 M4 FA40, RA10, NA50
Figure 12 Comparison graph of compressive strength (7-days)

28-days compressive strength test:

Weight of Compressive Average compressive

Specimen Trial no. specimen in strength (28 days) strength (28 days)
kg N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 1 1 8.176 25.78

FA-10%
2 8.072 22.22 24.89
RCA-40%
NA-50% 3 8.084 26.67

Weight of Compressive Average compressive

Specimen Trial no. specimen in strength (28 days) strength (28 days)
kg N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 2 1 8.128 27.55

FA-20%
2 8.158 22.22 25.92
RCA-30%
NA-50% 3 8.266 28

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Weight of Compressive Average compressive

Specimen Trial no. specimen in strength (28 days) strength (28 days)
kg N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 3 1 7.834 22.22

FA-30%
2 7.818 15.55 20.74
RCA-20%
NA-50% 3 8.02 24.44

Weight of Compressive Average compressive

Specimen Trial no. specimen in strength (28 days) strength (28 days)
kg N/mm2 N/mm2

Mix 4 1 7.87 24.44

FA-40%
2 7.91 18.67 22.52
RCA-10%
NA-50% 3 7.89 24.44

Table 7 Compressive strength results (28days)

Avg compressive strength (28 days)

30.00
25.92
24.89
25.00
22.52
20.74
Avg compressive strength

20.00

15.00
(N/mm2)

10.00

5.00

0.00

Type of mix

M1 FA10, RA40, NA50 M2 FA20, RA30, NA50

M3 FA30, RA20, NA50 M4 FA40, RA10, NA50

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Figure 13 Comparison graph of compressive strength (28-days)

Density of Concrete cubes

2400.0 2393.5 2393.2

2380.0
Density in kg/m3

2360.0
M1 FA10, RA40, NA50
2340.0 M2 FA20, RA30, NA50
2328.9
M3 FA30, RA20, NA50
2319.7
2320.0 M4 FA40, RA10, NA50

2300.0

2280.0
1

Type of mixes

Figure 14 Comparison of density

Water absorption test:

Specimen Mass of dry cubes in gm Mass of wet cubes in % Water absorption

(W1) gm (W2) (W2-W1)/W1 *100
Mix-1 8280 8420 1.69

Mix- 2 7870 8070 2.54

Mix-3 7730 7820 1.16

Mix-4 7830 7900 0.89

Table 8 Water absorption results

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Water absorption
3.00

2.54
2.50
% water absorption

2.00
1.69
1.50
1.16
1.00 0.89

0.50

0.00
1

Type of mix

Mix-1 Mix- 2 Mix-3 Mix-4

Figure 15 Water absorption

5.7 Results & Discussion.

In this study the artificial aggregates demonstrated specific properties such as low
specific gravity (1.70) and high water absorption (8.52%), which are critical factors in
determining their suitability for concrete production. The higher water absorption value suggests
that fly ash aggregates may require additional consideration regarding their impact on concrete's
workability and mix design.
When compared to recycled coarse aggregates (RCA), the fly ash aggregates showed
slightly higher water absorption and lower specific gravity. However, recycled aggregates
(specific gravity = 2.32, water absorption = 4.78%) demonstrated relatively better performance
in terms of water absorption. Both fly ash and recycled aggregates exhibited similar Aggregate
Impact Values (AIV) (17.93% for fly ash and 17.26% for recycled aggregates), which are
relatively within acceptable limits as per the IS 383 requirements for coarse aggregates, their
performance in concrete mixes showed promising results, especially when used in combination
with recycled aggregates.

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The four M20 grade concrete mixes tested in this study, incorporating different
proportions of fly ash coarse aggregates, recycled coarse aggregates, and natural coarse
aggregates, provided valuable insights into the optimal mix for performance. Among the mixes,
Mix 2 (20% fly ash coarse aggregates, 30% recycled coarse aggregates, and 50% regular coarse
aggregates) produced the most favourable results, achieving a compressive strength of 25.92
N/mm² and a water absorption rate of 2.54%. This indicates that a moderate replacement of
natural aggregates with a combination of fly ash and recycled aggregates can still yield concrete
with satisfactory strength and improved sustainability.
The results also suggest that concrete incorporating fly ash-based artificial aggregates,
particularly at lower replacement levels, can perform comparably or even outperform traditional
concrete. The hybrid approach of using fly ash and recycled aggregates offers a potential
solution to reduce dependence on natural resources, contributing to a more sustainable
construction industry.

CHAPTER-6

Conclusion:

This project focused on the production of artificial coarse aggregates from fly ash using
the pelletization process and their potential use as a replacement for natural coarse aggregates in
concrete. It also aimed to assess the feasibility and strength properties of concrete made with a
combination of fly ash aggregates, recycled coarse aggregates, and conventional coarse
aggregates. Based on the findings, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Production of Coarse Aggregates Using Fly Ash by Pelletization Process: The successful
production of artificial coarse aggregates from fly ash using alkali-activated technology
and the pelletization process has been demonstrated. The fly ash aggregates exhibited a
specific gravity of 1.70 and a high water absorption rate of 8.52%. While these values did
not meet the IS 383 standards for conventional coarse aggregates, the results indicate that

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fly ash-based aggregates can still be used in concrete production, with some adjustments
in mix design.
2. Feasibility of Using Fly Ash Aggregates in Concrete Production: The study evaluated the
feasibility of using fly ash aggregates in concrete by testing four different mix
combinations. The concrete mixes incorporating fly ash aggregates, recycled aggregates,
and conventional aggregates showed promising results in terms of workability,
compressive strength, and durability. Mix 2 (20% fly ash coarse aggregates, 30%
recycled coarse aggregates, and 50% regular coarse aggregates) yielded the most
satisfactory performance, with a compressive strength of 25.92 N/mm² and water
absorption of 2.54%. These results suggest that fly ash aggregates, when combined with
recycled aggregates, can replace conventional aggregates in concrete without
compromising strength.
3. Strength Properties of Concrete Made with Fly Ash Aggregates and Recycled Coarse
Aggregates: Concrete incorporating fly ash aggregates and recycled coarse aggregates
demonstrated satisfactory compressive strength and water absorption properties,
highlighting their potential as sustainable alternatives to natural aggregates. The
combination of fly ash and recycled aggregates in concrete mixes not only contributed to
the reduction of natural resource consumption but also provided a sustainable solution
without significantly compromising the material's mechanical performance.
Future Scope and Strategies:
While this project has demonstrated the potential of fly ash-based artificial aggregates, several
strategies can be implemented in future research to further optimize the use of these materials in
concrete:
1. Improved Processing Techniques: Research into improving the production process of fly
ash-based aggregates could focus on refining the pelletization process to reduce water
absorption and increase the strength of the aggregates. Further optimization of the alkali-
activation technique, including adjustments to the chemical activator mix, could enhance
the properties of fly ash aggregates to meet IS 383 standards.
2. Long-Term Durability Studies: The durability of concrete made with fly ash-based
aggregates, particularly in structural applications, needs to be investigated over longer
periods. Future studies should focus on factors like resistance to sulfate attack, freeze-
thaw cycles, and long-term water absorption, which will be crucial for ensuring the
material’s suitability for a wide range of construction applications.
3. Expanding the Range of Applications: Future work could explore the use of fly ash
aggregates in high-strength concrete or for non-structural applications where the
material’s properties may be less critical. Research into using fly ash-based aggregates in
different concrete grades and mix designs can help identify the most suitable applications
for these materials.
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4. Economic Feasibility and Environmental Impact Studies: A comprehensive economic

feasibility study is necessary to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of using fly ash-based
aggregates in concrete production. This could include analyzing the cost of production,
transportation, and overall savings in resource usage. Additionally, a detailed
environmental impact assessment could help quantify the reduction in the carbon
footprint when using fly ash and recycled aggregates compared to traditional natural
aggregates.
5. Further Investigation of Hybrid Mixes: Additional research into hybrid mixes using
various proportions of fly ash, recycled aggregates, and natural aggregates is
recommended. Exploring the optimal blend of these materials can provide valuable
insights into how to achieve the best balance between performance, sustainability, and
cost-effectiveness.
In conclusion, the production of artificial coarse aggregates from fly ash, combined with
recycled aggregates, holds significant promise for enhancing the sustainability of concrete
production. This approach not only reduces the dependence on natural resources but also
contributes to the recycling of industrial by-products and construction waste, offering an eco-
friendly solution for the construction industry.

Pictures:

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Figure 16 Sieve analysis

Figure 17 Saturated surface drying of aggregates

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Figure 18 Slump cone and compaction factor test

Figure 19 Compression test of concrete cubes

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References

1. Zhenlin Li , Weizhuo Zhang , Hesong Jin , Xu Fan , Jun Liu , Luping Tang “Research on
the durability and Sustainability of an artificial lightweight aggregate concrete made from
municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash (MSWIBA)” (2023)
[Link]
2. Alberto Ferraro , Vilma Ducman , Francesco Colangelo , Lidija Korat , Danilo Spasiano ,
Ilenia Farina “Production and characterization of lightweight aggregates from municipal
solid waste incineration fly-ash through single- and double-step pelletization process”
(2023) [Link]
3. . Sandeep Singh, Satyajit Patel “Development of angular-shaped lightweight coarse
aggregate with low calcium fly ash using autoclave curing - Experimental and
microstructural study” (2023) [Link]
4. . Biqin Dong, Chufa Chen, Kai Wu, “Fly ash-based artificial aggregates synthesized
through alkali-activated cold-bonded pelletization technology” (2022)
[Link]
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