NUT 201: INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION & DIETETICS

LECTURE NOTE
BY
ALHASSAN A. SIDDAN
DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY
GOMBE STATE UNIVERSITY
MAY, 2025
What are Nutrients?
 The foods we eat contain nutrients.
 Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions.
 Nutrients must be obtained from our diet, since the human body does not
synthesize or produce them.
 Nutrients have one or more of three basic functions: they provide energy,
contribute to body structure, and/or regulate chemical processes in the body.
 These basic functions allow us to detect and respond to environmental
surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce.
 Nutrients provide nutrition to the body as such or after digestion.
 All these have a definite role and are obtained from different food products.
Classes of Nutrients

 There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and
maintain overall health.
 These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals.
 Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as natural toxins
common in plant foods and additives like some dyes and preservatives) or
beneficial (such as antioxidants).
Types of Nutrients:

 Nutrients can be classified as macro nutrients and micro nutrients.

 Both are extremely important for our body as each nutrient has a specific
role.
 Macro nutrients like carbohydrate, proteins, fats supply energy in large
quantities to the body and build tissues.
 Micro Nutrients like vitamins and minerals are needed in small quantity but
they play a crucial role to regulate and control body processes.
 Water and Fibre is the overall vital nutrient that sustains all our life
processes.
NUTRITION…
 Nutrition is the quantitative science which deals with the accounts of
nutrients contributed by different foods and action of each in the functioning
of the body.
 Nutrition and dietetics refer to a systematic approach aimed at improving
individuals' health and quality of life.
 Nutrition ensures that the body receives the necessary nutrients in the right
amounts and balance, while diet involves creating and implementing
personalized nutrition plans. Nutrition and dietetics are critical for the
prevention and treatment of health issues, as well as for supporting overall
well-being.
 A dietitian prepares specialized diets according to an individual's medical
conditions, provides nutrition education, and monitors patients' progress.
They also collaborate with multidisciplinary teams to support treatment
processes and help individuals achieve their health goals.
Importance of Nutrition
 A living organism is the product of nutrition.
 A human being requires more than fifty different nutrients for its wellbeing.
Food materials ingested by the body are digested, absorbed and metabolised.
 A number of foodstuffs have to be selected to get all the nutrients.
 The health of a person depends on the type and quantity of the foodstuff that
is chosen in his/her diet.
 Optimum nutrition is required to maintain good health.
 There are certain signs of good nutrition. In addition, nutrition is concerned
with social, economic, cultural and psychological implications of food and
eating.
Functions of Nutrition:
 The two main functions of nutrition are:
 To provide material for growth and repair of tissues that eventually maintains
the basic structure of our body.
 To support the body with the energy required to perform all metabolic
activities.
Types of Nutrition:
 Nutrients are essential elements required for the normal functioning of our
body.
 Nutrients when taken in excess or its deficiency results in over nutrition,
malnutrition and under nutrition.
Good nutrition:

 “Good nutrition is the state in which a person gets all the nutrients in correct
amount and proportion and some nutrients are stored in the body after
meeting all the body requirements”. This is known as optimum or adequate
nutrition and it helps to maintain good health.
 Thus nutrients from food sources enable one to keep fit and maintain health.
 These substances include energy which gives the capacity to work, proteins
which form our body muscles, bones, blood, organs, skin, hair and nervous
tissues.
 Food supplies minerals and vitamins which protect our organs and regulate
their functions and other physiological processes.
Malnutrition:
 Malnutrition means an undesirable quantity and kind of nutrition.
 Malnutrition is that state of ill-health which may be caused by the deficiency
or excess of one or more essential nutrients in the body.
 Unhealthy environment also causes malnutrition.
 Physical, mental and intellectual well-being of a person is affected due to
malnourishment.
 A malnourished person is physically, mentally, socially and emotionally sick is
of two types:
 i. Under nutrition
 ii. Over nutrition
Macronutrients:

 Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients.

 There are three classes of macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
 These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy. The energy from
macronutrients comes from their chemical bonds.
 This chemical energy is converted into cellular energy that is then utilized to
perform work, allowing our bodies to conduct their basic functions.
 A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie.
 Water is also a macronutrient in the sense that you require a large amount of it,
but unlike the other macronutrients, it does not yield calories.
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plants in which they are formed from
CO2 of the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
 Carbohydrates are the preferred source of energy for most of the body
functions.
 As long as carbohydrates are available, the human brain depends exclusively
on it as an energy source.
 They are the cheapest and most important source of energy for the vast
majority of people in the tropics.
Composition of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are so called because they contain carbon with hydrogen and
oxygen in the same proportion as in water (2:1).
 The general formula is CnH2nOn
Classification of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are classified according to the number of saccharide (sugar)
groups present.
 They are broadly classified as simple carbohydrates and complex
carbohydrates.
 The simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides (Single sugar) and
disaccharides (Double sugars).
 Complex carbohydrates include starch, glycogen and fibers.
Simple Carbohydrates
 A) Monosaccharides
 They have one saccharide group and are the simplest form of carbohydrates.
 All carbohydrates are reduced to this state before absorption and utilization.
 They contain 3-6 carbon atoms and are accordingly termed triose, tetrose,
pentose or hexose.
 Biose: C2H4O2 (e.g.) Glycolic aldehyde
 Triose: C3H6O3 (e.g.) Glyceraldehyde and Dihydroxyacetone. They occur in plant
and animal tissues in small amounts and are derived from the breakdown of
glucose.
 Tetroses: C4H8O4 (e.g.) Erythrose, Threose
 Pentoses: C5H10O5 (e.g.) Arabinose, Xylose, Ribose and Deoxyribose.
 Hexoses: C6H12O6 . They are further sub-divided into 2 groups (i.e) Aldoses or
sugars containing aldehyde group (e.g.) Glucose, galactose and mannose as well
as Ketoses or sugars containing ketone group(e.g.) Fructose.
Major monosaccharides
 a) Glucose (Dextrose or grape sugar):
 It serves as the main source of energy in the body.
 It is abundantly found in nature.
 It is found in sweet fruits such as grapes, berries, oranges in vegetables like sweet
corn and carrots.
 It is less sweet than cane sugar.
 It is the end product in the digestion of disaccharides and polysaccharides and is
the form of carbohydrate circulating in the blood.
b) Fructose(Levulose or fruit sugar):
 It is much sweeter than cane sugar and is found in honey, ripe fruits and some
vegetables.
 It is also a product of the hydrolysis of sucrose.

 c) Galactose:
 It does not occur in the free state, but occurs as a constituent of lactose
present in milk.
B) Disaccharides
 They are formed by the combination of 2 monosaccharides.
 The disaccharides of nutritional importance are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
 a) Sucrose(Cane sugar, beet sugar, table sugar): It occurs in sugarcane (10-
12%) and beetroot(12-18%).
 In the intestine, sucrose is broken down into monosaccharides -glucose and
fructose by the enzyme sucrase present in the intestinal juice and then
absorbed.
 b) Lactose (Milk sugar): It occurs in the milk of mammals. Cow’s milk and bu
alo’s milk contain 4% of lactose, while human milk contains about 7% of
lactose. Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase
present in the intestinal juice.
 c) Maltose (Malt sugar): It is found in all sprouted and malted [Link] is
an intermediate product formed in the process of conversion of starch into
glucose. Maltose is hydrolysed to 2 molecules of glucose by the enzyme
maltase present in the intestinal juice. Sprouted cereals and beer contain
large amount of maltose.
Complex Carbohydrates
 These are complex compounds with high molecular weights.
 Their structural formula is (C6H10O5)n , where n>2.
 They are formed by a combination of more than 2 molecules of a
monosaccharide.
 Unlike the sugars, which contain 3 monosaccharides – Glucose, fructose and
galactose in different combinations, the polysaccharides – Starch and
Glycogen are composed entirely of glucose.
 They differ from each other only in the nature of the bonds that link the
glucose units together.
Starch :
 It is a long, straight or branched chain of hundreds of glucose units linked
together.
 The important sources of starch are cereals and millets (65-85%) and roots and
tubers (19-35%).
 Starch is a polysaccharide formed in nature by the condensation of large number
(4000-15000) of glucose molecules.
 It consists of a mixture of 2 components called amylase and amylopectin. It is the
storage form of carbohydrate in the plant kingdom.
 Cooking facilitates the digestion of starch. Boiling causes swelling of the starch
granules and rupture of the cell walls, allowing better digestion.
 The enzyme amylase present in the salivary and pancreatic juices, converts
starch into maltose which is subsequently broken into glucose and absorbed.
Dextrin:
 It is not found in direct form in nature.
 They are polysaccharides formed by the partial hydrolysis of starch by acids or
amylase.
 They are composed of large number of glucose molecules.
Glycogen:
 It is made up of chains of glucose, which are more highly branched than starch
molecules.
 It is the storage form of carbohydrates in human beings and animals.
 It is formed by the condensation of large number (5000-10000) of glucose
molecules.
 When required by the body, glycogen is converted to glucose to give energy.
Functions of carbohydrates
 The functions of carbohydrates in the body are as follows:
 1) Energy:
 The principle function of carbohydrates is to serve as a major source of
energy for the body.
 Each gram of carbohydrate yields 4kcal of energy regardless of its source.
 They provide an economical and quick source of energy.
 Excess carbohydrates in the body is stored as glycogen and can be converted
to glucose for energy production when required.
2) Protein Sparing Action:
 Carbohydrates exert a protein sparing action.
 If sufficient amounts of carbohydrates are not available in the diet, the body
will convert protein to glucose in order to supply energy.
 Hence, in order to spare proteins for tissue building and repair, carbohydrates
must be supplied in optimum amounts in the diet.
 This is called the protein sparing action of carbohydrates.
3) Fat Metabolism:
 Adequate supply of carbohydrates determines the amount of fat to be
metabolized for energy, which in turn affects the formation and disposal rate
of ketones (intermediate products in fat metabolism).
 In the absence of adequate supply of carbohydrates, more fat is used because
of which ketones accumulate in the body and this results in a disorder called
Ketosis or Acidosis.
 This shows that carbohydrates have an anti ketogenic effect which prevents
harmful effect of ketone accumulation in the body.
4) Synthesis of Body Substances:
 Carbohydrates aid in the synthesis of non essential amino acids, glycoproteins
(which function as antibodies) and glycolipids (which form a part of cell
membrane in body tissues especially brain and nervous system).
 Lactose encourages the growth of favourable intestinal bacteria.
 It has laxative properties and enhances the absorption of calcium.
5) Detoxification:
 Glucuronic acid, a metabolite of glucose serves as a detoxifying agent.
 It combines with harmful substances containing alcohol or phenolic group
converting them to harmless compounds which are later excreted.
 Adequate hepatic (Liver) glycogen storage enhances normal liver
detoxification ability.
6) Central nervous system (CNS):
 Glucose alone can work as a source of energy for the central nervous system.
 Prolonged deprivation of glucose to the CNS may cause irreversible damage to
the brain.
PROTEINS
 The word ‘Protein’ is derived from a Greek word ‘protos’ meaning ‘primary or
holding first place’ which is appropriate name for an essential life forming and
life sustaining substance of all organisms.
 Proteins contain nitrogen, but the nutritive value of protein rich foods does not
depend upon the total nitrogen content, but on the constituent of amino acids.
 The nitrogen content of proteins varies from about 14 to 20 % and in most of the
proteins, the value is about 16%.
Structure of proteins
 About 20 different amino acids may appear in proteins.
 All amino acids share a common chemical ‘backbone’ and it is these
backbones that are linked together to form proteins.
 Each amino acid also carries a side chain, which varies from one amino acid to
another.
 Each amino acid contains a carboxyl (COOH) or acidic group and an amino
(NH2) or basic group.
 The amino acids are mostly linked together in forming a protein molecule
through NH2 group of one amino acid condensing with COOH group of another
amino acid with the elimination of one molecule of water, and a compound
thus formed is called a peptide and the linkage is called ‘peptide linkage’.
Classification of proteins
 Proteins are large molecules formed by the combination of a number of amino
acids.
 About 20 amino acids have been found to occur in proteins and are important
from the point of view of human nutrition.
 Amino acids can be classified as follows:
Nutritional Classification of Amino Acids
 Essential Amino acids (Indispensable amino acids)
 An essential amino acid may be defined as one which is necessary for the growth
and health of all living organisms and which cannot be synthesised in the body
and must therefore be supplied through dietary intake.
 There are 9 amino acids considered essential for the human infant, out of which
Histidine is considered non-essential for the adult.
Semi-essential Amino acids (Conditionally
essential amino acids)
 Sometimes a non-essential amino acid can become essential.
 During illness or conditions of trauma, or in other special circumstances the
need for an amino acid that is normally non-essential may become greater
than the body’s ability to produce it.
 In such circumstances, that amino acid becomes essential for the ill person.
 Amino acids that behave this way are referred to as ‘Conditionally essential’
amino acids for critically ill people.
 Methionine can be converted to cystine, but cystine cannot be converted to
methionine. Similarly, phenylalanine can be converted to tyrosine, but not
vice-versa.
Non-Essential Amino acids (Dispensable)
 These amino acids can be synthesized in the body and not necessarily
obtained through dietary intake.
Classification of Proteins (Based on chemical composition)
a) Simple proteins:
 It is composed entirely of amino acids only.
b) Conjugated or Complex proteins:
It is made up of amino acids and other organic or inorganic compounds.
The non-amino acid group is termed as Prosthetic group (e.g.) Lipoproteins -
Chylomicrons
c) Derived proteins:
These are derivatives of proteins resulting from the action of heat, enzymes or
chemical reagents.
This group also includes the artificially-produced polypeptides(e.g.) Fibrin
Classification of proteins (Based on nutritional value)
 Proteins are classified into two types based on nutrition view point as follows:
 Complete proteins: These contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient
quantity to supply the needs of the body. They support life even if supplied as
the sole source of protein. These proteins are of animal origin (e.g) milk,
meat, poultry, egg and sh. The quality of these proteins is much superior to
those of incomplete proteins.
 Incomplete proteins: These proteins are deficient in one or more of the
essential amino acids and therefore, they do not support life on their own. All
plant sources of proteins (i.e) vegetables, fruits, cereals, pulses, nuts and
oilseeds contain incomplete proteins to varying degrees.
 Complementary proteins: If two sources of incomplete proteins are
combined in the same meal, the resulting protein may be of better quality.
These are called as Complementary proteins.
LIPIDS
 The term ‘Lipids’ is applied to a group of naturally occurring substances
characterized by their insolubility in water, greasy feel and solubility in organic
solvents.
 They occur in the plant and animal kingdom.
 Fats are a more concentrated form of storage of energy than carbohydrates.
 In the presence of adequate supply of carbohydrates, fat is stored in the adipose
(fatty) tissue.
Chemical composition of lipids

 Fat is a complex molecule constituting a mixture of fatty acids and an alcohol, generally
glycerol.
 Like carbohydrates, it contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but it differs from a
carbohydrate in that it contains more carbon and hydrogen and less oxygen.
 When oxidized, it gives 9 kilocalories.
 A molecule of fat consists of 3 molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol. It is also
known as triglyceride.
Differences between fats and oils
S/N FATS OILS

1 Fat is solid at room temperature Oil is liquid at room temperature

2 Fat is obtained from animals (i.e) Oils are obtained from plant sources
butter, ghee, egg yolk ,meat (i.e) mustard oil, groundnut oil,
almond oil

3 Fats have only saturated fatty acids Oils have saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids
Classification of fats
 Fats are classified into 4 categories as follows:
 On the basis of chemical composition
 On the basis of fatty acids
 On the basis of requirement
 On the basis of sources
On the basis of chemical composition
 On the basis of chemical composition Fats can be classified into 3 main groups as follows:

 Simple lipids:
 These are esters of fatty acids and glycerol.
 They are also called as neutral fats or triglycerides.
 These neutral fats make up 98 -99% of food and body fats.(e.g) fats and oils

 Waxes:
 A wax is a simple lipid which is an ester of fatty acids and long chain aliphatic alcohols.
 The alcohol may contain 12-32 carbon atoms.
 Waxes are found in nature as coatings on leaves and stems.
 The wax prevents the plant from losing excessive amounts of water.
Compound lipids:
 The compound lipids contain, in addition to fatty acids and glycerol, some other organic
compounds.

(i) Phospholipids:
 These contain phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base in addition to fatty acids and glycerol
(e.g.) Lecithin and cephalin

(ii) Glycolipids:
 Complex lipids containing carbohydrates in combination with fatty acids and glycerol (e.g)
Cerebrosides

(iii) Lipoproteins: Lipoproteins are the most important as they are the carriers of lipids in
the blood and form cell membranes.
Derived lipids
 These are substances liberated during hydrolysis of simple and compound lipids which still
retain the properties of lipids.
 The important members of this group are sterols, fatty acids and alcohol.

Sterols:
 Sterols are solid alcohols and form esters with fatty acids. In nature they occur in the free
state in the form of esters.
 Based on their origin sterols are classified as cholesterol (animal origin) and phytosterol (in
plants).
Cholesterol
 Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all cells of the body and has several
important functions in the body.
 It is synthesized in the body by the liver independent of the dietary intake.
 The body normally synthesizes about 2 grams of cholesterol.
 The dietary sources of cholesterol includes animal foods.
 It is used in the body for synthesizing hormones, Vitamin D and substances which help
digest foods.
 High blood cholesterol is a risk factor for heart disease. Rich sources of dietary
cholesterol include meat, poultry (with skin), organ meats like brain, kidney, liver and
full fat dairy products.
Fatty acids:
 Fatty acids:
 They are the key, refined fuel form of fat that the cell burns for energy.
 They are the basic structural unit of fats and they may be saturated or
unsaturated. (e.g) Oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, palmitic acid and
myristic acid.
On the basis of fatty acids:
 Fats can be classified based on the fatty acids present in them as follows:

1) Saturated fatty acids:

 A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or
predominantly single bonds.
 Various fats contain different proportions of saturated fat.
 Saturated fatty acids, especially palmitic and stearic acids are found in animal
products such as cream, cheese, butter, other whole milk dairy products and fatty
meats which also contain dietary cholesterol.
 Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil
and palm kernel oil.
 Many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy
desserts and sausage.
2) Unsaturated fatty acids
An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond
within the fatty acid chain.

(i) Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA):

A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond.
Monounsaturated fats are good fats. A diet high in MUFA can reduce blood cholesterol
levels, lowers risk of heart disease, stroke and breast cancer, reduces pain in
rheumatoid arthritis and helps in weight loss.
Foods which contain MUFA (Oleic acid) are avocados, olives, olive oil, peanut butter
and peanut oil. It is also known as omega-9 fatty acid.

(ii) Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA):

A fatty acid is polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond. They are of 2
types, namely Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Omega-3 fatty acids
 Omega-3: It is also called ω−3 fatty acids or n−3 fatty acids with a double bond
(C=C) at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain.
 The three types of omega−3 fatty acids involved in human physiology are
i. α-linolenic acid (ALA) [found in plant oils],
ii. eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and
iii. docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) [both commonly found in marine oils].
 Common sources of plant oils containing the omega−3 ALA fatty acid include walnut,
flaxseed, flaxseed oil, soybeans and chia seeds.
 The sources of animal omega−3 EPA and DHA fatty acids include fish and fish oils.
 The health benefits of omega-3 fatty acids are immense and they have been proven
effective in the treatment and prevention of hundreds of medical conditions which
includes high cholesterol, depression, anxiety, cancer, diabetes mellitus,
inflammatory diseases, arthritis and cardiovascular diseases.
Omega-6 fatty acids.
 Omega-6: Omega-6 fatty acids (also referred to as ω-6 fatty acids or n-6 fatty
acids) are a family of pro inflammatory and anti-inflammatory polyunsaturated
fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n-6
position, that is the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.
 Omega-6 fats, also known as linoleic acid, are available only in food.
 The human body cannot make them, so they are considered essential fats.
 They support brain function, bone health, reproductive health, hair growth and
regulation of metabolism.
 Good sources of linoleic acid include vegetable oils.
On the basis of requirement:
 Fatty acids are of 2 types:
 1) Essential fatty acids Fatty acids which are essential to be taken in our diet
because they cannot be synthesized in our body are known as essential fatty
acids. (eg.) Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids.
 2) Non-essential fatty acids Non-essential fatty acids are those which can be
synthesized by the body and which need not be supplied through the diet.
 Palmitic acid, oleic acid and butyric acid are examples of non– essential fatty
acids.
On the basis of sources:
 Fats are divided into 2 types based on their source, namely visible and invisible fats.
 Some fats and oils added to food or used for frying are visible fats.
 These are also known as pure fats.
 Many foods like milk, cream, egg yolk, meat, fish and even cereals and legumes
contribute substantial amount of invisible fats (not visible in the food) to the diet.
Functions of fats
 Fats perform several important functions:
1) Fats are a concentrated source of energy. one gram of fat gives 9 kilocalories of energy.
Fat is stored in the body in the adipose tissue and provides energy to the body when
required.
2) Fats are the constituents of cell membrane structure and regulate the membrane
permeability.
3) Subcutaneous fat acts as an insulator and helps in retaining body heat.
4) They are essential for the digestion, absorption and utilization of fat soluble vitamins
like Vitamin A, D, E and K.
5) Fats are important as cellular metabolic regulators (Steroid hormones and
prostaglandin).
6) Fats have a sparing action on vitaminB1 (i.e) if fat consumption is adequate, not much
vitamin B1 is needed.
7) Fats improve the palatability of the diet and give satiety value. (ie.) feeling of fullness
in the stomach.
8) The calories in fat spare proteins from being oxidized for energy.
9) Cholesterol is needed for synthesis of sex and adrenal hormones (steroid hormones).
Deficiency and excess of fat in the diet
 Effects of EFA deficiency
 Deficiency of fat in the diet causes the deficiency of essential fatty acids.
 Deficiency of essential fatty acids leads to cessation of growth.
 It also results in aky skin, development of itchy sores on the scalp. The common
disorder in adults and children is phrynoderma or toad skin.
 The condition is characterized by the presence of horny eruptions on the posterior
and lateral aspects of the limbs on the back and buttocks.

 Phrynoderma
 is cured rapidly by the administration of linseed or safflower seed oil rich in EFA.
 Infants fed on an EFA deficient diet develop irritation and changes in the skin
within a few weeks.
 The skin changes appear as dryness and desquamation with oozing in the folds.
 Diarrhoea may also occur, supplementation of the diet with linoleic acid helps to
restore the skin to normal condition.
b) Effects of Excess of fat
1) Leads to Obesity because more than required calories are consumed. In addition,
the excess carbohydrates are also converted to fat for storage in the body resulting in
obesity.
2) Slows down the digestion and absorption of foods.
3) Interferes with the absorption of calcium by combining with calcium to form an
insoluble calcium soap.
4) Cause ketosis unless adequate carbohydrate is present to complete the oxidation of
fat.
WATER
 Water is vital for human existence. Water is the largest component of the
human body, making up to 60 to 70 percent of the total body’s weight.
 This percentage of water in human being is required to be maintained by water
as a foodstuff .
 Infants have greater percentage of water than adults.
 Old age declines the water percentage of the body.
 Water is second only to oxygen in its vital importance to the body.
 One can live without food for a longer time than one does without water.
 Water is colourless, calorie less compound of hydrogen and oxygen that
virtually every cell in the body needs to survive.
Water…

 Substances dissolve in water as ions with positive and negative charge. They
are called electrolytes.
 The common electrolytes in our body are sodium, potassium and chloride.
 Because of this, water can dissolve most substances and in doing so, it
enables minerals and other chemicals to undergo biological reactions in the
body.
Distribution of water in the body:
 Total body water content is mainly determined by total amount of salt in the
body.
 Salt and water concentration in the body is controlled by the kidneys.
Water in the body –
 Intracellular and Extracellular fluid
 Water flows in and out of the body cells through cell membranes.
 Intracellular fluids: Fluid contained within a cell represents about two thirds
of all body fluids.
 Extracellular fluids: Fluid present outside the cells, it includes intravascular
and interstitial fluids; represents about one-third of all body fluid.
 Extracellular fluids are further divided into interstitial fluid, water between
cells and intravascular fluid water in the blood stream and lymph.
 Interstitial fluid forms a transport link between tissue cells and the blood.
Sources of water
 The body has three sources of water. Besides drinking water, the following are
the sources of water.
 1. The water contained in food, eg. Fruits and vegetables contain 80-90
percent water. Milk contain 80-88 percent. Meat contains 40-75 percent,
Flour, cracks and bread contain 5-35 percent of water.
 2. In addition to water, ingested fluids such as ghee (milk-based preparation).
Soups and beverages also supply essential minerals and vitamins.
 3. Metabolic water is formed by the metabolism of food in the body. It may
amount to about 450ml per day.
Functions of Water
 Major functions of water:
 1) Carrier of Food Nutrients: Every nutrient in soluble form in water is carried
from intestines to tissues through blood.
 2) Constituent of Liquid: Water is the major constituent of all liquids of body
as blood, urine, sweat, lymph.
 3) Regulate body temperature: Water helps to regulate and control body
temperature. Heat is produced when food is burnt for energy. Water is
evaporated through respiration and sweat and body temperature is
maintained normal. Body’s heat is lost through the skin, lungs, urine and
faeces.
 4) Safety/Security of Delicate Organs: Water is around lungs, heart, brain
which protects them from outer injury. Thus provide security to these organs
and thereby to human being.
 5) Water as lubricant: Water acts as lubricant in joints. Water around joints
help normal circulation process in cells. It is an essential constituent of all the
cells of the body and the internal environment.
Requirements
 Requirement of water varies with climate, dietary constituents, activities and
surface area of the body.
 As a rule a person should take enough water to excrete about 1200 –1500 ml
of urine per day.
 In tropics because of greater water loss through perspiration increased water
intake is required to maintain urine volume.
 Normal intake of water ranges between 8 – 10 glasses per day. Water is lost
through feces, urine, lungs (expiration) skin (invisible perspiration and visible
perspiration) amounting to about 2-3 liters per day.
 During infections and fever, the liquid intake should be increased as losses are
higher. A moderate amount of water taken with or preceding a meal is an aid
to digestion.
Dehydration
 Dehydration results in extreme deficiency of water and fluids. Symptoms of
dehydration are fatigue, headache, sullenness and in extreme cases, collapse.
 The steps in the progression of dehydration are as follows:
 1. Thirst
 2. Decreasing blood volume, impaired physical performance.
 3. Increased e ort for physical work, nausea.
 4. Failure to regulate excess temperature.
 5. Muscle spasms.
 6. Failing renal function, less or no urine formed.
Dehydration…
 Excessive loss of water takes place due to vomiting, diarrohea, haemorrhage,
excessive perspiration, exudating, burns, uncontrolled diabetes mellitus,
fever and hot weather.
 It can be fatal and causes death in several children which can be easily
avoided by proper fluid intake or oral rehydration therapy.
ORT: (Oral Rehydration Therapy)
 Oral rehydration therapy is a method of treating dehydration by making the
patient drink solution which can be prepared by dissolving salt and sugar in
boiled and cooled water.
Minerals
 The body contains about 24 minerals, all of which must be provided by the diet.
 These are required by the body in very minute amounts and are o en referred to
as trace elements.
 The main important ones are iron, iodine, calcium, zinc and sodium.
Iron (Fe):
 Iron was first recognized as a constituent of the body by Lernery in 1713.
 It is now known that all the iron in the body exists in combination with protein
molecules.
 Overall the body contains 2.5g to 4.0g of iron.
 Most of the iron in the body is found in the blood, but some is present in every cell
bound to iron containing enzymes.
 Iron is present in Haemoglobin which contains ferrous iron.
 It is essential for carrying oxygen to different tissues.
Functions
 Iron is an important mineral needed for the formation of haemoglobin which
is responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to different cells and tissues
of the body in the form of oxyhaemoglobin.
 Thus iron helps in the oxidation process. It acts as co-factors of enzymes and
other proteins.
 It is required for the formation of red blood cells.
Food Sources of iron:
 Haeme iron from animal foods is better absorbed than nonhaeme iron present
in plant sources. Liver is the best source of iron.
 Iron is also absorbed well from red meat like lamb.
 Nonhaeme iron is present in cereals, millets, pulses and green leafy
vegetables.
 Of the cereal grains, wheat and millets are very good source of iron.
 Inclusion in our daily diet about 50g of green leafy vegetables which are rich
in iron can meet a fair proportion of iron needs.
Symptoms of Iron deficiency:
 Iron deficiency leads to Anaemia which has the following symptoms:
 Eyes, tongue and nails become pale.
 Person feels extremely tired and fatigued.
 Decreased physical activity and breathlessness on exertion.
 Tingling sensation in fingers and toes.
 Nails become brittle and become concave and appear like a spoon.
 Loss of appetite and giddiness.
 Poor coordination of body functions
Symptoms of Fe deficiency
Iodine
 The significance of Iodine as an essential trace element lies in its role in
thyroxine production.
 Iodine is a constituent of thyroxine, the active principle of the thyroid gland.
 The thyroid gland plays an important role in energy metabolism and in the
growth of the body.
Functions
 It is essential for the production of thyroid hormone called thyroxin which is
secreted by the thyroid gland. Thyroxin controls the basic metabolic rate in
the body as it controls the metabolism of all nutrients. Thyroxin regulates the
rate of oxidation within the cells.
 It stimulates the physical and mental growth.
 It regulates the functioning of nerve and muscle tissue.
Food Sources of Iodine:
 Iodine is present only in small amounts in common foods, the quantity of
iodine present depending on the iodine content of the soil.
 Iodised salt, sea salt, vegetables grown at sea shore, garlic, onion, cheese
and sea fish are good sources of iodine.
Symptoms of Iodine deficiency:
 Wide variety of physical and neurological disorders associated with iodine
deficiency are called “Iodine Deficiency Disorders - IDD”.
 Goitre: It is characterized by swelling of thyroid gland.
 Cretinism: Person is deaf and has a shuffling gait, retarded mental and
physical growth, thus shorter in stature (dwarf).
 Myxoedema: Face of patient becomes expressionless.
Calcium
 Calcium is the major element in the body and an adult man of 60 kg has
nearly one kilogram of calcium.
 Almost 99% of this calcium is found in the hard tissues of the body, namely the
bones and teeth.
 Vitamin D is essential for the absorption of calcium.
 In vitamin D deficiency, calcium absorption is impaired.
Functions
 It is essential for the formation of bones and teeth.
 It is essential for clotting of blood.
 It regulates the permeability of capillary walls.
 It is essential for the contraction of heart and muscle.
 It regulates the excitability of nerve fibres and nerve centres.
 It acts as an activator for the enzymes present in the gastric juice.
 It plays an important role in maintenance of health.
 Required for proper foetal growth.
 It speeds up all healing process.
 It is essential for proper utilization of phosphorus and vitamins A, C and D
Food Sources of calcium:
 The richest source of calcium among animal foods is milk and among
vegetables it is green leafy vegetables.
 Among green leafy vegetables, amaranth, fenugreek and drumstick leaves are
particularly rich in calcium.
 Ragi is the main source of calcium.
 Sesame seeds with husk and small dried fish are also good source of calcium.
Symptoms of Calcium deficiency:
 Bone mass is reduced when calcium deposit is less.
 Rickets in children, Osteomalacia in adults, Osteoporosis in old age occurs.
 Decreased rate of growth rate.
 Very often fractures occur due to brittle bones.
Zinc
 Zinc is an essential trace element which plays an important role in many
enzymes of our body.
 Our body contains 2-3 grams of zinc.
 It has been found to be present in the hormone insulin.
 It plays an essential role in the formation of DNA and RNA.
 It aids in the healing of burns and wounds.
Functions:
 It plays a vital role in growth and cell division especially during pregnancy and
prevents congenital abnormalities and premature delivery.
 It plays an important role in maintaining fertility in males.
 It provides immunity to our body.
 It helps in healing cuts, wounds, acne and rashes.
 It is important for healthy vision and prevents night blindness and cataracts.
Food Sources of Zinc:
 Seafoods, meat, eggs are good sources of Zinc.
 Milk and milk products, whole cereals, pumpkin seeds, cashewnuts, spinach,
legumes contain considerable amounts.
Symptoms of Zinc deficiency:
 Stunted growth.
 Loss of appetite.
 Dry and rough skin.
 Dull brittle hair.
 Brittle nails with white spots.
 Loss of memory.
 Reduced sense of taste and smell.
 Delayed healing of wounds.
 Frequent infections and acne.
 Diarrhoea and pneumonia can be fatal.
Sodium
 Sodium is a plentiful mineral in the body.
 It is essential in the recommended quantity for the body.
 The average adult contains approximately 100g of sodium.
 Sodium is easily absorbed in the small intestine.
 Sodium is lost in sweat during exercise or in hot environments.
 Sodium and chloride compound is table salt.
Functions:
 Sodium is the most abundant cation in the extracellular fluid of the body.
 It acts with other electrolytes, especially potassium, in the intracellular fluid
to regulate the osmotic pressure and maintain proper water balance within
the body.
 It is the major factor in maintaining the acid-base equilibrium, in transmitting
nerve impulses and in relaxing muscles.
 It maintains normal mineral content of extra and intra cellular fluid.
Food Sources of Sodium:
 Vegetables like dry lotus stems and green leafy vegetables, dried fruits, roots
like beetroot, carrot and radish are rich in sodium.
 Animal foods like milk, egg white, fish and meat contain substantial amount
of sodium.
Symptoms of Sodium deficiency:
 Deficiency of sodium is caused by excessive sweating, prolonged use of
diuretics, chronic diarrhoea.
 Deficiency may lead to nausea, muscular weakness, heat exhaustion and
mental apathy. Oversupply of sodium is a more common problem because of
overuse of dietary sodium chloride or common salt.
 Too much sodium may lead to water retention, high blood pressure and even
stomach ulcers.