Mathematics II for Computer Science and Engineering stream

(Subject code: BMATS201)

Module 2: Vector Space and linear transformations

2.1 Vector spaces

Definition:
A non-empty set of vectors V over the scalar field F under addition and scalar multiplication
is said to be a vector space if it satisfies the following properties:
If 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹 then
Addition
(i) Closure: 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
(ii) Associative: (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)
(iii) Identity: There is 0 ∈ 𝑉 such that 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 = 𝑢 + 0
(iv) Inverse: There is −𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (−𝑢) + 𝑢 = 0
(v) Commutative: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢
Scalar multiplication
(vi) Closure: 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑉
(vii) Distributive 1: 𝛼 (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑣
(viii) Distributive 2: (𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑢 = 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑢
(ix) Associative: 𝛼(𝛽𝑢) = (𝛼𝛽)𝑢
(x) Identity: 1𝑢 = 𝑢

Problems:

1. Let 𝑽 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹𝟐 |𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ≤ 𝟏} be the unit disc in 𝑹𝟐 . Is V a vector space?

𝑢 = (1, 0) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝛼 = 2 ∈ 𝐹. But 𝛼𝑢 = (2, 0) ∉ 𝑉

The circle is not closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, the unit disc is not a vector space.

2. Let 𝑽 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹𝟐 | 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 } be the graph of the quadratic function.

Is V a vector space?

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 1

 𝑢 = (1, 1) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑣 = (2, 4) ∈ 𝑉. But 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (3, 5) ∉ 𝑉.
Therefore, V is not closed under addition.
Therefore, the graph of the quadratic function is not a vector space.

3. Let 𝑽 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹𝟐 | 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙} be the graph of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙. Is V a

vector space?
Let 𝑢 = (𝑎, 2𝑎), 𝑣 = (𝑏, 2𝑏), 𝑤 = (𝑐, 2𝑐) be points in V and 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹.
Addition
(i) Closure: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2(𝑎 + 𝑏)) ∈ 𝑉
(ii) Associative: (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏) + (𝑐, 2𝑐)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 2𝑐)
= (𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐), 2𝑎 + ( 2𝑏 + 2𝑐))
= (𝑎, 2𝑎) + (𝑏 + 𝑐, 2𝑏 + 2𝑐)
= 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)
(iii) Identity: There exists 0 = (0, 0) ∈ 𝑉 such that
𝑢 + 0 = (𝑎, 2𝑎) + (0, 0) = (𝑎, 2𝑎) = 𝑢
(iv) Inverse: There exists – 𝑢 = (−𝑎, −2𝑎) ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0
(v) Commutative: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏) = (𝑏 + 𝑎, 2𝑏 + 2𝑎) = 𝑣 + 𝑢
Scalar multiplication
(vi) Closure:
𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼 (𝑎, 2𝑎) = (𝛼𝑎, 𝛼2𝑎) = (𝛼𝑎, 2(𝛼𝑎)) ∈ 𝑉
(vii) Distributive 1:
𝛼 (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝛼(𝑎 + 𝑏, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏)
= (𝛼(𝑎 + 𝑏), 𝛼(2𝑎 + 2𝑏))
= (𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑏, 2𝛼𝑎 + 2𝛼𝑏)
= (𝛼𝑎, 2𝛼𝑎) + (𝛼𝑏, 2𝛼𝑏)
= 𝛼(𝑎, 2𝑎) + 𝛼(𝑏, 2𝑏)
= 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑣
(viii) Distributive 1:
(𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑢 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝑎, 2𝑎)
= ((𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑎, 𝛼 + 𝛽)2𝑎)
= (𝛼𝑎 + 𝛽𝑎, 2𝛼𝑎 + 2𝛽𝑎)
= (𝛼𝑎, 2𝛼𝑎) + (𝛽𝑎, 2𝛽𝑎)
= 𝛼(𝑎, 2𝑎) + 𝛽(𝑎, 2𝑎)
= 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑢
(ix) Associative:

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 2

 𝛼(𝛽𝑢) = 𝛼 (𝛽(𝑎, 2𝑎))
= 𝛼(𝛽𝑎, 2𝛽𝑎)
= (𝛼𝛽𝑎, 2𝛼𝛽𝑎)
= 𝛼𝛽(𝑎, 2𝑎)
= (𝛼𝛽)𝑢
(x) Identity:
1𝑢 = 1(𝑎, 2𝑎) = (𝑎, 2𝑎) = 𝑢
All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.
Therefore, the graph of the function f(x) = 2x is a vector space.
4. Let 𝑽 = 𝑷𝒏 [𝒕] = {𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒏 |𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝟏 , . . . , 𝒂𝒏 ∈ 𝑹} be the set of all
polynomials in the variable 𝒕 and of degree ≤ 𝒏. Is V a vector space?
Let 𝑢 = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 , 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑣1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑣𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 and
𝑤 = 𝑤01 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 be polynomials in V and 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹
Addition
(i) Closure:
𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + (𝑣0 + 𝑣1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑣𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= (𝑢0 + 𝑣0 ) + (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )𝑡 + · · · + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 [𝑡]
(ii) Associative:
(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = [(𝑢0 + 𝑣0 ) + (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )𝑡 + · · · + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ]
+ [𝑤0 + 𝑤1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑤𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ]
= (𝑢0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑤0 ) + (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 + 𝑤1 ) 𝑡 + · · · + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛
(𝑣 + 𝑤0 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑤1 )𝑡 + · · ·
= [𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ] + [ 0 ]
+ (𝑣𝑛 + 𝑤𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛
= 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤).
(iii) Identity:
There exists 0 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 (𝑡) such that
𝑢 + 0 = 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 + 0 = 𝑢
(iv) Inverse:
There exists −𝑢 = −𝑢0 − 𝑢1 𝑡 − ⋯ − 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ∈ 𝑉 such that
𝑢 + (−𝑢) = (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + (−𝑢0 − 𝑢1 𝑡 − ⋯ − 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) = 0.
(v) Commutative:
𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑢0 + 𝑣0 ) + (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )𝑡 + · · · + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )𝑡𝑛
= (𝑣0 + 𝑢0 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑢1 ) 𝑡 + · · · + (𝑣𝑛 + 𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑡𝑛
= 𝑣 + 𝑢
Scalar multiplication
(vi) Closure:
𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= (𝛼𝑢0 ) + (𝛼𝑢1 )𝑡 + · · · + (𝛼𝑢𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 [𝑡]
(vii) Distributive 1:
𝛼 (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝛼[(𝑢0 + 𝑣0 ) + (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) 𝑡 + · · · + (𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 ]
= 𝛼(𝑢0 + 𝑣0 ) + 𝛼(𝑢1 + 𝑣1) 𝑡 + · · · + 𝛼(𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛)𝑡 𝑛
= (𝛼𝑢0 + 𝛼𝑣0 ) + (𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛼𝑣1 ) 𝑡 + · · · + (𝛼𝑢𝑛 + 𝛼𝑣𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛
= (𝛼𝑢0 + 𝛼𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝛼𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + (𝛼𝑣0 + 𝛼𝑣1 𝑡 + · · · +𝛼𝑣𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 3

 = 𝛼(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + 𝛼(𝑣0 + 𝑣1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑣𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑣
(viii) Distributive 2:
(𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑢 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑢0 + (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
= (𝛼𝑢0 + 𝛼𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝛼𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + (𝛽𝑢0 + 𝛽𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝛽𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= 𝛼 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + 𝛽 (𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑢

(ix) Associative:
𝛼(𝛽𝑢) = 𝛼 (𝛽(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ))
= 𝛼 (𝛽𝑢0 + 𝛽𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝛽𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= 𝛼𝛽𝑢0 + 𝛼𝛽𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · +𝛼𝛽𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
= 𝛼𝛽(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + · · · + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= (𝛼𝛽)𝑢
(x) Identity:
1𝑢 = 1(𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= 1. 𝑢0 + 1. 𝑢1 𝑡 + ⋯ + 1. 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
= 𝑢0 + 𝑢1 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
= 𝑢
All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.
Therefore, 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑛 [𝑡] is a vector space.

5. Show that the set of all 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrices is a vector space over the field of reals R
under usual addition and multiplication.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑖 𝑗
Let 𝐴 = ( ),𝐵 = ( ),= ( ) ∈ 𝑉 and 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 𝑙
Addition:
(i) Closed
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓
𝐴+𝐵 =( )+( )=( )∈𝑉
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ
(ii) Associative
𝑒 𝑓 𝑖 𝑗
(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = [(𝑎 𝑏 ) + ( )] + ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 𝑙
(𝑎 + 𝑒) + 𝑖 (𝑏 + 𝑓) + 𝑗
=( )
(𝑐 + 𝑔) + 𝑘 (𝑑 + ℎ) + 𝑙
𝑎 + (𝑒 + 𝑖) 𝑏 + (𝑓 + 𝑗)
=( )
𝑐 + (𝑔 + 𝑘) 𝑑 + (ℎ + 𝑙)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑖 𝑗
=( ) + [( )+( )]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 𝑙
= 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶)
(iii) Identity
0 0
There exists 0 = ( ) ∈ 𝑉 such that
0 0

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 4

 0 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
0𝐴 = ( )+( )=( )=𝐴
0 0 𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
(iv) Inverse
−𝑎 −𝑏
There exists −𝐴 = ( ) ∈ 𝑉 such that
−𝑐 −𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑎 −𝑏
𝐴 + (−𝐴) = ( )+( )=0
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 −𝑑
(v) Commutative
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓 𝑒+𝑎 𝑓+𝑏
𝐴+𝐵 =( )+( )=( )=( )=𝐵+𝐴
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐+𝑔 𝑑+ℎ 𝑔+𝑐 ℎ+𝑑

Scalar multiplication
(vi) Closed:
𝑎 𝑏 𝛼𝑎 𝛼𝑏
𝛼𝐴 = 𝛼 ( )=( )∈𝑉
𝑐 𝑑 𝛼𝑐 𝛼𝑑
(vii) Distributive 1:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎+𝑒 𝑏+𝑓
𝛼(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼 [( )+( )] = 𝛼 ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐 +𝑔 𝑑+ℎ
𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑏 + 𝛼𝑓 𝛼𝑎 𝛼𝑏 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑓
=( )=( )+( ) = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵
𝛼𝑐 + 𝛼𝑔 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼ℎ 𝛼𝑐 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑔 𝛼ℎ
(viii) Distributive 2:
(𝛼 + 𝛽)𝐴 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) (𝑎 𝑏 )
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
= 𝛼( )+𝛽( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝛼𝑎 + 𝛽𝑎 𝛼𝑏 + 𝛽𝑏
=( )
𝛼𝑐 + 𝛽𝑐 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛽𝑑
𝛼𝑎 𝛼𝑏 𝛽𝑎 𝛽𝑏
=( )+( )
𝛼𝑐 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑐 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛽𝐵
(ix) Associative:
𝑎 𝑏
𝛼(𝛽𝐴) = 𝛼 [𝛽 ( )]
𝑐 𝑑
𝛽𝑎 𝛽𝑏
= 𝛼( )
𝛽𝑐 𝛽𝑑
𝛼(𝛽𝑎) 𝛼(𝛽𝑏)
=( )
𝛼(𝛽𝑐) 𝛼(𝛽𝑑)
(𝛼𝛽)𝑎 (𝛼𝛽)𝑏
=( )
(𝛼𝛽)𝑐 (𝛼𝛽)𝑑
𝑎 𝑏
= (𝛼𝛽) ( )
𝑐 𝑑
= (𝛼𝛽)𝐴
(x) Identity:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
1𝐴 = 1 ( )=( )=𝐴
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
All the axioms of vector space are satisfied.
Therefore, V is a vector space.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 5

 i.e., the set of all 2 × 2 matrices is a vector space.

6. Let 𝑽 = 𝑴𝒎×𝒏 be the set of all 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrices. Under the usual operations of
addition of matrices and scalar multiplication, is 𝑴𝒎×𝒏 a vector space?
It is proved that 𝑀2×2 is a vector space in problem 5.
Similarly 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 is also a vector space.

7. Prove that the set of all real valued continuous (differentiable & integrable)
functions of x defined in the interval [0, 1] is a vector space.
Let 𝑉 be the set of all real valued continuous functions of 𝑥 defined in [0, 1].
Let 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝑉 and 𝛼 , 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹
Define the function 𝑓 + 𝑔 such that (𝑓 + 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
and their scalar multiplication 𝛼 𝑓 such that (𝛼𝑓) (𝑥) = 𝛼[𝑓(𝑥)].
Addition
(i) Closure:
If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous functions, then their sum 𝑓 + 𝑔 is also continuous.
(ii) Associative:
[(𝑓 + 𝑔) + ℎ] (𝑥) = (𝑓 + 𝑔) (𝑥) + ℎ (𝑥)
= [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] + ℎ(𝑥)
= 𝑓(𝑥) + [𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥)]
= 𝑓(𝑥) + [𝑔 + ℎ] (𝑥)
= [𝑓 + (𝑔 + ℎ)] (𝑥)
Therefore, (𝑓 + 𝑔) + ℎ = 𝑓 + (𝑔 + ℎ).
(iii) Identity:
There exists 0(𝑥) = 0 ∈ 𝑉 such that
(𝑓 + 0) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 0(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 0 = 𝑓(𝑥)
(iv) Inverse:
There exists −𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉 such that
[𝑓 + (−𝑓)](𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + (−𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
(v) Commutative:
(𝑓 + 𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)
= (𝑔 + 𝑓) (𝑥)
Therefore, 𝑓 + 𝑔 = 𝑔 + 𝑓
Scalar multiplication
(vi) Closure:

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 6

 If 𝑓 is continuous then 𝛼𝑓 is also continuous.
(vii) Distributive 1:
[𝛼 (𝑓 + 𝑔)] (𝑥) = 𝛼[(𝑓 + 𝑔) (𝑥)]
= 𝛼[(𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]
= 𝛼𝑓(𝑥) + 𝛼𝑔(𝑥)
= (𝛼𝑓) (𝑥) + (𝛼𝑔) (𝑥)
= (𝛼𝑓 + 𝛼𝑔) (𝑥)
Therefore, 𝛼 (𝑓 + 𝑔) = 𝛼𝑓 + 𝛼𝑔
(viii) Distributive 2:
(𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝛼𝑓(𝑥) + 𝛽𝑓(𝑥)
= [𝛼𝑓 + 𝛽𝑓] (𝑥)
Therefore, (𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑓 = 𝛼𝑓 + 𝑓
(ix) Associative:
(𝛼𝛽) 𝑓(𝑥) = [(𝛼𝛽) 𝑓] (𝑥)

= [𝛼(𝛽𝑓)] (𝑥)
= 𝛼(𝛽𝑓)(𝑥)
Therefore, (𝛼𝛽)𝑓 = 𝛼(𝛽𝑓)
(x) Identity:
(1𝑓) (𝑥) = 1𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Therefore, 1𝑓 = 𝑓
All the axioms of vector space are satisfied. Therefore, V is a vector space.
i.e., set of all real valued cont. functions of X defined in the interval [0, 1] is a vector space.

Home work:

𝑥 0
8. Show that the set 𝑉 = {( ) | 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅} is a vector space over the field of reals R
0 𝑦
under usual addition and multiplication.
9. Prove that the set of all convergent sequences of real numbers is a vector space over the
field of real numbers.
10. Prove that the set of all ordered n-triples of complex numbers forms a vector space over
the field of complex numbers.
11. Show that the set V of all ordered pairs of integers does not form a vector space over
the field of real numbers R.
12. Show that the set of all pairs of real numbers over the field of reals defined as
(x1, y1) + (x2, y2) = (3y1 + 3y2, -x1 – x2) and c(x1, y1) = (3cy1 – cx1) does not form a
vector space.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 7

 2.2 Subspace

A subset W of a vector space 𝑽 is called a subspace of 𝑽 if it satisfies the following

properties:
(1) The zero vector of 𝑉 is also in 𝑊.
(2) If 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 then 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 (i.e., W is closed under addition),
(3) If 𝑢 ∈ 𝑊 and 𝑘 is a scalar then 𝑘𝑢 ∈ 𝑊 (i.e., W is closed under scalar
multiplication).
Theorem: A non-empty subset 𝑊 of a vector space 𝑉 is a subspace of 𝑉 iff 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊
and 𝛼 and 𝛽 are scalars then 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑣 ∈ 𝑊.
Remark: The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉 is a subspace of 𝑉 but
the union of two subspaces of 𝑉 need not be a subspace of 𝑉.

1. Let 𝑾 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹𝟐 | 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙} 𝒃𝒆 the graph of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙. Is W a

subspace of 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐 ?

(i) If 𝑥 = 0 then 𝑦 = 2 · 0 = 0 and therefore 0 = (0, 0) ∈ 𝑊.

(ii) Let 𝑢 = (𝑎, 2𝑎), 𝑣 = (𝑏, 2𝑏) ∈ 𝑊.

Then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎, 2𝑎) + (𝑏, 2𝑏)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2𝑎 + 2𝑏)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏, 2 (𝑎 + 𝑏)) ∈ 𝑊
Thus, W is closed under addition.

(iii) Let 𝑢 = (𝑎, 2𝑎) ∈ 𝑊 and 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹

Then 𝛼𝑢 = (𝛼𝑎, 𝛼2𝑎) = (𝛼𝑎, 2 (𝛼𝑎)) ∈ 𝑊

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 8

 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication.

All three conditions of a subspace are satisfied for W.

Therefore, W is a subspace of V.

2. Let 𝑾 = {(𝒙, 𝒚) ∈ 𝑹𝟐 | 𝒙 ≥ 𝟎, 𝒚 ≥ 𝟎} be the first quadrant in 𝑹𝟐 . Is W a

subspace?

(i) The set 𝑊 contains the zero vector (0, 0).

(ii) Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ∈ 𝑊 has components 𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑦1 ≥ 0
Let 𝑣 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑊 has components 𝑥2 ≥ 0, 𝑦2 ≥ 0
Then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑊
has components 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ≥ 0 .
Therefore, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊. Thus, 𝑊 is closed under addition.
(iii) If 𝑢 = (1, 1) and 𝛼 = −1 then 𝛼𝑢 = (−1, −1) ∉ 𝑊.
Therefore, W is not closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.

3. Let 𝑽 = 𝑴𝒏 × 𝒏 be the vector space of all 𝒏 × 𝒏 matrices. We define the trace of

a matrix 𝑨 ∈ 𝑴𝒏 × 𝒏 as the sum of its diagonal entries: 𝒕𝒓(𝑨) = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ +
𝒂𝒏𝒏 . Let W be the set of all 𝒏 × 𝒏 matrices whose trace is zero: 𝑾 = {𝑨 ∈
𝑴(𝒏×𝒏) | 𝒕𝒓(𝑨) = 𝟎}. Is W a subspace of V?
(i) If 0 is the n × n zero matrix then clearly 𝑡𝑟(0) = 0 and thus 0 ∈ 𝑀𝑛×𝑛 .
(ii) Suppose that A and B are in W. Then necessarily 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 0 and 𝑡𝑟(𝐵) = 0.
Consider the matrix 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵. Then
𝑡𝑟(𝐶) = 𝑡𝑟 (𝐴 + 𝐵) = (𝑎11 + 𝑏11 ) + (𝑎22 + 𝑏22 ) + · · · + (𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛𝑛 )
= (𝑎11 + · · · + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ) + (𝑏11 + · · · + 𝑏𝑛𝑛 )
= 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑡𝑟(𝐵)
= 0
Therefore, 𝑡𝑟(𝐶) = 0 and consequently 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∈ 𝑊,
Thus, W is closed under addition.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 9

 (iii) Now let 𝛼 be a scalar and let 𝐶 = 𝛼𝐴. Then
𝑡𝑟(𝐶) = 𝑡𝑟(𝛼𝐴) = 𝛼𝑎11 + 𝛼𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 𝛼𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 0.
Thus, 𝑡𝑟(𝐶) = 0, that is, 𝐶 = 𝛼𝐴 ∈ 𝑊, and consequently W is closed under scalar
multiplication. Therefore, the set W is a subspace of V.

4. Let 𝑽 = 𝑷𝒏 [𝒕] and consider the subset W of V: 𝑾 = {𝒖 ∈ 𝑷𝒏 [𝒕] | 𝒖′ (𝟏) = 𝟎}.

In other words, W consists of polynomials of degree n in the variable t whose
derivative at t = 1 is zero. Is W a subspace of V?

(i) The zero polynomial 0(𝑡) = 0 clearly has derivative at 𝑡 = 1 equal to zero, that
is, 0′ (1) = 0, and thus the zero polynomial is in W.

(ii) Now suppose that 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑣(𝑡) are two polynomials in W. Then, 𝑢′ (1) = 0 and
also 𝑣′ (1) = 0. To verify whether or not W is closed under addition, we must
determine whether the sum polynomial (𝑢 + 𝑣) (𝑡) has a derivative at 𝑡 = 1 equal to
zero. From the rules of differentiation, we compute
(𝑢 + 𝑣) ′ (1) = 𝑢′ (1) + 𝑣′ (1) = 0 + 0 = 0.
Therefore, the polynomial (𝑢 + 𝑣) is in W, and thus W is closed under addition.

(iii) Now let α be any scalar and let u(t) be a polynomial in W. Then u′ (1) = 0. To
determine whether or not the scalar multiple αu(t) is in W we must determine if αu(t)
has a derivative of zero at t = 1. Using the rules of differentiation, we compute that
(αu) ′ (1) = αu′ (1) = α · 0 = 0. Therefore, the polynomial (αu) (t) is in W and thus W is
closed under scalar multiplication.

All three properties of a subspace hold for W and therefore W is a subspace of 𝑃𝑛 [𝑡].

5. Let 𝑽 = 𝑷𝒏 [𝒕] and consider the subset W of 𝑽: 𝑾 = {𝒖 ∈ 𝑷𝒏 [𝒕] | 𝒖 (𝟐) = −𝟏}.

In other words, W consists of polynomials of degree n in the variable t whose value
𝒕 = 𝟐 is −1. Is W a subspace of V?

The zero polynomial 0(𝑡) = 0 clearly does not equal to −1 at 𝑡 = 2.

Therefore, W does not contain the zero polynomial and, because all three conditions of
a subspace must be satisfied for W to be a subspace, then W is not a subspace of 𝑃𝑛 [𝑡].

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 10

 6. Let 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V consisting of vectors
of the form (𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃), where the first two components are the same. Is W a
subspace of V?
(i) The set W contains the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
(ii) Let 𝑢 = (𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑣 = (𝑐, 𝑐, 𝑑) then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑) ∈ 𝑊
Thus, W is closed under addition.
(iii) If we multiply (𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏) by a scalar 𝑘, we get (𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑎, 𝑘𝑏) ∈ 𝑊.
Thus, W is closed under scalar multiplication. Therefore, W is a subspace of V.
7. Let 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 be a vector space and consider the subset W of V consisting of vectors
of the form (𝒂, 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃), where the second component is the square of the first. Is W
a subspace of V?
(i) The set W contains the zero vector (0, 0, 0).
(ii) Let 𝑢 = (𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑏) and 𝑣 = (𝑐, 𝑐2 , 𝑑), 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑎2 + 𝑐2 , 𝑏 + 𝑑) ∈ 𝑊
Because the second component of this vector is not the square of the first.
Thus, W is not closed under addition.
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.
8. Prove that the set W of 𝟐 ∈ 𝟐 diagonal matrices is a subspace of the vector space
𝑴𝟐𝟐 of 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrices.
0 0
(i) The set W contains the zero matrix ( ).
0 0
𝑎 0 𝑐 0 𝑎+𝑐 𝑜
(ii) Let 𝑢 = ( ) and 𝑣 = ( ) are in W then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = ( )∈𝑊 .
0 𝑏 0 𝑑 0 𝑏+𝑑
Thus, W is closed under addition.
𝑎 0 𝑘𝑎 0
(iii) Let 𝑘 be a scalar and 𝑢 = ( ) ∈ 𝑊 \, then 𝑢 = ( ) ∈ 𝑊.
0 𝑏 0 𝑘𝑏
Thus, W is closed under scalar multiplication.
Therefore, W is a subspace of V.
9. Let W be the set of vectors of the form (𝒂, 𝒂, 𝒂 + 𝟐). Show that W is not a
subspace of 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 .
The set W does not contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0).

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 11

 Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.

10. Prove that the subset 𝑾 = {(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)|𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 ≤ 𝟏} of the vector space
𝑽(𝑹𝟑 ) is a subspace of 𝑽(𝑹𝟑 ) .
(i) The set W contain the zero vector (0, 0, 0) such that 02 + 02 + 02 ≤ 1.
(ii) Let u = (1, 0, 0) such that 12 + 02 + 02 ≤ 1 and
𝑣 = (0, 0, 1) such that 02 + 02 + 12 ≤ 1 are in W
then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (1, 0,1) such that 12 + 02 + 12 = 2
which is not less than or equal to 1.
i.e., 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (1, 0,1) ∉ 𝑊
Therefore, W is not a subspace of V.

Home work:
11. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x – 3y + 4z = 0} of the vector space R3 is a subspace
of R3.
12. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x + y + z = 0} of the vector space V 3 (R) is a
subspace of V3 (R).
13. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | x = y = z} of the vector space V3 (R) is a subspace
of V3 (R).

14. Prove that the subset W = {(x, y, z) | 2x +3 y + z = 0} of the vector space V3 (R) is a
subspace of V3 (R).
15. Verify the subset W = {(x, 2y, 3z) | x, y, z  R} of the vector space V3 (R) is a subspace
of V3 (R) or not.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 12

 2.3 Linear combination, Linear span

Linear combination:

Let V be a vector space over a field F and let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 ∈ 𝑉. Any vector of the form
𝑎1 . 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 . 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑣𝑛 ∈ 𝑉 , where 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐹 is called a linear combination of
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 .

Linear span:

Let S be a subset of a vector space over the field F. The set of all linear combination of
vectors in S is called a linear span of S and is denoted by 𝐿(𝑆). If 𝑆 = 𝜙, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿(𝑆) = 0.

1. Express the vector 𝒗 = (𝟏, −𝟐, 𝟓) as a linear combination of the vectors

𝒗𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟏, 𝟏), 𝒗𝟐 = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑), 𝒗𝟑 = (𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟏) in the vector space 𝑹𝟑 (𝑹).

Let 𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + 𝑎3 𝑣3
(1, −2, 5) = 𝑎1 (1, 1, 1) + 𝑎2 (1, 2, 3) + 𝑎3 (2, −1, 1)
(1, −2, 5) = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎3 , 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 − 𝑎3 , 𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 + 𝑎3 )
Equating the corresponding elements,
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎3 = 1, 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 − 𝑎3 = −2, 𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 + 𝑎3 = 5
Solving these equations,𝑎1 = −6, 𝑎2 = 3, 𝑎3 = 2.
Hence, (1, −2, 5) = −6(1, −1, 1) + 3(1, 2, 3) + 2(2, −1, 1).
2. Express the vector 𝒗 = (𝟐, −𝟏, −𝟖) as a linear combination of the vectors
(𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟏), (𝟏, 𝟏, −𝟏) and (𝟒, 𝟓, −𝟐) in the vector space 𝑹𝟑 .

Let 𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + 𝑎3 𝑣3
(2, −1, −8) = 𝑎1 (1, 2, 1) + 𝑎2 (1, 1, −1) + 𝑎3 (4, 5, −2)
(2, −1, −8) = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 4𝑎3 , 2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 5𝑎3 , 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎3 )
Equating the corresponding elements,
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 4𝑎3 = 2, 2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 5𝑎3 = −1, 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎3 = −8
Solving these equations,𝑎1 = −4, 𝑎2 = 2, 𝑎3 = 1.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 13

 Hence, (2, −1, −8) = −4(1, 2, 1) + 2(1, 1, −1) + (4, 5, −2)

3. Express the vector 𝒗 = (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟗) as a linear combination of the vectors

𝒖𝟏 = (𝟐, 𝟏, 𝟑), 𝒖𝟐 = (𝟏, −𝟏, 𝟏), 𝒖𝟑 = (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟓) in the vector space 𝑹𝟑 (𝑹).

Let 𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 𝑣2 + 𝑎3 𝑣3
(1, 3, 9) = 𝑎1 (2, 1, 3) + 𝑎2 (1, −1, 1) + 𝑎3 (3, 1, 5)
(1, 3, 9) = (2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 3𝑎3 , 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 , 3𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 + 5𝑎3 )
Equating the corresponding elements,
2𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 3𝑎3 = 1, 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 = 3, 3𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 + 5𝑎3 = 9
Solving these equations,𝑎1 = 10, 𝑎2 = −5, 𝑎3 = −12.
Hence, (1, 3, 9) = 10(2, 1, 3) − 5(1, −1, 1) − 12(3, 1, 5)

4. For what value of 𝒌 (if any) the vector 𝒗 = (𝟏, −𝟐, 𝒌) can be expressed as a linear
combination of vectors 𝒗𝟏 = (𝟑, 𝟎, −𝟐) and 𝒗𝟐 = (𝟐, −𝟏, −𝟓) in 𝑹𝟑 (𝑹).

Since vector 𝑣 = (1, −2, 𝑘) is a linear combination of vectors 𝑣1 = (3, 0, −2) and
𝑣2 = (2, −1, −5), there exist scalars 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣1 + 𝑏𝑣2

(1, −2, 𝑘) = 𝑎(3, 0, −2) + 𝑏(2, −1, −5)

(1, −2, 𝑘) = (3𝑎 + 2𝑏, −𝑏, −2𝑎 − 5𝑏)

Equating the corresponding elements,

3𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 1, −𝑏 = −2, −2𝑎 − 5𝑏 = 𝑘

By solving these equations, 𝑘 = −8.

5. Find a condition on 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 so that 𝒘 = (𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄) is a linear combination of 𝒖 =

(𝟏, −𝟑, 𝟐) and 𝒗 = (𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟏) in 𝑹𝟑 so that 𝒘 ∈ 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒏 (𝒖, 𝒗).
Since vector 𝑤 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) is a linear combination of vectors 𝑢 = (1, −3, 2) and 𝑣 =
(2, −1, 1), there exist scalars 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝑤 = 𝑥𝑢 + 𝑦𝑣.
That is, (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑥(1, −3, 2) + 𝑦(2, −1, 1)
Equating the corresponding elements,
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑎, −3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑏, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑐.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 14

 1 2 𝑎
Since 𝑤 ∈ 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑢, 𝑣), |−3 −1 𝑏 | = 0
2 1 𝑐
We get, 𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 5𝑐 = 0. This is the required condition.

𝟑 −𝟏
6. Express the matrix 𝑨 = [ ] in the vector space of 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrices as a linear
𝟏 −𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
combination of 𝑩 = [ ] , 𝑪=[ ] , 𝑫=[ ]
𝟎 −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

Let 𝐴 = 𝑎1 𝐵 + 𝑎2 𝐵 + 𝑎3 𝐷, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 , , 𝑎3 ∈ 𝑅.)

3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
[ ] = 𝑎1 [ ] + 𝑎2 [ ] + 𝑎3 [ ] ------------ (1)
1 −2 0 −1 −1 0 0 0
3 −1 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎3 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎3
[ ] = [ 1 −𝑎2 ]
1 −2 2 −𝑎1
Equating the corresponding elements,
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 = 3, 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎3 = −1, −𝑎2 = 1, −𝑎1 = −2
By solving these equations, 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = −1, 𝑎3 = 2.
Linear combination of A is
3 −1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
(1) ⟹ [ ] = 2[ ]−[ ] + 2[ ]
1 −2 0 −1 −1 0 0 0

𝟐 𝟎
7. Express the matrix [ ] as a linear combination of the matrices 𝑨 =
𝟒 −𝟓
𝟎 −𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟐 𝟑
[ ] , 𝑩=[ ] , 𝑪=[ ]
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟓

Let 𝐴 = 𝑎1 𝐵 + 𝑎2 𝐵 + 𝑎3 𝐷, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎1 , , 𝑎3 ∈ 𝑅.)

2 0 0 −3 0 0 2 3
[ ] = 𝑎1 [ ] + 𝑎2 [ ] + 𝑎3 [ ] ------------ (1)
4 −5 2 0 2 1 0 5
2 0 2𝑎3 −3𝑎1 + 3𝑎3
[ ]=[ ]
4 −5 2𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 𝑎2 + 5𝑎3
Equating the corresponding elements,
2𝑎3 = 2, −3𝑎1 + 3𝑎3 = 0, 2𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 = 4, 𝑎2 + 5𝑎3 = −5
By solving these equations, 𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎2 = 1, 𝑎3 = 1.
Linear combination of A is
2 0 0 −3 0 0 2 3
(1) ⟹ [ ]=[ ]+[ ]+[ ]
4 −5 2 0 2 1 0 5

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 15

 8. Determine whether the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟕 is a linear combination
of 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 and 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑.
To check: 𝑎1 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑎2 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for some real values of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 .

𝑎1 (𝑥 2 − 1 ) + 𝑎2 (2𝑥 + 3) = 2𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7

Equating components, 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 3. This system has the unique solution.

Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) is a linear combination of 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) as

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑔(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥).

9. Let f (x) = 2x2 - 5 and g (x) = x +1. Show that the function h (x) = 4x2 + 3x - 7 lies
in the subspace Span {f, g} of P2.

It is enough to prove that that ℎ(𝑥) is a linear combination of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑎1 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑎2 𝑔(𝑥)
4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7 = 𝑎1 (2𝑥 2 − 5) + 𝑎2 (𝑥 + 1)
Equating coefficients, 𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 3. This system has the unique solution.
Therefore, he function h is a linear combination of f and g.
Therefore, ℎ lies in Span {f, g}.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 16

 2.4 Linearly dependence, Basis and dimension

Linear dependence:

Let V be a vector over the field F. The vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 are said to be linearly dependant
over F if there exist scalars 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝐹 such that
𝑎1 . 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 . 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑣𝑛 = 0, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑖 = 0. , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁.

Linear independence:

Let V be a vector over the field F. The vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 are said to be linearly
independent over F if there exist scalars 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝐹 such that

𝑎1 . 𝑣1 + 𝑎2 . 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑣𝑛 = 0 ⇒ All 𝑎𝑖 = 0. , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 ∈ 𝑁.

Basis of a vector space:

Let V be a vector space over the scalar field F. The set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 }is called a
basis of V, if

(i) 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑛 are linearly independent.

(ii) 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑛 span V.. That is, each vector V can be uniquely expressed as linear combination
of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑛 .

Example:
Consider the set {(1, 2, 3), (-2, 4, 1)} of vectors in R3.
These vectors generate a subspace V of R3 consisting of all vectors of the form
v = 𝑐1(1, 2, 3) + 𝑐2 (-2, 4, 1)
Thus, the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (-2, 4, 1) span this subspace.
Furthermore, since the second vector is not a scalar multiple of the first vector the vectors are
linearly independent.
Therefore {(1, 2, 3), (-2, 4, 1)} is a basis for V. Thus dim (V) = 2.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 17

Dimension of a vector space V:

Number of elements in a basis of vector space V is called the dimension of V and is denoted
by dim 𝑉. 𝐼𝑓 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑎 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ n elements then the dim 𝑉 = 𝑛.

Note:

(i) The vector space {0} is defined to have dim 0, since empty set 𝜙 is independent and
generates {0}.

That is , dim 0 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = 0 (Since no element is in 𝜙).

(ii) When a vector is not of finite dimension, it is said to be of infinite dimension.

Properties:
1. For n vector of n dimensional vector space V to be a basis, it is sufficient that they
span V or that they are linearly independent.
2. Let A be any m  n matrix which is equivalent to a row reduced echelon matrix E.
Then the non-zero rows of E form a basis of the subspace spanned by the rows of A.
Theorem: Let V be an n dimensional vector space and let S be a set with n vectors. Then the
following are equivalent.
1. S is a basis for V.
2. S is linearly independent.
3. S spans V.

Theorem: If S = {v1, v2, ... , vn} is a basis for a vector space V and T = {w1, w2, ... , wk} is a
linearly independent set of vectors in V, then k < n.

Remark: If S and T are both bases for V then k = n. This says that every basis has the same
number of vectors. Hence the dimension is will defined.

Note:
(i) Since the dimension of a vector space is the number of elements in a basis, the number
of non-zero rows in E is the dimension of the subspace spanned by the rows of A.
(ii) Since the rank of a matrix is the number of non-zero rows, the dimensional of the
subspace spanned by the rows of A is equal to the rank of A.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 18

(iii) To find the basis and the dimension of a subspace spanned the vectors, reduce the matrix
whose rows are the given vectors to echelon form.

1. Check whether the vectors 𝒗𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑), 𝒗𝟐 = (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟕) and 𝒗𝟑 = (𝟐, 𝟓, 𝟖) are
linearly dependent or not.
𝑥𝑣1 + 𝑦𝑣2 + 𝑧𝑣3 = 0
⟹ 𝑥(1, 2, 3) + 𝑦(3, 1, 7) + 𝑧(2, 5, 8) = (0, 0, 0)
⟹ 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0, 3𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 0
1 3 2
⟹ |2 1 5|=0
3 7 8
This is impossible. Therefore, the given vectors are linearly independent.

2. Check whether the vectors 𝒗𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟗), 𝒗𝟐 = (𝟑, 𝟏, 𝟒) and 𝒗𝟑 = (𝟗, 𝟑, 𝟏𝟐) are
linearly dependent or not.
𝑥𝑣1 + 𝑦𝑣2 + 𝑧𝑣3 = 0
⟹ 𝑥(1, 4, 9) + 𝑦(3, 1, 4) + 𝑧(9, 3, 12) = 0
⟹ 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 9𝑧 = 0, 4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0, 9𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 0
1 3 9
⟹ |4 1 3 |=0
9 4 12
This is true. Therefore, the given vectors are linearly dependent.
3. If 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 are linearly independent vectors in V(F), where F is the field of Complex
numbers, then {𝒖 + 𝒗, 𝒗 + 𝒘, 𝒘 + 𝒖} is a linearly independent set of vectors.

Let 𝑎(𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑏(𝑣 + 𝑤) + 𝑐(𝑤 + 𝑢) = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹

(𝑎 + 𝑐)𝑢 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑣 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)𝑤 = 0
Since 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 are linearly independent, 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0, 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0.
Therefore, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 0.
Therefore, {𝑢 + 𝑣, 𝑣 + 𝑤, 𝑤 + 𝑢} is a linearly independent set of vectors.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 19

 4. Let V be a vector space of all 𝟐 × 𝟑 matrices over R. Show that the matrix
𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 𝟒 −𝟏 𝟐
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩 = [ ], 𝑪 = [ ] form a linearly
𝟑 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟎 𝟓 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑
independent set.

2 1 −1 1 1 −3 4 −1 2 0 0 0
Let 𝑎 [ ]+𝑏[ ]+𝑐[ ]=[ ]
3 −2 4 2 0 5 1 −2 3 0 0 0
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 4𝑐 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 −𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 0 0 0
[ ]=[ ]
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐 −2𝑎 − 2𝑐 4𝑎 + 5𝑏 + 3𝑐 0 0 0
By equating the corresponding elements,
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0, −𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 0. ---- (1)
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0, −2𝑎 − 2𝑐 = 0, 4𝑎 + 5𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 0. ----- (2)
On solving the system (1) of equations, the only solution is 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 0.
This solution also satisfies the system (2) of equations.
Therefore, the given set of matrices is linearly independent.

5. Determine whether or not each of the following forms a basis, 𝒙𝟏 =

(𝟐, 𝟐, 𝟏), 𝒙𝟐 = (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟕), 𝒙𝟑 = (𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟐)in 𝑹𝟑 .

Three vectors in 𝑅 3 form a basis if and only if they are linearly independent.
𝑥(2, 2, 1) + 𝑦(1, 3, 7) + 𝑧(1, 2, 2) = (0, 0, 0)
⟹ 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2 1 1
⟹ |2 3 2|= 0
1 7 2
This is impossible.
Therefore, Possible solution is 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0.
Therefore, the vectors 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 are linearly independent and hence form a basis.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 20

 6. Let W be the subspace of 𝑹𝟓 spanned by 𝒙𝟏 = (𝟏, 𝟐, −𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟒),
𝒙𝟐 = (𝟐, 𝟒, −𝟐, 𝟔, 𝟖), 𝒙𝟑 = (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟐, 𝟐, 𝟔), 𝒙𝟒 = (𝟏, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟏, 𝟖), 𝒙𝟓 = (𝟐, 𝟕, 𝟑, 𝟑, 𝟗).
Find a subset of vectors which forms a basis of W.

1 2 −1 3 4
2 4 −2 6 8
𝐴= 1 3 2 2 6
1 4 5 1 8
[2 7 3 3 9]
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅5 → 𝑅5 − 𝑅1
1 2 −1 3 4
0 0 0 0 0
∼ 0 1 3 −1 2
0 2 6 −2 4
[0 3 5 −3 1]
𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅5
1 2 −1 3 4
0 3 5 −3 1
∼ 0 1 3 −1 2
0 2 6 −2 4
[0 0 0 0 0]
𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3
1 2 −1 3 4
0 1 3 −1 2
∼ 0 3 5 −3 1
0 2 6 −2 4
[0 0 0 0 0]
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅2 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 2𝑅2
1 2 −1 3 4
0 1 3 −1 2
∼ 0 0 −4 0 −5
0 0 0 0 0
[0 0 0 0 0]

The number of non-zero rows is 3.

Therefore, dim 𝑊 = 3 and {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } forms a basis in W.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 21

 7. V is a vector space of polynomials over R. Find a basis and dimension of the
subspace W of V, spanned by the polynomials, 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒕𝟑 − 𝟐𝒕𝟐 + 𝟒𝒕 + 𝟏, 𝒙𝟐 =
𝟐𝒕𝟑 − 𝟑𝒕𝟐 + 𝟗𝒕 − 𝟏, 𝒙𝟑 = 𝒕𝟑 + 𝟔𝒕 − 𝟓, 𝒙𝟒 = 𝟐𝒕𝟑 − 𝟓𝒕𝟐 + 𝟕𝒕 + 𝟓.

1 −2 4 1
2 −3 9 −1
𝐴=[ ]
1 0 6 −5
2 −5 7 5
𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1
1 −2 4 1
0 1 1 −3
∼[ ]
0 2 2 −6
1 −1 −1 3
𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 , 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 + 𝑅2
1 −2 4 1
0 1 1 −3
∼[ ]
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
Non-zero rows of Echelon matrix form a basis.
Number of non-zero rows is 2.
Therefore, dim 𝑊 = 2 and {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 } forms a basis of W.
8. Determine whether the set of vectors {(1, 2, 3), (-2, 1, 3), (3, 1, 0)} is a basis for R3
or not.
1 2 3
Consider the determinant |−2 1 3| = 1(0 − 3) − 2(0 − 9) + 3(−2 − 3) = 0
3 1 0
Therefore, the vectors are linearly dependent.
Therefore, It is not a basis of R3.
9. Prove that the set {(1, 3, −1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is a basis for R3.
1 3 −1
Consider the determinant |2 1 0 | = −5 ≠ 0
4 2 1
Thus, the vectors are linearly independent.
The set {(l, 3, -1), (2, 1, 0), (4, 2, 1)} is therefore a basis for R3.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 22

 10. Find a basis for the subspace V of R4 spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 3, 4),
(−1, −1, −4, −2), (3, 4, 11, 8).
We construct a matrix A having these vectors as row vectors.
1 2 3 4
𝐴 = [−1 −1 −4 −2]
3 4 11 8
Determine the reduced echelon form of A. We get
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
[−1 −1 −4 −2] ≈ [0 1 −1 2 ] ≈ [0 1 −1 2]
3 4 11 8 0 −2 2 −4 0 0 0 0
The nonzero vectors of this reduced echelon form are (1, 2, 3, 4) , (0, 1, −1, 2)
These are the basis for the subspace V. The dimension of this subspace is two.

11. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(1, −2, 3),
(1, −3, 4), (−1, 1, −2)} in the vector space V3(R).
Let S = {(1, −2, 3), (1, −3, 4), (−1, 1, −2)} be the given set in the vector space

V3(R). Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

1 −2 3
Consider, | 1 −3 4 | = 1(6 − 4) + 2(−2 + 4) + 3(1 − 3) = 0
−1 1 −2

Given set S is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

1 −2 3 1 −2 3 1 −2 3
Consider, [ 1 −3 4 ] ≈ [0 −1 1] ≈ [0 −1 1]
−1 1 −2 0 −1 1 0 0 0

The final matrix has two non-zero rows.

Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, −2, 3), (0, -1, 1)} and the dimension of subspace

S’ is 2

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 23

 i.e., dim (S’) = 2.

12. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(1, 0, −1),
(1, , 1), (0, −3, 2)} in the vector space V3(R).
Let S = {(1, 0, −1), (1, , 1), (0, −3, 2)} be the given set in the vector space V3(R).
Dim[V3(R)] = 3.
1 0 −1
Consider, |1 2 1 | = 1(4 + 3) − 1(−3 − 0) = 10 ≠ 0
0 −3 2
Given set is linearly independent.
Therefore, S is a basis of V3(R) and dim(S) = 3.

13. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(2, 4, 2), (1,
−1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} in the vector space V3(R).
Let S = {(2, 4, 2), (1, −1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} be the given set in the vector space

V3(R). Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

Any subset of V3(R) containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

2 4 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
Consider, [ 1 −1 0 ]≈[ 1 −1 0 ]≈[ 0 −3 −1 ]≈[ 0 −3 −1]
1 2 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 1 0 3 1 0 3 1 0 0 0

The final matrix has two non-zero rows.

Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, 2, 1), (0, −3, −1)} and the dimension of subspace

S’ is 2

i.e., dim (S’) = 2.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 24

 14. Find the basis and dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors {(2, -3, 1),
(3, 0, 1), (0, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1)} in the vector space V3(R).
Let S = {(2, -3, 1), (3, 0, 1), (0, 2, 1), (1, 1, 1)} be the given set in the vector space

V3(R). Dim[V3(R)] = 3.

Any subset of V3(R) containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent.

Therefore, S is not a basis of V3(R).

To find the basis and dimension of the subspace of S

2 −3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Consider, [ 3 0 1 ] ≈ [3 0 1] ≈ [ 0 −3 −2 ] ≈ [ 0 −3 −2 ]
0 2 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 0 −7
1 1 1 2 −3 1 0 −5 −1 0 0 7

1 1 1
≈[ 0 −3 −2 ]
0 0 −7
0 0 0

The final matrix has three non-zero rows.

Therefore, Subspace is S’ = {(1, 1, 1), (0, −3, −2), (0, 0, −7)} and the dimension of

subspace S’ is 3. i.e., dim (S’) = 3.

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
15. Show that the set S = {[ ],[ ],[ ],[ ]} form a basis of the vector
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

space of the vector space M2(R) of 2  2 matrices and find its dimension.

𝑎 𝑏
Let [ ] ∈ M2(R)
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Let [ ] = 𝑎[ ]+𝑏 [ ]+𝑐 [ ]+𝑑 [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Therefore, S spans M2(R) and 𝑐1 [ ] + 𝑐2 [ ] + 𝑐3 [ ] + 𝑐4 [ ]=
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 𝑐1 𝑐2 0 0
[ ] implies [𝑐 𝑐 ] = [ ]
0 0 3 4 0 0
 c1 = 0, c2= 0, c3 = 0, c4 = 0

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 25

 Given set is linearly independent.
Therefore, S is a basis of M2(R) and dim(S) = 4.

16. Let V = P3 (polynomials of degree 3) and let S = {1, t, t2, t3}. Show that S is a
basis for V.

We must show both linear independence and span.

Linear Independence:

Let c1(1) + c2(t) + c3(t2) + c4(t3) = 0

Then since a polynomial is zero if and only if its coefficients are all zero, we have

c1 = c2 = c3 = c4 = 0

Hence S is a linearly independent set of vectors in V.

A general vector in P3 is given by a + bt + ct2 + dt3

We need to find constants c1, c2, c3, c4 such that

c1(1) + c2(t) + c3(t2) + c4(t3) = a + bt + ct2 + dt3

We just let c1 = a, c2 = b, c3 = c, c4 = d

Hence S spans V. We can conclude that S is a basis for V.

In general the basis {1, t, t2, ... , tn} is called the standard basis for Pn.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 26

 2.5 Linear transformations

Linear Transformation:
Let V and W be any two subspaces over the field F. A mapping T from V to W is
called a linear transformation if
(i) 𝑇(𝑣1 + 𝑣2 ) = 𝑇(𝑣1 ) + 𝑇(𝑣2 ), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣1 , 𝑣1 ∈ 𝑉
(ii) 𝑇(𝑎𝑉 ) = 𝑎𝑇(𝑣), ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, ∀𝑣 ∈ 𝑉

Algebra of linear transformations:

Let 𝑇1 : 𝑌 → 𝑉 be two transformations where 𝑈 and 𝑉 are two vector spaces over the
field F. We define the sum of 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 by 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 : 𝑈 → 𝑉 such that (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )𝑢 =
𝑇1 (𝑢) + 𝑇2 (𝑢2 ), 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈.

Scalar multiplication of linear transformations:

If 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, the function 𝑎𝑇, that is, product of a linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 with 𝑎,
and defined by 𝑎𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 such that (𝑎𝑇)𝑢 = 𝑎(𝑇(𝑢)) for all 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 is a linear
transformation from 𝑈 into 𝑉.

Composition of two linear transformations:

Let 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 be three vector spaces over a field 𝐹. We define 𝑇2 𝑇1 , called the
composition or product of 𝑇2 and 𝑇1 , by (𝑇2 𝑇1 )𝑢 = 𝑇2 (𝑇1 (𝑢)). 𝑇2 𝑇1 is also denoted
by (𝑇2 ∘ 𝑇1 ).

Kernel of T (Nullity of T) and image of T:

Let T be a linear transformation from 𝑉 to 𝑊.
𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝑇 = {𝑣 ∈ 𝑉: 𝑇(𝑣) = 0, 0 ∈ 𝑊}
𝐼𝑚𝑔(𝑇) = {𝑤 ∈ 𝑊: 𝑤 = 𝑇(𝑣)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉}

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 27

 1. Prove that the transformation T: R2 → R2 defined by T (x, y) = (2x, x + y) is
linear.
Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be elements of R2 and let c be a scalar.
T (x + y) = T ((x1, y1) + (x2, y2))
= T (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) by vector addition
= (2x1 + 2x2, x1 + x2 + y1 + y2) by definition of T
= (2x1, x1 + y1) + (2x2, x2 + y2) by vector addition
= T (x1, y1) + T (x2, y2) by definition of T
= T (x) + T (y)
Thus, T preserves vector addition.

T (cx) = T (c (x1, y1))

= T (cx1, cy1) by scalar multiplication of a vector
= (2cx1, cx1+ cy1) by definition of T
= c (2x1, x1 + y1) by scalar multiplication of a vecto
= c T (x1, y1) by definition of
= c T (x)
Thus, T preserves scalar multiplication. Therefore, T is linear.

2. Prove that the transformation 𝑻: 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐 defined by 𝑻 (𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝟑𝒙, 𝒙 + 𝒚) is

linear. Find the images of the vectors (𝟏, 𝟑) and (− 𝟏, 𝟐) under this
transformation.
Let 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑦 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and c an arbitrary
scalar. Then
𝑇 (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑇 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ), 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (3𝑥1 , 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 ) + (3𝑥2 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 )
= 𝑇(𝑥) + 𝑇(𝑦)
Thus, T preserves vector addition.
We now show that T preserves scalar multiplication.
𝑇 (𝑐 𝑥) = 𝑇 (𝑐𝑥1 , 𝑐𝑦1 )
= (3𝑐𝑥1 , 𝑐𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑦1 )
= 𝑐 (3𝑥1 , 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 )
= 𝑐 𝑇(𝑥)

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 28

 Therefore, T is linear.
By definition of T, we have
𝑇 (1, 3) = (3.1, 1 + 3) = (3, 4),
𝑇 (−1, 2) = (3. (−1), −1 + 2) = (−3, 1).

3. Prove that T (x, y) = (x + 2y, 3y, x - y) defines a linear transformation by

T: R2 → R3. Find the images of (0, 4) and (1, 1).
Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and c an arbitrary scalar.
Then
T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1+ y2)
= (x1 +x2 +2y1+2y2, 3y1+3y2, x1+x2 −y1 - y2)
= (x1+ 2y1 , 3y1, x1 – y1) + (x2+ 2y2 , 3y2, x2 - y2)
= T(x) + T(y)
To prove that scalar multiplication is preserved under T,
T(cx) = T (cx1, cy1)
= T (cx1 + 2cy1, 3cy1, cx1 – cy1)
= c (x1 + 2y1, 3y1, x1 – y1)
= c T(x)
Therefore, T is linear.
By definition of T, we have
T (0, 4) = (0+2⋅4, 3⋅4, 0 − 4) = (8, 12, −4)
T (1, 1) = (1+2⋅1, 3⋅1, 1 −1) = (3, 3, 0).

4. Verify whether the transformation T: R1 → R3 defined by T (x) = (x, 2x2, x3) is

linear or not.
Let x = (x1) and y = (x2) be arbitrary vectors in R1 and c be a scalar.
Then, T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2)
= (x1 + x2 , 2(x1 + x2)2, (y1+y2 )3)
T(x) + T(y) = (x1 , 2x12, y13) + (x2 , 2x22, y23)
= (x1 + x2 , 2x12 +2x22, y13+y2 3)
T (x + y)  T(x) + T(y)

Therefore, T is not linear.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 29

 5. Prove that the transformations T: R2 → R defined by T (x, y) = y2 is not linear.
Justify your answer by counter example.
Let x = (x1, y1) and y = (x2, y2) be arbitrary vectors in R2 and 𝑐 be a scalar.
Then, T (x + y) = T (x1 + x2, y1 + y2)
= (y1 + y2)2
And T(x) + T(y) = T ((x1, y1)) + T ((x2, y2))
= y1 2 + y22
T (x + y)  T(x) + T(y)
Therefore, T is not linear.
For example, let x = (0, 1) and y = (0, 2)
T (x + y) = T ((0, 1) +(0, 2)) = T ((0,3)) = 9

T(x) + T(y) = T ((0,1)) + T ((0,2)) = 1 + 4 = 5

6. Show that the function 𝑻: 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟑 given by 𝑻(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝒙 + 𝒚, 𝒙 − 𝒚, 𝒚) is a linear

transformation.
𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝑣 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑅 2
𝑇(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑇(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 , 𝑦2 )
= 𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑇(𝑣)

Thus, T preserves vector addition.

Also for any scalar 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑇(𝑎𝑢) = 𝑇(𝑎𝑥1 , 𝑎𝑦1 )
= (𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑥1 − 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑦1 )
= 𝑎(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 , 𝑦1 )
= 𝑎𝑇(𝑢)
Thus, T preserves scalar multiplication.
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 30

 7. Check whether the function 𝑻: 𝑹𝟑 → 𝑹𝟑 defined by 𝑻(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝒚, −𝒙, −𝒛) is a
linear transformation or not.

Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝑣 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 ) ∈ 𝑅 3

𝑇(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑇(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )
= (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , −𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , −𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
= (𝑦1 , −𝑥1 , −𝑧1 ) + (𝑦2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑧2 )
= 𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑇(𝑣)
Also for any scalar 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑇(𝑎𝑢) = 𝑇(𝑎𝑥1 , 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑧1 )
= (𝑎𝑦1 , −𝑎𝑥1 , −𝑎𝑧1 )
= 𝑎(𝑦1 , −𝑥1 , −𝑧1 )
= 𝑎𝑇(𝑢)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

8. Check whether the function 𝑻: 𝑹𝟑 → 𝑹𝟐 defined by

𝑻(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚, 𝟕𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛) is a linear transformation or not .

Let 𝑢 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝑣 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 ) ∈ 𝑅 3

𝑇(𝑢) = 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (2𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 , 7𝑦1 + 2𝑧1 )

𝑇(𝑣) = 𝑇(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = (2𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 , 7𝑦2 + 2𝑧2 )

𝑇(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑇(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )
= (2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 3𝑦1 − 3𝑦2 , 7𝑦1 + 7𝑦2 + 2𝑧1 + 2𝑧2 )
= (2𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 + 2𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 , 7𝑦1 + 2𝑧1 + 7𝑦2 + 2𝑧2 )
= (2𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 , 7𝑦1 + 2𝑧1 ) + (2𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 , 7𝑦2 + 2𝑧2 )
= 𝑇(𝑢) + 𝑇(𝑣)
Also for any scalar 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑇(𝑎𝑢) = 𝑇(𝑎𝑥1 , 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑧1 )
= (2𝑎𝑥1 − 3𝑎𝑦1 , 7𝑎𝑦1 + 2𝑎𝑧1 )
= 𝑎(2𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 , 7𝑦1 + 2𝑧1 )
= 𝑎𝑇(𝑢)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 31

 9. Let 𝑽(𝑹) → 𝑽𝟐 (𝑹) be a mapping 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝟑𝒙, 𝟓𝒙). Show that f is a linear
transformation.

𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) = (3(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ), 5(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ))

= (3𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 , 5𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 )
= (3𝑥1 , 5𝑥1 ) + (3𝑥2 , 5𝑥2 )
= 𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 )
𝑓(𝑎𝑥) = (3(𝑎𝑥), 5(𝑎𝑥))
= (3𝑎𝑥, 5𝑎𝑥)
= 𝑎(3𝑥, 5𝑥)
= 𝑎𝑓(𝑥)

Hence 𝑓 is a linear transformation.

10. Show that the transformation mapping 𝒇: 𝑽𝟐 (𝑹) → 𝑽𝟐 (𝑹) defined by

𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = (𝒙 + 𝟔, 𝒚 + 𝟐) is not linear.
𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 6, 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 2)
𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 6, 𝑦1 + 2) + (𝑥2 + 6, 𝑦2 + 2)
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 12, 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 4)
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
Therefore, 𝑓 is not a linear transformation.

11. Find a linear transformation T: V2(R) → V2(R) such that T(1, 2) = (3, 0) and
T(2, 1) = (1, 2).
Let us express (1, 2) and (2, 1) as linear combination of the standard basis

vectors e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1).

(1, 2) = 1(1, 0) + 2(0, 1) = 1e1 +2e2

(2, 1) = 2(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = 2e1 + 1e2

Therefore, T(e1 + 2e2) = T(1, 2) and T(2e1 + e2) = T(2, 1)

i.e., T(e1) + 2T(e2) = (3, 0) and 2T(e1) + T(e2) = (1, 2)

Solving these, we get

−1 4 5 −2
T(e1) = ( 3 , 3) and T(e2) = (3 , )
3

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 32

 Now, T (x, y) = T [x (1, 0) + y (0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2)

−1 4 5 −2
= 𝑥 ( 3 , 3) + 𝑦 (3 , )
3

−𝑥 5𝑦 4𝑥 2𝑦
=(3 + , − )
3 3 3

−𝑥+5𝑦 4𝑥−2𝑦
=( , )
3 3

−𝑥+5𝑦 4𝑥−2𝑦
i.e., T (x, y) = ( , ) is the required liner transformation.
3 3

12. Find a linear transformation T: V2(R) → V3(R) such that T(-1, 1) = (-1, 0, 2) and
T(2, 1) = (1, 2, 1).
Let us express (−1, 1) and (2, 1) as linear combination of the standard basis
vectors e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1).
(−1, 1) = −1(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = –e1 + e2

(2, 1) = 2(1, 0) + 1(0, 1) = 2e1 + e2

Therefore, T(−e1 + e2) = T(−1, 1) and T(2e1 + e2) = T(2, 1)

i.e., −T(e1) + T(e2) = (−1, 0, 2) and 2T(e1) + T(e2) = (1, 2, 1)

Solving these, we get

2 2 −1 −1 2 5
T(e1) = (3 , 3 , ) and T(e2) = ( 3 , 3 , 3)
3

Now, T (x, y) = T [x (1, 0) + y (0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2)

2 2 −1 −1 2 5
= 𝑥 (3 , 3 , ) + 𝑦 ( 3 , 3 , 3)
3

2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥+2𝑦 −𝑥+5𝑦

=( , , )
3 3 3

2𝑥−𝑦 2𝑥+2𝑦 −𝑥+5𝑦

i.e., T (x, y) = ( , , ) is the required liner transformation.
3 3 3

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 33

 13. Find a linear transformation T: V3(R) → V2(R) such that T(1, 0, 0) = (-1, 0),
T(0, 1, 0) = (1, 1) and T(0, 0, 1) = (0, -1).
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) and e3 = (0, 0, 1).

T(e1) = (−1, 0), T(e2) = (1, 1) and T(e3) = (0, −1)

Now, T (x, y, z) = T [x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)]

= T (xe1 + ye2 + ze3)

= x T(e1) + y T(e2) + z T(e3)

= x (−1, 0) + y (1, 1) + z (0, −1)

= (−x + y, y – z)

i.e., T (x, y, z) = (y – x, y – z) is the required liner transformation.

14. Find a linear transformation T: V3(R) → V3(R) such that T(1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 1),
T(1, 2, 3) = (-1, -2, -3) and T(1, 1, 2) = (2, 2, 4).
Let us express ( 1, 1), (1, 2, 3) and (1, 1, 2) as linear combination of the

standard basis vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0) and e3 = (0, 0, 1).

( 1, 1) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 1(0, 0, 1) = e1 + e2 + e3

(1, 2, 3) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 2(0, 1, 0) + 3(0, 0, 1) = e1 +2e2 + 3e3

(1, 1, 2) = 1(1, 0, 0) + 1(0, 1, 0) + 2(0, 0, 1) = e1 +e2 + 2e3

Therefore, T( 1, 1) = T(e1 + e2 + e3)

T(1, 2, 3) = T(e1 +2e2 + 3e3)

T(1, 1, 2) = T(e1 +e2 + 2e3)

i.e., T(e1) + T(e2) + T(e3) = (1, 1, 1), T(e1) + 2T(e2) + 3T(e3) = (−1, −2, −3) and

T(e1) + T(e2) + 2T(e3) = (2, 2, 4)

Solving these, we get

T(e1) = (4, 5, 8), T(e2) = (−4, −5, −10) and T(e3) = (1, 1, 3)

Now, T (x, y, z) = T [x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)]

= T (xe1+ye2+ze3)

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 34

 = x T(e1) + y T(e2) + T(e3)

= x (4, 5, 8) + y (−4, −5, −10) + z (1, 1, 3)

= (4x – 4y + z, 5x – 5y + z, 8x – 10y + 3z)

i.e., T (x, y, z) = (4x – 4y + z, 5x – 5y + z, 8x – 10y + 3z) is the required liner

transformation.

15. Let the transformations 𝑻𝟏 : 𝑹𝟑 → 𝑹𝟐 such that 𝑻𝟏 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝟒𝒙, 𝟑𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛) and
𝑻𝟐 : 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐 such that 𝑻𝟐 (𝒙, 𝒚) = (−𝟐𝒙, 𝒚). Compute 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 and 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 .
Range of 𝑇2 does not contain the domain of 𝑇1 .
Therefore, 𝑇1 𝑇2 is not defined.
Range of 𝑇1 contains the domain of 𝑇2 .
Therefore, 𝑇2 𝑇1 is defined.
𝑇2 𝑇1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑇2 (𝑇1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)) = 𝑇2 (4𝑥, 3𝑦 − 2𝑧) = (−8𝑥, 3𝑦 − 2𝑧)

16. Ilustrate with an example that there exisits linear transformations 𝑻𝟏 : 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐

and 𝑻𝟐 : 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐 such that 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 ≠ 𝟎.
Let us define 𝑇1 : 𝑅 2 → 𝑅 2 by 𝑇1 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0, 4𝑥)
And 𝑇2 : 𝑅 2 → 𝑅 2 by 𝑇2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥, 0).
Therefore, 𝑇1 𝑇2 and 𝑇2 𝑇1 both are defined.
Also, (𝑇2 𝑇1 )(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇2 (𝑇1 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 𝑇2 (0, 4𝑥) = (0, 0) = 0(𝑥, 𝑦)
Therefore, 𝑇2 𝑇1 = 0.
Also, 𝑇1 𝑇2 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇1 (𝑇2 (𝑥, 𝑦)) = 𝑇1 (𝑥, 0) = (0, 4𝑥) ≠ 0(𝑥, 𝑦)
Therefore, 𝑇1 𝑇2 ≠ 0.

Dr. Narasimhan G, RNSIT 35