WIRELESS EV CHARGING STATIONS WITH IOT

CONNECTIVITY
SMART, SCALABLE, AND AUTOMATED CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE
FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the

degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

By

DEEPAK BATTULA 21JR1A0438

GAIRUBOINA GOWTHAM RAJU 21JR1A0460
BANDARU VENKATESWARA RAO 21JR1A0435
DASARI SATWIK 21JR1A0456

Under the guidance of

Dr. M PURNA KISHORE PhD

ASSOSCIATE PROFESSER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

KKR & KSR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCES

(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE New Delhi || Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada) ||
Accredited with ‘A’ Grade by NAAC || NBA Accreditation)
Vinjanampadu (V), Vatticherukuru (M), Guntur (Dt), A.P-522017.
APRIL – 202

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report entitled “Wireless EV Charging Stations with
IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for
Electric Vehicles” submitted by B Deepak (21JR1A0438) , G Gowtham Raju
(21JR1A0460),B Venkateswara Rao (21JR1A0435) and D Satwik (21JR1A0456) to
Jawaharlal Nehru University Kakinada, through KKR & KSR Institute of Technology
and Sciences for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRONICS
AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING is a bonafide record of project work
carried out by Dr.M Purna Kishore under my supervision during the year 2024-2025.

Dr. M Purna Kishore PhD Dr.N Adi Narayana PhD

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ii
 DECLARATION

We here by declare that the project “Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity
Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles” has been
carried out by me and this work has been submitted to KKR & KSR Institute of Technology and
Sciences (A), Vinjanampadu, affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering. We further declare that this project work has not been
submitted in full or part for the award of any other degree in any other educational institutions.

DEEPAK BATTULA 21JR1A0438

GAIRUBOINA GOWTHAM RAJU 21JR1A0460

BANDARU VENKATESWARA RAO 21JR1A0435

DASARI SATWIK 21JR1A0456

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our profound gratitude towards Dr M PURNA Kishore, Department
of Electronics and Communication Engineering, who played a supervisory role to utmost
perfection, enabled us to seek through our IV-II [Link] project and for guidance as an internal
guide methodically and meticulously.

We express our gratitude towards all the faculty members and non-teaching faculty
members, the Electronics and Communication Engineering.

We are highly indebted to Dr. N Adi Narayana, Head of the Department, Computer
Science and Engineering for providing us with all the necessary support.

We render our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. P. BABU, Principal and [Link]
Babu, Director Academics for permitting us to carry out our main project works. We would
like to express our sincere thanks to Computer Science and Engineering staff for lending us
their time to help us complete the work successfully.

We are very much thankful to the college management Sri K. SUBBA RAO,
Chairman, and beloved Sri K. SHEKAR, Secretary, for their continuous support and the
facilities provided. We would also like to thank our staff, parents, and friends for their
enduring encouragement and assistance whenever required.

iv
 INSTITUTE VISION AND MISSION

INSTITUTION VISION

To produce eminent and ethical Engineers and Managers for society by imparting quality
professional education with an emphasis on human values and holistic excellence.

INSTITUTION MISSION

• To incorporate benchmarked teaching and learning pedagogies in the curriculum.

• To ensure the all-around development of students through a judicious blend of
curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular activities.
• To support the cross-cultural exchange of knowledge between industry and
academy.
• To provide higher/continued education and research opportunities to the
employees of the institution.

v
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To become a reputed center in Electronics and Communication engineering for quality,

competency, and social responsibility.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

• Strengthen the core competence with vibrant technological education in a congenial

environment.
• Promote innovative research and development for the economy, society, and
environment.
• Inculcate professional behavior, and strong ethical values to meet the challenges in
collaboration and lifelong learning.

vi
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
PSO1:Application Development

Able to develop business solutions through the Latest Software Techniques and tools
for real time Applications.

PSO2: Professional and Leadership

Able to practice the profession with ethical leadership as an entrepreneur through

participation in various events like Idealizations, Hackathons, project expos, and
workshops.

PSO3: Computing Paradigms

Ability to identify the evolutionary changes in computing using Data Sciences, Apps,
Cloud computing, and IoT.

PSO4: Exposure and Research & Development

To Analyse latest trends in Electronics and Communication and apply the knowledge
for the improvement in the present technology by doing research through higher
education.

vii
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO1:
Develop a strong background in basic science and mathematics and ability to use these
tools in their chosen fields of specialization.

PEO2:
Have the ability to demonstrate technical competence in the fields of electronics and
communication engineering and develop solutions to the problems.

PEO3:
Attain professional competence through life-long learning such as advanced degrees,
professional registration, and other professional activities.

PEO4:
Function effectively in a multi-disciplinary environment and individually, within a
global, societal, and environmental context.

PEO5:
Take individual responsibility and to work as a part of a team towards the fulfillment
of both individual and organizational goals

viii
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)
1. Engineering knowledge:

Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an

engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis:

Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using the first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and
engineering sciences.

3. Design/development of solutions:

Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or
processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for public health and
safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems:

Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments,

analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.

5. Modern tool usage:

Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.

6. The engineer and society:

Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.

7. Environment and sustainability:

Understand the impact of professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental

contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

ix
8. Ethics:

Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.

9. Individual and team work:

Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in

multidisciplinary settings.

10. Communication:

Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering

community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write effective
reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.

11. Project management and finance:

Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles

and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.

12. Life-long learning:

Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and
life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

x
 Course Outcomes (COS)

C409.1 Analyze existing systems and identify problems relevant to EV wireless

charging and IoT-based connectivity.

C409.2 Classify project requirements and design problem statements with

teamwork and ethical considerations.

C409.3 Review literature to understand existing solutions and propose improved

alternatives based on identified gaps.

C409.4 Design system architecture and modular components integrating IoT and
wireless charging.

C409.5 Implement, test, and integrate the components using modern tools and
appropriate technologies.

C409.6 Document and present the project work effectively, including future
scope and system enhancements.
Course Outcomes - Program Outcomes mapping

P P
P
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO O PS PS S
O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 O1 O2 O
11
2 3
CO409. 2 3 2 2 3
1
CO409. 2 2 2 3 2
2
CO409. 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 1
3
CO409. 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 2
4
CO409. 2 2 2 2 2
5
CO409. 1 2 2 2 2 2 3
6

3: High 2: Medium 1: Low

xi
Program Educational Objectives – Program Specific Outcomes correlation

PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

PEO1 2 1 3

PEO2 3 2

PEO3 1 2 3

PEO4 3 2

PEO5 1 3 2

3: High 2: Medium 1: Low

xii
 CO-PO Mapping with Reasons:
1.CO421.1 is mapped with PO1, PO2 and PO4, PO6, PO7 as basic knowledge of
Engineering and problem Analysis activities are highly essential to conduct
examinations on existing systems which have been using in industries as a part of
and to define the problem of the proposed system.
2.CO421.2 is mapped with PO1, PO2, PO4 and PO6, PO9, PO10, and PO11 for
identification, gathering analysis, and classification of requirements for the proposed
system, basic knowledge of engineering and Analysis steps along with complex
problem analysis through the efforts of teamwork in order to meet the specific needs
of the customer.
3.CO421.3 is mapped with PO2, PO5, and PO12 as to conduct the literature review
and to examine the relevant systems to understand and identify the merits and
demerits of each to enhance and develop the proposed as per the need.
4.CO421.4 is mapped with PO1, PO2, PO3, PO4, PO5, PO7, PO8, PO9, and PO10
because modularization and design of the project are needed after requirements
elicitation. For modularization and design of the project, Basic knowledge of
Engineering, Analysis capabilities, Design skills, and communication is needed
between team members as different modules are designed individually before
integration.
5.CO421.5 is mapped with PO3, PO5, PO7, PO9, PO11 and PO12 as to construct the
project latest technologies are needed. The development of the project is done
individually and in groups with well-defined communication by using engineering
and management principles.
6.CO421.6 is mapped with PO6, PO10, and PO12 because during and after
completion of the project, documentation is needed along with proper methods of
presentation through understanding and application of engineering and management
principles, which in turn needs well-defined communication between the team
members with all the ethical values. Even the project development team defines
future enhancements as a part of the project development after identifying the scope
of the project.

xiii
CO-PSOs Mapping with Reasons:

1.CO421.1 is mapped with PSO1 as examining existing systems and identification of the
problem is a part of Application Development activity and identification of evolutionary
changes in the latest technologies.

2.CO421.2 is mapped with PSO1, PSO2, and PSO3 as identifying and classifying the
requirements is a part of Application development and evolutionary computing changes and
also follows ethical principles.

3.CO421.3 is mapped with PSO1 and PSO3 as a review of literature is a part of application
development activity by recognizing the computing technologies and their evolutionary
changes.

4.CO421.4 is mapped with PSO1 and PSO3 because modularization and logical design is
also a part of Application development and follows computing changes using Deep learning
technology.

5.CO421.5 is mapped with PSO1 and PSO2 as Testing, Development, and Integration of
project activities are part of Application development and follow ethical principles.

6.CO421.6 is mapped with PSO2 for project documentation and presentation the project
team members apply the professional and leadership quality.

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Label Page No.

Table 1 Component and its Functionality 30
Table 2 Pin Configuration of ESP8266 32
Table 3 Key Components & Efficiency Considerations 37
Table 5 Circuit Connections 46
Table 6 Battery Circuit Connections 47

xiv
 List of Figures
Figure No. Label Page No.
Fig 1 Wired Charging Image 15
Fig 2 Layout of Wireless Charging Mechanism 25
Fig 3 Inductive Coupling 27
Fig 4 Mutual Inductive Coupling 28
Fig 5 Capacitive Coupling 29
Fig 6 Microwave Power Transfer 30
Fig 7 Laser-Based Power Transfer 31
Fig 8 Magnetic Resonance Coupling 32
Fig 9 Radio Frequency Harvesting 33
Fig 10 IoT Based Vehicle-to-Grid Communication 36
Fig 11 37
IoT Connected Charging Network
Fig 12 Block Diagram 26
Fig 13 IoT Architecture for Wireless EV Charging Station 30
Fig 14 ESP32 Pin Diagram 32
Fig 15 Battery Voltage Measurement Circuit 34
Fig 16 Charger Detection Circuit 34
Fig 17 Power Flow and Efficiency Design in Wireless EV Charging 37
Fig 18 ESP32 Microcontroller 41
Fig 19 OLED Display 41
Fig 20 16x2 LCD Display 41
Fig 21 IR Sensor 41
Fig 22 NFC Module 41
Fig 23 TP4056 Charging Module 41
Fig 24 Charging Coils 41
Fig 25 Lithium-ion Batteries 41
Fig 26 Wi-Fi Module 41
Fig 27 Setup of Transmitter and Receiver Coil 44
Fig 28 Power Electronics and Circuitry 46
Fig 31 Hardware Integration Architecture Image 52
Fig 32 Software Integration Architecture Image 52
Fig 35 Code Setup for Car - 1 71
Fig 36 Code Setup for Car - 2 71
Fig 37 Code Setup for Car - 3 71
Fig 38 Code Setup for Charging Station - 1 71
Fig 39 Code for Charging Station - 2 71
Fig 40 Code for Charging Station - 3 71
Fig 41 Code for Charging Station - 4 71
Fig 42 Code for Charging Station - 5 71
Fig 43 Code for Charging Station - 6 71
Fig 44 Code for Charging Station - 7 71

xv
 ABSTRACT

The growing adoption of electric vehicles requires the development of better charging
infrastructure to ensure a smooth user experience and energy efficiency. This project
explores an Internet of Things (IoT)-based wireless charging system for electric vehicles
using the ESP32 microcontroller. The system integrates wireless power transfer technology
with IoT functionalities to enable smart, contactless charging. The solution uses the ESP32's
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth features to enable real-time monitoring, scheduling, and management
of charging sessions through a mobile or web application.

The design includes an installation of a wireless charging pad on designated EV bunk

stations, equipped with a transmitter coil and efficient power electronics. A receiver coil is
mounted on the vehicle to capture the transferred energy. The ESP32 module performs as
the central controller and would allow communication between the charging station and the
cloud-based IoT platform. It monitors charging status, energy consumption, and fault
detection while allowing users to get notified for maximum usage analytical insights into
them. The architecture tends to reduce dependency on manual interventions while
enhancing the convenience aspect for users.

This IoT-based wireless EV charging solution addresses the basic issues that have been
considered vital for development, such as problems with inefficient charging, safety of
users, and scalability. These will eventually minimize wear and tear involved with a
traditional plug-in-based system and will provide much-needed IoTenabled remote
management and analytics. The solution becomes feasible in urban and semi-urban areas.
Overall, it marks the high potential of IoT in modernizing EV charging and leading the
green transport revolution to achieve green transport

xvi
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER CHAPTER TITLE /SECTION PAGE NI

Abstract i
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1–15
1.1 Overview of Wireless EV Charging 1
1.2 Importance of IoT in EV Charging 2
1.3 Existing EV Charging Systems 3
1.4 Limitations of Wired Charging 5
1.5 Need for Wireless Charging 7
1.6 Objectives of the Project 9
1.7 Scope of the Study 11
1.8 Challenges in Implementation 13
1.9 Summary 15
CHAPTER II LITERATURE SURVEY 16–25
2.1 Review of Existing Research 16
2.2 Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) 18
Technologies
2.3 IoT Applications in EV Charging Systems 21
2.4 Summary of Literature Survey 23
2.5 Summary 25
CHAPTER III SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN 26–40
3.0 System Overview 26
3.1 Wireless Charging Module 28
3.2 IoT Architecture 30
3.3 ESP8266 Integration 32
3.4 Voltage Monitoring Design 34
3.5 Power Management & Efficiency Design 37
3.6 Summary 40
CHAPTER IV HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION 41–58
4.0 List of Components 41

xvi
4.1 Transmitter & Receiver Coil Setup 44
4.2 Power Electronics and Circuitry 46
4.3 Sensor Calibration 49
4.4 System Integration and Testing 52
4.5 Summary 59
CHAPTER V SOFTWARE & IoT PLATFORM 60–73
5.0 Firmware Programming for ESP32 60
5.1 Real-Time Data Transfer 63
5.2 MQTT Protocol and IoT Communication 67
5.3 Dashboard and Monitoring Tools 69
5.4 Code (Arduino & Firebase Integration) 71
5.5 Summary 78
CHAPTER VI RESULTS, ANALYSIS & CONCLUSION 79–85
6.0 Testing Conditions and Observations 79
6.1 Performance Evaluation 80
6.2 Limitations of Current Prototype 82
6.3 Future Enhancements 84
6.4 Conclusion 85

xvii
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of Wireless EV Charging

Wireless EV charging has gained significant traction in recent years due to the growing
demand for efficient, user-friendly, and low-maintenance electric vehicle charging
solutions. At its core, wireless charging—often referred to as inductive charging—relies on
electromagnetic fields to transmit energy between a primary coil located in a charging pad
and a secondary coil installed in the vehicle. This contactless mechanism eliminates the
need for physical plug-in connectors, simplifying the user experience and enabling
effortless charging routines, especially in public or shared spaces.

This technology enhances both safety and convenience. Since there are no exposed cables
or connectors, risks related to electric shock or short circuits are greatly minimized. In
addition, wireless charging systems are less prone to wear and tear caused by repeated
plugging and unplugging, leading to a longer service life. Applications of wireless charging
extend from private garages to public parking lots, and even to dynamic charging systems
embedded in roadways that allow vehicles to charge while in motion. These developments
are setting the stage for a paradigm shift in how energy is delivered to electric vehicles.

Moreover, wireless EV charging plays a critical role in advancing autonomous vehicle

technology. For autonomous vehicles to operate independently, the ability to self-charge
without human assistance is essential. Wireless systems provide this capability, enabling
future mobility solutions where vehicles autonomously locate charging pads, align
themselves, and initiate charging, all without manual intervention. The combination of
wireless charging with automation is a key step toward building the smart transportation
systems of tomorrow.

From a technical standpoint, the efficiency of wireless EV charging has improved

significantly with advancements in coil design, resonant frequency tuning, and power
electronics. Newer systems are capable of delivering power levels comparable to
conventional plug-in chargers, reducing the time needed for a full charge.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.2 Importance of IoT in EV Charging

The Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized numerous industries, and its integration into
electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure is no exception. IoT enables seamless
communication between various components of the charging system, including sensors,
controllers, the power grid, and the end-user interface. This connectivity facilitates smarter
energy management, predictive maintenance, and improved user interactions. In a wireless
charging setup, where precision and real-time monitoring are crucial, IoT technologies play
an indispensable role.

With IoT integration, EV users can remotely monitor their vehicle’s charging status, receive
real-time updates, and even schedule charging sessions through mobile applications. This
functionality not only improves user convenience but also enhances the overall efficiency
of the charging network. For example, users can be alerted if the charging process is
interrupted or if there is a fault in the system, allowing for prompt action. In addition, service
providers can use IoT data to optimize energy usage across multiple charging stations,
ensuring balanced load distribution.

IoT also supports the incorporation of renewable energy sources into EV charging
infrastructure. By integrating solar or wind energy systems with IoT-enabled chargers, the
charging process can be dynamically adjusted based on energy availability. Furthermore,
advanced analytics and machine learning algorithms can be applied to the collected IoT
data to identify usage patterns, forecast demand, and detect system anomalies. As a result,
IoT transforms a basic charging station into an intelligent, responsive, and scalable energy
node within a larger smart grid ecosystem.

Moreover, IoT facilitates better integration between EV charging infrastructure and electric
utility providers. Smart meters and IoT gateways can help utilities manage peak loads by
dynamically adjusting charging rates or shifting charging schedules to off-peak hours. This
capability not only reduces stress on the grid but also lowers energy costs for users.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.3 Existing EV Charging Systems

Current EV charging systems are largely dependent on wired technologies that necessitate
a direct physical connection between the vehicle and the power source. These systems are
typically divided into three main categories: Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 (DC Fast
Charging).

1. Level 1 Charging (Slow Charging)

Level 1 charging is the most basic form of EV charging. It utilizes a standard 120V AC
outlet, typically found in households. This method delivers a charging rate of about 2–5
miles of range per hour, which means a full charge for a typical electric vehicle can take
anywhere from 8 to 20+ hours, depending on the battery size.

While this method is cost-effective and does not require any additional installation, it is
primarily suitable for light EV users, such as those who drive short distances daily and can
charge their vehicle overnight. Level 1 chargers are often included with the vehicle at the
time of purchase, making them the most accessible but least efficient solution.

However, Level 1 charging is unsuitable for commercial or public charging stations due to
its slow speed. It also struggles to meet the growing energy demands of newer EV models,
which are equipped with larger batteries for extended ranges.

2. Level 2 Charging (Fast AC Charging)

Level 2 charging uses a 240V outlet and significantly improves upon the speed of Level 1
systems. It can deliver between 10 to 60 miles of range per hour, depending on the charger
and vehicle specifications. This makes Level 2 charging ideal for home use, workplaces,
and public destinations such as shopping centers, hospitals, parking garages, and hotels.

These chargers often require the installation of a dedicated charging unit and may need
professional assistance for electrical upgrades. However, they strike a favorable balance

3
Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

between charging time, cost, and practicality, making them a preferred choice for many EV
users and businesses.

In many urban areas, governments and private companies are investing in the expansion of
Level 2 infrastructure, often incentivized through tax credits or subsidies. These systems
are also more compatible with smart charging solutions and can support IoT integration for
remote monitoring and energy management.

Despite their advantages, Level 2 chargers still require manual plug-in and are prone to
wear and tear, especially in high-traffic public areas.

3. Level 3 Charging (DC Fast Charging or Rapid Charging)

Level 3 charging, commonly referred to as DC Fast Charging (DCFC), utilizes high-voltage

direct current (usually between 400V to 900V) to charge an EV battery at incredibly fast
speeds. These systems can often charge a vehicle to 80% capacity within 30 to 60 minutes,
making them ideal for highway rest stops, long-distance travel corridors, and high-demand
urban environments.

DC Fast Charging is a game-changer in terms of time efficiency, enabling EVs to be used

similarly to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles when it comes to refueling time.
However, this speed comes at a cost—both financially and in terms of battery health.
Prolonged and repeated exposure to rapid charging may accelerate battery degradation,
reducing long-term performance and lifespan.

Furthermore, these chargers require significant infrastructure investment, including

dedicated high-capacity transformers, cooling systems, and reinforced grid connections.
Installation can be complex and expensive, and ongoing maintenance adds to operational
[Link] issue is standardization. Multiple DC Fast Charging connector standards
exist—such as CCS (Combined Charging System), CHAdeMO, and Tesla Superchargers—
leading to compatibility concerns. Not all EVs support DC charging, and even those that do
may not be compatible with every station.

4
Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.4 Limitations of Wired Charging

Wired electric vehicle (EV) charging systems, while effective in delivering energy, present
a host of limitations that restrict their efficiency, accessibility, and long-term viability. The
most obvious drawback is the requirement for manual handling, where users must
physically connect the charging cable to their vehicle every time a charge is needed. This
process can be cumbersome, especially in adverse weather conditions such as rain or snow,
or in poorly lit areas. Moreover, individuals with physical disabilities may find it
challenging to engage with wired systems, making the infrastructure less inclusive.

Another concern with wired charging is the wear and tear on connectors and cables.
Frequent plugging and unplugging, as well as dragging cables across various surfaces,
contribute to mechanical stress and eventual degradation. Over time, this can lead to
increased maintenance costs, safety risks, and even fire hazards if damaged components are
used. Public charging stations are especially vulnerable, as they are subject to heavy usage,
vandalism, and environmental exposure that accelerate wear. In such scenarios, downtime
due to repairs can severely inconvenience EV users.

In addition to physical limitations, compatibility issues persist in the wired EV charging

landscape. Different manufacturers often employ different connector standards (such as
CHAdeMO, CCS, and Tesla’s proprietary plug), leading to a fragmented ecosystem. Users
must verify compatibility before using a public charger, or otherwise carry adapter kits. This
lack of universal standardization not only hampers user convenience but also slows
infrastructure deployment, as providers must cater to a variety of plug types. It creates
confusion and inefficiencies that undermine the broader goal of encouraging EV adoption.

From an urban planning and design perspective, wired systems also pose aesthetic and
logistical challenges. In densely populated cities or multi-unit residential complexes, the
installation of numerous charging poles and cables can clutter limited parking spaces. Cable
management becomes a critical issue, with loose wires causing tripping hazards or being
left in disarray after use. Furthermore, integrating wired charging into existing

5
Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

infrastructure—such as underground garages or public lots—can be cost-prohibitive,

requiring extensive retrofitting and electrical upgrades.

The security of wired charging stations is yet another concern. Public stations are
susceptible to vandalism, cable theft, or even tampering, which could pose dangers to both
people and vehicles. The exposed nature of wired components makes them easy targets for
theft or damage. Replacing stolen or damaged components adds to the operational costs and
can discourage businesses or municipalities from investing in public EV infrastructure. In
contrast, wireless charging pads embedded into the ground are less visible and less prone to
such issues.

As the world moves toward autonomous vehicles, the drawbacks of wired charging become
even more pronounced. Autonomous EVs require systems that do not depend on human
interaction to function. Wired solutions, by their very nature, are incompatible with such
demands. They require a physical action that a driverless vehicle cannot perform
independently. Thus, future mobility solutions demand charging technologies that are
automated and seamless, which is something wired infrastructure cannot provide without
significant and impractical modifications.

Finally, from an environmental and maintenance perspective, wired charging systems can
lead to increased electronic waste over time. Damaged cables and connectors often end up
discarded rather than repaired, contributing to environmental degradation. The production
and disposal of such components add to the carbon footprint of EV infrastructure—
ironically undermining one of the primary goals of electric mobility: sustainability. Wireless
systems, while not entirely free from environmental concerns, reduce physical component
fatigue and extend the operational life of charging systems.

Furthermore, the scalability of wired charging systems is limited. For each new EV on the
road, an additional charger must be installed, which involves physical space, infrastructure
expansion, and high upfront costs. This model becomes increasingly inefficient as EV
adoption rates surge. Urban planners face a dilemma: how to provide charging access to a

6
Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.5 Need for Wireless Charging

Wired chargers also introduce delays and queues at public stations. Since charging takes
significantly longer than traditional refueling, vehicles often occupy the space for extended
periods, leading to long wait times, especially during peak hours. Without automation or
smart scheduling, this inefficiency limits station throughput and frustrates users.

Another often-overlooked issue is cable fatigue and safety concerns due to improper usage.
Users sometimes force plugs into incorrect ports, or trip over cables, damaging both the
vehicle port and the charger. Damaged wiring can cause power leaks or electrical faults,
which not only damage the charger but also put users at risk of shock or fire.

There is also a psychological barrier for new users who are unfamiliar with how to use
wired charging systems, especially in unfamiliar environments. The lack of consistent
UI/UX design across charging networks, unfamiliar payment systems.

Fig1. Wired Charging image.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

Wired electric vehicle (EV) charging, while widely adopted, comes with several practical
limitations that can hinder the efficiency, convenience, and longevity of the charging
infrastructure. One major drawback is the need for manual intervention—users must
physically connect and disconnect the charging cable for each session. This can be
inconvenient during poor weather conditions or for individuals with mobility challenges.
Over time, repeated plugging and unplugging causes wear and tear on both the vehicle’s
charging port and the cable connectors, leading to maintenance issues, safety hazards, and
increased operational costs.

Moreover, wired charging infrastructure can pose logistical and aesthetic challenges in
urban and public spaces. Charging stations require dedicated poles, visible cables, and
considerable space, which can clutter environments like parking garages or city streets.
Additionally, public chargers are often exposed to vandalism, theft, or accidental damage,
increasing downtime and repair expenses. As EV adoption scales up and cities evolve into
smart ecosystems, these physical limitations of wired systems make them less viable in the
long run—highlighting the need for cleaner, safer, and more automated alternatives like
wireless EV charging systems.

Additionally, the lack of standardization across charging ports and connectors introduces
compatibility issues among different EV brands, requiring adapters or specialized
infrastructure for each model. This complicates deployment and limits accessibility,
particularly in shared or public charging networks.

Wireless charging technologies are not only more user-friendly but also more adaptable to
different environments. Charging pads can be embedded into parking lots, garage floors, or
even roadways, allowing for both static and dynamic charging. Static wireless charging
refers to charging while the vehicle is parked, while dynamic charging enables energy
transfer as the vehicle is in motion. In scenarios where frequent charging is required—such
as for fleets, taxis, or shared mobility services—wireless charging offers a hassle-free,
automated alternative

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.6 Objectives of the Project

The transition to wireless EV charging also fosters innovation across various industries
beyond automotive. For instance, logistics companies can benefit significantly from
wireless charging in warehouse or distribution environments, where electric delivery vans
or autonomous transport units can recharge continuously without interrupting operations.
In the hospitality sector, hotels and resorts offering wireless charging as an amenity could
appeal to tech-savvy travelers who value convenience and environmental stewardship.
Similarly, retail centers can use embedded wireless pads in parking areas to enhance
customer satisfaction and dwell time, turning charging into a passive and seamless
experience.

In public transit systems, the implementation of wireless charging enables buses and
shuttles to recharge at bus stops or terminals without delay. This promotes route efficiency
and extends operational hours without requiring oversized batteries. Even two- and three-
wheeler EV segments—popular in many developing countries—can benefit from this
hands-free solution, particularly when used in high-traffic, congested areas where wired
infrastructure may pose a logistical challenge.

The growing research interest and investments in solid-state batteries and fast-charging
technologies are likely to complement the evolution of wireless EV charging. As these
advanced energy storage systems become more prevalent, wireless charging will be able to
deliver higher power levels in shorter durations, making it even more viable for quick top-
ups and en-route charging. Furthermore, improvements in electromagnetic materials and
coil geometries will likely boost power transmission efficiency, reduce thermal losses, and
enable thinner, more aesthetically pleasing pad designs that integrate invisibly into roads
and buildings.

Standardization is another area that holds the key to mass adoption. Industry-wide
agreements on communication protocols, safety regulations, and electromagnetic
compatibility are essential for interoperability between different EV brands and charger
models. International collaborations, such as those led by the SAE (Society of Automotive

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

Engineers), ISO, and IEC, are already underway to create unified wireless charging
standards, paving the way for global compatibility and supply chain optimization.

Community-wide benefits further support the value proposition of wireless EV charging. In

eco-conscious neighbourhoods and smart campuses, the adoption of wireless systems can
demonstrate leadership in clean technology. Educational institutions, tech parks, and
government buildings can showcase pilot programs that serve as testbeds for scaling such
infrastructure citywide. Additionally, as wireless systems are generally low-maintenance
and tamper-resistant, they’re well-suited for deployment in open-access, unmanned areas
where upkeep and security are primary concerns.

The social and accessibility benefits of wireless charging also deserve attention. For
individuals with limited mobility or physical disabilities, the task of connecting a heavy
charging cable can be burdensome or even impossible without assistance. Wireless charging
eliminates this barrier entirely, promoting a more inclusive transportation ecosystem. As
accessibility becomes a growing consideration in technology design, wireless EV
infrastructure will contribute to creating more equitable and universally usable solutions.

On a strategic level, wireless charging supports national and regional goals related to energy
independence and smart grid integration. By distributing energy consumption more evenly
and leveraging bidirectional communication between the vehicle and grid, governments can
better manage energy loads, minimize peak demand issues, and reduce dependence on fossil
fuels. This aligns with broader policies surrounding clean energy transitions, climate change
mitigation, and sustainable urban development.

In essence, wireless EV charging serves as a catalyst for a wide array of technological,

environmental, economic, and societal advancements. Its implementation marks a shift
away from fragmented and manual energy delivery systems toward cohesive, intelligent,
and automated infrastructures.

As we stand at the intersection of electrification, automation, and digitalization, embracing

wireless charging is not just an innovation—it’s a necessity.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study encompasses the conceptualization, design, development, and
evaluation of a wireless electric vehicle charging system with integrated IoT connectivity.
The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how wireless charging
technology can be effectively implemented within the current EV infrastructure and how
IoT components can enhance its functionality, efficiency, and reliability. This exploration
includes a detailed analysis of the technological foundations of wireless energy transfer,
specifically focusing on inductive charging and resonant magnetic coupling mechanisms.
These methods are assessed in terms of energy transfer efficiency, coil alignment sensitivity,
electromagnetic interference, and thermal management to ensure optimal performance and
safety under diverse operating conditions.

Furthermore, the study investigates the role of IoT devices and platforms in transforming a
basic wireless charger into a smart, connected charging node. It addresses how sensors,
microcontrollers, communication modules, and cloud services interact to enable real-time
monitoring, fault detection, and energy optimization. The integration of IoT also supports
predictive maintenance, where data-driven algorithms anticipate component failures before
they occur, thereby improving uptime and reliability. This smart system architecture
facilitates adaptive control based on usage patterns and grid demands, making the charging
process more intelligent and responsive.

The focus also extends to the design of user interfaces and mobile applications that allow
EV owners and operators to interact with the system in an intuitive and secure manner.
These interfaces support functionalities such as session scheduling, payment processing,
location tracking of available chargers, and access to historical data. Emphasis is placed on
user-centric design principles, ensuring accessibility and ease of use for individuals with
varying levels of technical proficiency. Moreover, cybersecurity protocols, such as
encrypted communication and user authentication, are explored to protect sensitive user
data and ensure safe operation of the connected system.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

Data analytics and visualization tools that provide insights into energy consumption
patterns, maintenance needs, and usage trends are also part of the system’s scope. These
tools support decision-making for stakeholders, including service providers, utility
operators, and urban planners. By leveraging cloud-based dashboards and AI-driven
analytics, the system can identify peak usage times, optimize load distribution, and propose
energy-saving strategies, thereby contributing to a more sustainable energy ecosystem.

The geographical and environmental scope of the study includes both urban and rural
implementations of wireless EV charging, with emphasis on fixed installations such as
parking garages, public lots, and residential complexes. Special attention is given to
environmental challenges such as exposure to weather, temperature fluctuations, and dust
accumulation, which can affect the durability and performance of the hardware components.
The system's adaptability to different terrains and infrastructural constraints is also
analysed, providing insights into how such technology can be tailored to diverse regional
needs.

for future innovation and large-scale deployment of wireless EV charging systems.

Fig [Link] of wireless charging mechanism

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1.8 Challenges faced during implementation

Implementing a wireless EV charging system integrated with IoT connectivity involves

navigating a complex set of technical, logistical, and financial challenges. One of the
foremost difficulties lies in achieving efficient energy transfer through inductive or resonant
magnetic coupling. Unlike traditional wired systems that directly deliver energy through
cables, wireless systems must contend with energy losses due to air gaps, misalignment
between transmitter and receiver coils, and electromagnetic interference. Fine-tuning the
alignment mechanisms and optimizing coil design to ensure minimal loss is a sophisticated
engineering task that demands precision, advanced simulation tools, and high-quality
materials capable of sustaining thermal and electromagnetic stresses.

Efficiency of Wireless Power Transfer

Achieving high energy transfer efficiency is a key challenge. Wireless systems suffer from
losses due to coil misalignment, air gaps, and electromagnetic interference, which reduces
overall performance compared to wired systems.

Precise Coil Alignment

For optimal charging, the transmitter and receiver coils must be accurately aligned. Even
slight misalignment can drastically reduce power transfer efficiency, requiring precise
vehicle positioning and possibly additional hardware like alignment sensors.

Material and Design Constraints

Designing efficient, compact coils using high-quality magnetic materials increases cost
and complexity. Choosing materials that can sustain high power levels without
overheating is a technical challenge.

Network Connectivity Issues

IoT-based systems rely on uninterrupted connectivity. In locations with weak signals—
like underground parking lots—real-time data transfer to the cloud may be unreliable,
affecting monitoring and control functions.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

Integration of IoT Components

Combining microcontrollers, sensors, communication modules (e.g., Wi-Fi, MQTT), and
power electronics into a compact, robust system requires advanced hardware/software
integration and testing.

High Initial Capital Cost

The installation of wireless infrastructure—including embedded charging pads, smart
modules, and protective enclosures—is more expensive than traditional wired setups,
often requiring subsidies or pilot programs.

Weatherproofing and Durability

Outdoor installations must withstand weather conditions like rain, snow, dust, and
temperature extremes. Ensuring long-term durability demands specialized waterproof
enclosures and ruggedized components.

Vehicle Compatibility
Not all EVs are compatible with wireless charging. Variations in vehicle ground clearance,
coil size, and software may necessitate custom solutions or universal standards that are
still evolving.

Real-Time Monitoring and Maintenance

Detecting faults in underground coils or IoT modules is difficult without disrupting the
system. While cloud monitoring helps, physical repairs are often invasive and time-
consuming.

Regulatory and Safety Compliance

Wireless charging systems must comply with electromagnetic safety standards, energy
regulations, and municipal zoning laws—each adding approval delays and design
constraints.

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1.9 Summary

The integration of wireless electric vehicle (EV) charging with Internet of Things (IoT)
technology represents a significant milestone in the advancement of sustainable and
intelligent transportation infrastructure. This introduction chapter explored the evolution of
EV charging systems, highlighting the growing limitations of conventional wired setups
and the urgent need for more efficient, user-friendly alternatives. Wireless charging
systems, which use inductive or resonant magnetic coupling to deliver energy, address
many of the physical, operational, and aesthetic issues associated with wired systems. They
enhance convenience, reduce maintenance, and support future-ready features like
autonomous charging, making them essential for the next generation of EV infrastructure.

The role of IoT in this transformation cannot be overstated. With the integration of smart
sensors, microcontrollers, and cloud connectivity, EV charging systems become far more
than mere power transfer units. They evolve into dynamic, data-driven platforms capable
of real-time communication, remote monitoring, fault detection, and energy optimization.

Moreover, the rapid growth in global EV adoption calls for a rethinking of how charging
networks are deployed and managed. Traditional wired stations often fall short in dense
urban environments or areas where parking layouts make cable access cumbersome.
Wireless solutions can be more flexibly integrated into urban infrastructure—beneath roads,
in parking lots, or within garages—minimizing visual clutter and maximizing space
efficiency. Combined with IoT capabilities such as predictive maintenance and adaptive
energy distribution, this integrated system promotes a more intelligent, sustainable, and
user-centric model of transportation.

In conclusion, the introductory chapter lays the groundwork for an in-depth investigation
into the potential of wireless EV charging supported by IoT technologies. By understanding
the motivations behind this innovation, its core components, and the obstacles to
widespread adoption, researchers and engineers can better navigate the path toward building
scalable, efficient, and future-proof charging infrastructure.

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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Review of Existing System

Wireless Electric Vehicle (EV) charging integrated with Internet of Things (IoT)
technologies has emerged as a vibrant field of study in response to the increasing global
emphasis on sustainable mobility, energy efficiency, and smart infrastructure. A thorough
review of existing research highlights the multidimensional advancements, technological
innovations, and challenges being addressed to develop reliable and scalable wireless
charging systems for EVs. This section offers an in-depth analysis of published literature,
current methodologies, experimental results, and critical perspectives from academia,
industry, and governmental bodies.

Historical Context and Evolution of Wireless Charging

The foundation of wireless power transfer (WPT) dates back to the work of Nikola Tesla in
the early 20th century, who first explored the possibility of transmitting energy without
wires. Over the years, WPT has evolved from basic inductive charging systems used in
small electronics to more complex configurations suitable for electric vehicles. Research
over the last two decades has focused on improving transmission efficiency, coil alignment,
magnetic field management, and safety. Studies such as those by Covic and Boys (2013)
and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) have demonstrated high-power wireless
charging prototypes capable of transferring over 20 kW of power with efficiencies
approaching 90%.

Technologies and Methods Used

Most wireless EV charging systems rely on either inductive coupling or resonant inductive
coupling methods. Inductive systems require close proximity and tight alignment between
coils, whereas resonant systems allow for slightly greater air gaps and misalignment
tolerances. Researchers have investigated different coil geometries, compensation
topologies (series-series, series-parallel), and power electronics converters to optimize

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energy transfer. IEEE standards such as SAE J2954 have been proposed to standardize these
systems.

In parallel, IoT components such as embedded sensors, RFID tags, microcontrollers, and
communication modules (e.g., Wi-Fi, Zigbee, LTE) have been integrated to enhance system
intelligence. These additions enable real-time monitoring of battery parameters, predictive
maintenance, automated billing, and remote diagnostics. Research has emphasized the
importance of secure data communication, low-latency protocols, and edge-cloud
integration to ensure the reliability of smart wireless charging networks.

Current Research Trends

Recent advancements in materials science, control algorithms, and networked systems are
driving the development of more efficient and intelligent wireless EV charging
infrastructure. Studies from institutions like MIT, Stanford, and KAIST have explored
dynamic wireless charging, where EVs can be charged while in motion using embedded
road coils. Research also focuses on adaptive coil systems that adjust their positioning or
magnetic field dynamically to maintain optimal energy transfer.

The integration of machine learning for energy management, fault detection, and system
optimization is another emerging trend. Projects such as EVolution (EU-funded) and
collaborations between automotive companies (e.g., BMW, Nissan) and tech providers are
exploring these possibilities. Furthermore, efforts are being made to reduce electromagnetic
field exposure and improve interoperability across different vehicle models and charger
manufacturers.

Challenges Highlighted in Research

Despite progress, several challenges remain in wireless EV charging. Key concerns include
energy loss due to misalignment, electromagnetic interference, and system cost.
Researchers have proposed solutions such as magnetic shielding, active alignment
mechanisms, and low-loss materials, though these often increase overall system
complexity.
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2.2 Wireless Power Transfer(WPT) Technologies

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) refers to the transmission of electrical energy from a power
source to a load without the use of physical connectors or wires. This technology is pivotal
in applications ranging from charging consumer electronics to powering electric vehicles
and implantable medical devices. Various WPT technologies have been developed, each
with distinct operating principles, advantages, and limitations

1. Inductive Coupling

Inductive coupling is the most widely implemented WPT method, especially in consumer
electronics like smartphones and electric toothbrushes. It operates on the principle of
electromagnetic induction, where an alternating current in a primary coil generates a
magnetic field gythat induces a voltage in a secondary coil placed in proximity. This method
requires precise alignment and close distance between the coils to achieve efficient power
transfer.

Fig 3 Inductive Coupling

2. Resonant Inductive Coupling

Fig 4 Mutual Inductive Coupling

Resonant inductive coupling enhances the range and efficiency of inductive coupling by
tuning both the transmitter and receiver coils to resonate at the same frequency. This

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resonance allows for energy transfer over greater distances and with some tolerance to
misalignment. It's particularly useful in applications like electric vehicle charging and
wireless power zones in public spaces.

3. Capacitive Coupling

Capacitive coupling, or capacitive power transfer, uses electric fields between two
conductive plates to transfer energy. An alternating voltage applied to the plates creates a
displacement current through the dielectric medium separating them. While this method can
be efficient for low-power applications, it typically requires large plate areas and high-
frequency operation, making it less common for high-power uses.

Fig 5 Capacitive Coupling

5. Laser-Based Power Transfer

Laser-based power transfer converts electrical energy into a laser beam directed at a
photovoltaic cell, which then converts the light back into electrical energy. This technology
allows for targeted energy delivery over considerable distances and is being researched for
applications such as drone recharging and energy transmission in space. Challenges include

ensuring precise beam alignment, managing atmospheric interference, and addressing

safety concerns related to high-intensity lasers.

Fig 7 Laser based power transfer

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6. Magnetic Resonance Coupling

Magnetic resonance coupling involves two resonant circuits tuned to the same frequency,
allowing efficient energy transfer even with misalignment and over mid-range distances.
This method is advantageous for applications requiring flexibility in positioning, such as

charging electric vehicles or medical implants.

Fig 8 Magnetic Resonance Coupling

7. Radio Frequency (RF) Harvesting

Fig 9 Radio Frequency Harvesting

Each of these WPT technologies presents unique benefits and challenges, influencing their
suitability for various applications. Ongoing research aims to enhance their efficiency,
range, safety, and integration into existing infrastructures to meet the growing demand for
wireless energy solutions.

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2.3. IoT Applications in EV Charging Systems

The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technology into electric vehicle (EV) charging
infrastructure is revolutionizing how energy is delivered, monitored, and managed.
Traditionally, EV charging stations operated as standalone systems, requiring manual
intervention for control, monitoring, and maintenance. With the emergence of IoT, these
limitations are being replaced with smart, automated, and scalable solutions that
significantly improve user experience, grid reliability, and energy efficiency. IoT allows
charging stations to communicate with one another, interact with vehicles and users, and
connect with the cloud to enable real-time data transfer, decision-making, and analytics.

One of the primary benefits of IoT in EV charging systems is remote monitoring and
diagnostics. IoT sensors embedded in charging units allow for the continuous collection of
operational data such as voltage levels, current draw, temperature, usage frequency, and
error reports. This data is transmitted over the internet to centralized dashboards where
operators can analyze performance and identify faults before they become critical.

Security and authentication are critical components of any public infrastructure, and IoT
offers robust mechanisms for access control. Users can authenticate themselves using RFID
cards, mobile OTPs, or app-based login systems. Once authenticated, the charging system
can track session data, bill accordingly, and provide usage history. IoT also enhances the
integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels, into charging stations.
Through real-time environmental sensing and adaptive algorithms, the system can decide
when to draw energy from solar versus the grid, making EV charging more sustainable.

The fusion of IoT and electric vehicle charging systems has emerged as one of the key
enablers of intelligent transport infrastructure. While earlier EV charging infrastructures
functioned in isolation, modern smart charging solutions rely on interconnected networks
that use real-time communication protocols, cloud-based data storage, and AI-driven
analytics. This synergy empowers cities and utility providers to transform traditional
charging into responsive, efficient, and scalable platforms that cater to the growing
population of EV users.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

1. IoT-Based Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Communication

Description: V2G technology allows EVs to communicate with the power grid to return
excess energy during peak demand periods. IoT facilitates this interaction by providing
real-time data exchange between the vehicle and grid operators, enabling efficient

energy management and potential cost savings for EV owners.

Fig 10 IoT Based vehicle to Grid Communication

2. IoT-Connected Charging Network

An IoT-connected charging network links EV charging stations through the internet,

enabling real-time monitoring, remote control, and smart energy management. It
enhances user experience with features like app-based charging, live status updates, and

automated billing, while allowing operators to optimize performance and maintenance.

Fig 11 IoT Connected Charging Network

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

2.4 Summary of Literature Survey

The convergence of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technologies and Internet of Things
(IoT) applications has laid a strong foundation for next-generation Electric Vehicle (EV)
charging infrastructure. The historical backdrop of WPT begins with Nikola Tesla’s
pioneering efforts, which were visionary for his time but only became technically feasible
in recent decades due to advances in power electronics, magnetic field management, and
materials science. The literature indicates an accelerated growth in research after 2000, with
key milestones in inductive and resonant inductive coupling technologies capable of high-
efficiency, high-power transfer.

Multiple studies have compared different WPT methods including inductive, resonant,
capacitive, microwave, and laser-based transfer. Inductive coupling is preferred for
stationary charging due to its simplicity and reliability, while resonant methods support
wider misalignment tolerance and longer transfer distances. Microwave and laser-based
techniques, though capable of distance energy delivery, are limited by conversion
inefficiencies and safety concerns. In this context, magnetic resonance coupling has gained
popularity in EV applications due to its favorable trade-off between alignment flexibility
and energy transfer efficiency. Research from institutions like ORNL, Stanford, and KAIST
has led to the creation of prototypes capable of delivering more than 20 kW of power with
above 90% efficiency, making commercial feasibility a realistic goal.

Parallel to these developments, IoT has revolutionized how charging infrastructure is

monitored, managed, and scaled. IoT facilitates the integration of embedded systems such
as microcontrollers, sensors, and actuators to monitor real-time operational parameters
including voltage, current, temperature, and coil alignment. Using communication
protocols such as Zigbee, LTE, and Wi-Fi, these sensors connect with cloud platforms for
data analytics, performance optimization, and fault diagnosis. Studies emphasize how
remote diagnostics and predictive maintenance, enabled by IoT, drastically reduce
downtime and maintenance costs.

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Smart energy management is another major theme in literature, where IoT platforms enable
demand-response charging, load balancing, and grid integration. Dynamic pricing models
and time-of-use energy strategies, driven by real-time analytics, are being deployed to
optimize both utility loads and user expenses. Some systems integrate renewable energy
sources like solar photovoltaics, using IoT-based energy management systems to switch
between grid and solar supply based on environmental data and battery state-of-charge.

The literature also discusses the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) algorithms for load forecasting, anomaly detection, and adaptive control.
Research prototypes incorporate AI-enabled edge devices for low-latency decisions, while
cloud platforms process large-scale data to refine operational strategies. Emerging
technologies like Digital Twins are used to simulate and test wireless EV charging scenarios
under varied environmental and traffic conditions, offering a cost-effective R&D pathway.

Security and standardization are prominent issues in the literature. As EV charging becomes
increasingly connected, cybersecurity concerns grow. Researchers have proposed solutions
like blockchain for secure data exchange, Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) for identity
management, and encrypted firmware updates to protect systems from malicious attacks.
Standardization efforts such as SAE J2954 are vital to ensure interoperability between
vehicles and charging stations across manufacturers.

Real-world implementations from countries like South Korea, the USA, and Germany
demonstrate both the potential and the complexity of deploying such systems. Dynamic
Wireless Charging (DWC) systems, which allow vehicles to charge while moving on
specially equipped roads, have shown promise but face scalability and cost issues.

Several comparative studies show that while static charging stations are easier to deploy
and maintain, they require precise alignment and parking habits. Conversely, dynamic
systems offer continuous charging benefits for fleets and public transport but entail
significant infrastructure investments and regulatory clearances. In both scenarios, IoT
platforms help in billing, session management, energy tracking, and user personalization.

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2.5 Summary

The literature survey on wireless EV charging systems integrated with IoT technologies
reveals the emergence of a smart, sustainable solution to current energy and mobility
challenges. It highlights the evolution of Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technologies from
Tesla’s early concepts to present-day high-efficiency solutions, with inductive and resonant
inductive coupling being the most explored methods for EV applications. These methods
ensure reliable energy transfer while addressing challenges like coil misalignment and
electromagnetic interference.

IoT plays a transformative role by enabling smart communication, real-time monitoring,

and system automation. It allows for remote diagnostics, predictive maintenance, user-
based authentication, and dynamic load management. With communication protocols such
as Zigbee, Wi-Fi, and LTE, IoT helps ensure efficient power usage and integration with
renewable sources. Additionally, IoT’s data-driven capabilities facilitate adaptive control
strategies using cloud computing and edge analytics.

Recent research incorporates AI and machine learning to enhance operational accuracy and
predict system behaviors, while digital twins simulate real-world deployment scenarios.
Furthermore, security and data integrity are central themes, with solutions involving
encryption, blockchain, and secure firmware protocols. Standards such as SAE J2954
ensure cross-platform compatibility and system interoperability.

Real-world projects from countries like Germany, the U.S., and South Korea validate the
feasibility of both static and dynamic charging systems. Dynamic systems, although costly,
promise seamless EV charging on the move. V2G technology is another significant
advancement, enabling EVs to feed power back to the grid, enhancing grid resilience.

Despite technical and operational progress, challenges remain in achieving optimal power
transfer efficiency, ensuring cybersecurity, managing infrastructure costs, and addressing
user acceptance. Nonetheless, the integration of WPT and IoT offers a promising path
toward intelligent, automated, and scalable EV charging solutions.

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CHAPTER 3 SYSTEM ARCHITECCTURE

3.1 System Overview

Fig 12 Block Diagram

The block diagram illustrates a smart wireless electric vehicle (EV) charging system with
integrated IoT features, designed to automate the process of charging, monitoring, user
authentication, and billing. The architecture includes a transmitter side located at the
charging station and a receiver side installed in the vehicle. The overall system is built
around ESP32 microcontrollers for both transmitting and receiving units, which offer built-
in Wi-Fi and GPIO functionalities that are essential for wireless communication, sensor
interfacing, and control logic execution.

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has created a pressing demand for
efficient, user-friendly, and scalable charging solutions. Traditional wired EV charging
stations often face challenges such as wear and tear of connectors, limited accessibility,
security concerns, and user inconvenience. To address these limitations, this project
introduces a Wireless EV Charging Station with IoT Connectivity, offering a smart, secure,

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

and automated charging infrastructure designed for modern urban environments and smart
cities.

This system utilizes wireless power transfer technology through inductive coupling,
allowing electric vehicles to charge without any physical connection. The infrastructure is
divided into two main sections: the transmitter side, located at the charging station, and the
receiver side, installed in the electric vehicle.

On the transmitter side, an IR sensor detects the presence of a vehicle parked in the charging
zone. Once the vehicle is identified, the ESP32 collects data from an energy meter to
monitor the amount of power being transferred during the session. This information is
processed in real time and sent to a cloud platform, enabling remote data storage, analytics,
and monitoring. A QR code generator creates a unique payment QR code based on the
energy consumed and the corresponding cost, which is then displayed on an OLED display.
The user can scan this QR code using any UPI-compatible mobile application to complete
the payment. Simultaneously, a transmitting coil is activated to initiate wireless energy
transfer to the vehicle.

The receiver side is responsible for receiving the transmitted power and ensuring secure
charging through user verification. The power received by the receiving coil is routed to the
battery of the electric vehicle. The ESP32 microcontroller on this side monitors the charging
process and interacts with a PN532 NFC reader for user authentication. Each registered user
is assigned an NFC tag, which must be scanned before charging begins. The ESP32 verifies
the tag's credentials and allows the charging session only if authentication is successful.

By integrating IoT capabilities, this system supports real-time data logging, remote access,
and automated billing, making it highly suitable for deployment in public EV charging
stations, commercial parking facilities, and private garages. The use of NFC ensures secure
access control, preventing unauthorized usage of the charging infrastructure. The entire
process—from vehicle detection and user authentication to charging and payment—is
automated, enhancing the user experience and reducing the need for manual supervision.

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3.2 Wireless Charging Module

1. Introduction to Working Principle

The wireless charging system is based on electromagnetic induction—a process in which

electrical energy is transferred between two coils through a magnetic field. This system
involves two main components:

• Transmitter (Primary Coil Circuit) – Installed at the charging station.

• Receiver (Secondary Coil Circuit) – Installed in the electric vehicle.

The wireless charging starts once the transmitter detects a vehicle and user authentication
is verified. Power transfer is enabled through a magnetic field generated by the transmitter
coil, which induces a voltage in the receiver coil to charge the EV battery.

2. Detailed Methodology

2.1 Transmitter Side Methodology (Charging Station)

1. Vehicle Detection
o An IR sensor is placed at the charging station to detect the presence of a
vehicle.
o When a vehicle is detected, the system is triggered to start authentication
and charging preparation.
2. User Authentication
o An NFC module (PN532) or other method is used to authenticate the user
before enabling the charging process.
o Authentication data is processed by the ESP32 microcontroller.
3. Power Transfer Activation
o After authentication, the ESP32 enables a high-frequency oscillator circuit.
o The oscillator converts DC voltage (e.g., 12V or 24V) into high-frequency
AC current.

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o This AC is sent to the transmitting coil, generating a time-varying

magnetic field in the space around the coil.
4. Monitoring and Control
o A digital energy meter measures the power consumption during the
session.
o Data is processed by ESP32 and sent to a cloud server via Wi-Fi.
o The billing amount is calculated based on the energy consumed and shown
on an OLED display as a QR code for payment.

2.2 Receiver Side Methodology (Vehicle Unit)

1. Magnetic Field Reception

o The receiving coil, installed under the EV, is aligned with the transmitting
coil.
o The alternating magnetic field generated by the transmitter coil induces an
AC voltage in the receiver coil via electromagnetic induction.
2. AC to DC Conversion
o The induced AC voltage is passed through a rectifier circuit (typically a
full-bridge rectifier).
o The output of the rectifier is filtered using capacitors and fed to a voltage
regulator to produce a constant DC voltage.
3. Battery Charging
o The regulated DC power is supplied to the vehicle’s battery management
system (BMS) or directly to the battery (if basic level).
o Charging current and voltage are continuously monitored by the ESP32.
4. Monitoring and Display
o The ESP32 on the receiver side monitors battery voltage in real-time.
o Charging status, voltage level, and authentication status are displayed on a
16x2 LCD or similar display.

3. Data Flow and Control Flow Summary

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Transmitter Side

• Vehicle arrives → IR sensor detects presence → ESP32 activates system

• NFC authentication → If valid, oscillator is triggered → Tx coil generates
magnetic field
• Energy data recorded → Sent to cloud → Billing amount calculated → QR code
displayed

Receiver Side

• Rx coil receives magnetic field → AC voltage induced → Rectified to DC

• Battery receives charging current → ESP32 monitors voltage → Display updated

4. Power Transfer Overview

Step Component Function

1 IR Sensor Detects vehicle
2 ESP32 (Tx) Controls logic and communication
3 Oscillator Circuit Generates high-frequency AC
4 Transmitter Coil Creates magnetic field
5 Receiver Coil Captures magnetic field, induces AC
6 Rectifier Circuit Converts AC to DC
7 Voltage Regulator Provides stable output for battery
8 ESP32 (Rx) Monitors and displays battery status

Table 1 Component and it’s functionality

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

3.3 IoT Architecture

Fig 13 IoT Architecture for Wireless EV Charging Station

The system uses an IoT-based layered architecture to enable smart wireless charging of
electric vehicles. The architecture is divided into four main layers: Perception, Network,
Processing, and Application.

1. Perception Layer

This layer handles physical sensing and data acquisition.

• IR Sensor: Detects vehicle presence to initiate the charging process.

• PN532 NFC Module: Authenticates the user via NFC card/tag.
• Energy Meter: Measures power consumption during charging.

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

• Transmitter & Receiver Coils: Enable wireless power transfer through

electromagnetic induction.
• Battery: Stores received energy.
• ESP32: Controls sensors, collects data, and manages logic at both ends (vehicle
and station).

2. Network Layer

Facilitates data communication between devices and cloud services.

• Wi-Fi (via ESP32): Connects the system to the internet.

• Router/Hotspot: Provides internet access.
• MQTT/HTTP: Used for lightweight, reliable data exchange.

3. Processing Layer

Executes control logic and system decisions.

• ESP32: Reads sensors, authenticates users, enables charging, and calculates

energy usage.
• Data Formatting: Converts readings into structured format for cloud upload.

4. Application Layer

Provides data visualization and user interaction.

• Cloud Platform (e.g., Firebase): Stores session data, energy readings, and billing
info.
• OLED Display: Shows QR code for payment.
• LCD Display: Displays charging status, voltage, and time.
• Dashboard (optional): Used by admins for monitoring and records.

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3.4 ESP8266 Integration

Fig 14 ESP32 PIN DIAGRAM

ESP32 Overview

The ESP32 microcontroller features integrated Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, dual-core processor, and
extensive I/O capabilities, making it ideal for IoT applications. This project utilizes digital
I/O, I2C communication, analog sensing, and Wi-Fi connectivity.

Power Requirements

• Operating Voltage: 3.3V

• Input Voltage: 5V via USB or regulated supply
• Current: 80-160mA depending on active components
• For battery operation: 1000mAh minimum recommended

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Pin Configuration

Component ESP32 Pin Function Notes

IR Sensor GPIO34 Digital Input Object detection
NFC Module GPIO21/22 I2C SDA/SCL Communication lines
OLED Display GPIO21/22 I2C SDA/SCL Shared with NFC module
LED Indicator GPIO4 Digital Output Status indicator
Battery Voltage GPIO34 Analog Input Voltage measurement
Charger Detection GPIO32 Analog Input Charger status

Table 2 Pin Configuration of esp8266

Software Integration

Required Libraries

#include <Wire.h> // I2C communication

#include <Adafruit_GFX.h> // Graphics primitives

#include <Adafruit_SSD1306.h> // OLED display driver

#include "qrcodegen.h" // QR code generation

#include <WiFi.h> // ESP32 WiFi functionality

#include <WiFiClientSecure.h> // Secure HTTP connections

#include <HTTPClient.h> // HTTP communication

#include <ArduinoJson.h> // JSON parsing/creation

#include <Adafruit_PN532.h> // NFC communication

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

3.5 Voltage Monitoring Design

The voltage monitoring system uses ESP32's analog-to-digital converter (ADC) capabilities
to measure battery voltage and detect charging status. The design incorporates voltage
dividers to scale down the higher battery and charger voltages to levels safe for the ESP32's
inputs.

Hardware Design

Battery Voltage Measurement Circuit

Fig 15 Battery voltage measurement Circuit

Component Values:

• R3: 100kΩ resistor

• R4: 220kΩ resistor
• Connection to ESP32: GPIO34 (ADC1 Channel)

Voltage Divider Calculation:

The voltage divider reduces the battery voltage to a safe level for the ESP32's ADC input.

• With 3.7V LiPo battery (typical):

o Output voltage = Vbat × R2/(R1+R2)
o Output voltage = 3.7V × 220kΩ/(100kΩ+220kΩ) ≈ 2.55V
• Max battery voltage (4.2V fully charged):
o Output voltage = 4.2V × 220kΩ/(100kΩ+220kΩ) ≈ 2.89V

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Charger Detection Circuit

Fig 16 Charger Detection Circuit

Component Values:

• R1: 15kΩ resistor

• R2: 3kΩ resistor
• Connection to ESP32: GPIO32 (ADC1 Channel)

Battery percentage is calculated using linear interpolation between defined voltage

thresholds:

• MAX_BATTERY_VOLTAGE (4.2V): Represents 100% charge

• MIN_BATTERY_VOLTAGE (3.0V): Represents 0% charge

Battery Chemistry Considerations

• LiPo/Li-ion: 3.0V-4.2V range (used in this project)

• LiFePO4: 2.8V-3.6V range
• Lead-acid: 10.8V-12.7V range (would require different voltage divider values)

Performance Optimizations

1. Sampling Rate: The current 10-second update interval balances monitoring

accuracy with power consumption
2. Power Saving: For battery-powered applications, consider:
o Reducing sampling frequency
o Using ESP32's deep sleep between measurements
o Dimming or turning off the LCD when not needed

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3.5 Power Management & Efficiency Design

Fig 17: Power Flow and Efficiency Design in Wireless EV Charging System

The diagram above illustrates the complete energy pathway in a wireless EV charging
system, starting from the grid power source to the final charging of the EV battery. The
energy passes through the following stages:

1. AC Input (Grid Source) – The system receives standard AC voltage from the grid.
2. AC/DC Converter – Converts the alternating current to a regulated DC supply for
processing.
3. High-Frequency Inverter – Generates high-frequency alternating current to enable
magnetic resonance.
4. Transmitter Coil (Tx) – Creates an oscillating magnetic field using high-frequency
AC.
5. Receiver Coil (Rx) – Induces current via electromagnetic coupling from the Tx coil.
6. Rectifier & DC/DC Converter – Converts AC back to DC, regulates voltage and
current to match the EV battery requirements.
7. EV Battery – Receives clean, efficient power for charging.

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Each stage in this flow contributes to the overall efficiency and requires careful design
considerations, especially in the conversion and transmission phases.

As illustrated in Figure 14, the power flow in the wireless EV charging system begins with
AC input from the power grid, which is converted into DC using a high-efficiency AC/DC
converter. This DC power is then inverted into high-frequency AC using an advanced
inverter circuit, which is necessary to energize the transmitter coil. The transmitter coil
creates a high-frequency magnetic field that wirelessly transfers power to the receiver coil
positioned in the electric vehicle. Upon reception, the energy is rectified and converted back
to DC, with controlled voltage levels suitable for battery charging. Each of these steps is
critical in minimizing energy losses and ensuring seamless operation.

The use of ferrite cores and optimized coil geometries enhances coupling efficiency
between the coils, while power electronics are designed to operate with minimal switching
losses. Additionally, thermal dissipation mechanisms such as heatsinks and thermal pads
play a key role in protecting components during sustained operation, especially under high
current loads.

The ESP8266 microcontroller embedded within the system also benefits from power-
efficient strategies. Its firmware is designed to transmit voltage and current data at defined
intervals while remaining in sleep mode during idle times, significantly conserving energy.
The adoption of such embedded intelligence not only reduces unnecessary power usage but
also extends the system's operational life and reliability.

Table 3.1 summarizes each critical component in the system along with the specific
techniques adopted to enhance power efficiency. From soft-switching in inverters to
synchronous rectification and load-adaptive control in DC/DC converters, each method
ensures that maximum energy is delivered to the EV battery with minimal wastage.

Component Function Efficiency Techniques

AC/DC Converter Converts AC grid power to DC Use of high-efficiency switching
converters

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High-Frequency Produces high-frequency AC Use of soft-switching topology

Inverter for wireless transmission to reduce switching losses
Transmitter Coil Generates magnetic field Coil geometry optimization,
(Tx) ferrite cores
Receiver Coil (Rx) Receives magnetic energy and Alignment correction, matching
converts it impedance
Rectifier & DC/DC Converts and regulates power Synchronous rectification, high-
Stage for battery speed diodes
ESP8266 Controls system, handles data Sleep modes, optimized
Microcontroller firmware
Thermal Removes heat from active Heatsinks, thermal pads,
Management components temperature-based control logic

Table3 : Key Components & Efficiency Considerations

Table provides a concise yet comprehensive breakdown of the key components involved
in the wireless EV charging system and highlights the specific techniques employed to
enhance power efficiency at each stage. It serves as a quick reference for understanding
how both hardware and software elements are optimized to minimize power loss, improve
energy transfer, and ensure safe operation.

The AC/DC Converter is the initial stage of power processing and must operate with high
efficiency, especially since it directly interfaces with grid power. Advanced switching
technologies, such as isolated flyback or forward converters, are employed to reduce energy
loss during conversion.

Next, the High-Frequency Inverter plays a pivotal role in generating the alternating
magnetic field required for wireless power transfer. Techniques like soft-switching or
resonant topologies are used here to reduce switching losses, especially at higher
frequencies where such losses can become significant.

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3.7 Summary

The system utilizes Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) for wireless charging, eliminating
the need for physical connectors and enhancing safety, durability, and automation in EV
infrastructure.

The architecture comprises two primary modules:

1. Transmitter Unit (Charging Station) – Includes a high-frequency inverter circuit,

transmitting coil, IR sensor for vehicle detection, and an ESP32 microcontroller to
control the charging logic and IoT communication.
2. Receiver Unit (Vehicle Side) – Features a receiving coil, rectifier circuit, voltage
regulator, battery monitoring system, and another ESP32 module for data
transmission and control.

Working Principle: The system uses inductive coupling where an alternating magnetic
field generated in the transmitter coil induces voltage in the receiver coil. This AC is
rectified and regulated to charge the EV battery. The IR sensor detects vehicle presence and
triggers the ESP32 to start authentication.

User Authentication & Billing: An NFC module identifies authorized users. Once
authenticated, charging begins automatically. Voltage and current data are collected via
sensors, processed by the ESP32, and uploaded to a real-time cloud database
(Firebase/Thingspeak). A QR code is generated for UPI-based billing based on energy
consumed or charging duration.

IoT Architecture:

• Perception Layer: Includes IR sensor, NFC reader, voltage sensor, ESP32

microcontroller
• Network Layer: Wi-Fi-based communication using MQTT/HTTP protocols
• Processing Layer: Embedded control and monitoring logic within ESP32
• Application Layer: Real-time display (LCD), billing (QR), and cloud logging

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CHAPTER 4 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 LIST OF COMPONENTS

Microcontroller

• ESP32 Dev Board (2 units): Acts as the main controller handling IoT, sensors,
display, and cloud/API communication.

Fig 18 ESP 32 Microcontroller

Displays

• OLED Display 128x64 (SSD1306): Used for displaying QR codes and user
instructions.

Fig 19 OLED display

• 16x2 I2C LCD Display (PCF8574): Shows battery voltage and charging status.

Fig 20 16 x 2 LCD display

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Sensors and Modules

• IR Proximity Sensor: Detects object presence to initiate or stop the timer for usage.

Fig 21 IR sensor

• NFC Module (Adafruit PN532): Used for user authentication via RFID/NFC cards
or tags.

Fig 22 NFC Module

• Charging Module (TP4056 Lithium Battery Charging Module)

Safely charges the lithium-ion battery and provides micro-USB input.

Fig 23 TP4056 Charging module

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• Wireless Charging Coils

Enables wireless energy transfer between transmitter and receiver coils.

Fig 24 Charging coils

Power and Charging

• Voltage Divider Resistors (100kΩ, 220kΩ, 15kΩ, 3kΩ): For measuring and scaling
voltage levels for monitoring.
• Lithium-ion Battery (3.7V Rechargeable)
Provides portable power to the system and enables wireless charging simulation.

Fig 25 Lithium ion Batteries

Connectivity

• WiFi Module (Integrated in ESP32): Used for connecting to the internet and
Razorpay servers.

Fig 26 Wi-Fi Module

Other Components

• LED Indicator (connected to GPIO4): Indicates charging status (on or off).

• Connecting Wires, Breadboard, PCB or perfboard (for mounting and connection.

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4.2 Transmitter and Receiver coil Setup

Fig 27 setup of transmitter and receiver coil

Wireless charging systems function on the principle of electromagnetic induction—a

time-varying magnetic field induces current in a nearby coil. This setup is composed of two
main units: the Transmitter Coil and the Receiver Coil.

1. Transmitter Coil (TX Coil)

Location: Installed at the charging station or embedded into the floor.

Main Components:

• Primary Coil: A copper wire coil that generates a magnetic field when AC current
flows through it.
• Driver Circuit (Inverter): Converts DC (from power supply) to high-frequency
AC to drive the coil.
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• Microcontroller (e.g., ESP8266): Manages communication and activates the coil

based on vehicle presence.
• Ferrite Backing Plate: Used to direct magnetic flux toward the receiver and reduce
leakage.

Working:

• When the EV is positioned above the transmitter coil, an IR sensor or NFC tag
activates the charging circuit.
• The coil begins to oscillate at a resonant frequency (~85kHz for EV applications),
producing a strong magnetic field.
• This field links with the receiver coil and induces voltage.

2. Receiver Coil (RX Coil)

Location: Mounted at the bottom of the EV or directly below the battery module.

Main Components:

• Secondary Coil: A matching copper coil aligned to the transmitter coil.

• Rectifier Circuit: Converts received AC voltage into DC.
• Battery Management System (BMS): Regulates charging current and voltage to
the EV battery.
• Voltage/Current Sensors: Monitor power levels and send data to cloud via
ESP8266.

Working:

• The receiver coil picks up the alternating magnetic field and converts it to AC
voltage.
• This is then rectified to DC and regulated before it enters the battery.
• Sensors monitor the voltage and current, ensuring safe charging, and display the
status on an LCD or OLED screen.

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4.3 Power Electronics and Circuitry

Fig 28 Power electronics and circuitry

4.3.1. Overview

Power electronics form the backbone of any wireless charging system, governing the
efficiency, stability, and safety of energy transmission. In our project, this circuitry
facilitates the conversion of standard AC supply into high-frequency AC suitable for
inductive power transfer, ensuring regulated and efficient wireless charging of EV batteries.

4.3.2. Functional Blocks

[Link]. AC to DC Conversion (Rectification)

The power flow begins at the AC mains input, typically 230V/50Hz. A bridge rectifier
(often composed of four high-current diodes) converts this AC voltage into pulsating DC.

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A capacitor filter follows the bridge to smooth the output, producing a stable DC voltage
required by the inverter stage.

• Component Used: Full-bridge rectifier module (e.g., KBPC5010), electrolytic

capacitor (470μF to 1000μF, 400V).
• Function: Converts AC supply to DC and stores charge.

[Link]. High-Frequency Inverter

To enable inductive energy transfer, DC power is inverted back into high-frequency AC. A
push-pull or full-bridge inverter topology using MOSFETs or IGBTs switches the DC
rapidly to create a sinusoidal-like high-frequency AC waveform.

• Component Used: IRF540N/IRFZ44N MOSFETs, driver ICs like IR2110, PWM

controller (e.g., SG3525 or Arduino PWM).
• Operating Frequency: Typically 50–100 kHz.
• Function: Produces alternating magnetic fields suitable for wireless transfer.

[Link]. Transmitter Coil Circuit

This circuit includes a transmitting coil (L1) and a series or parallel capacitor (C1) tuned
to resonate at the operating frequency of the inverter. This LC circuit ensures maximum
energy transfer via magnetic coupling.

• Design Considerations:
o Copper wire coil (18–22 AWG) wound around a ferrite core or air core.
o Resonant capacitor chosen using:

[Link]. Receiver Coil and Rectifier

The receiving coil (L2) picks up the alternating magnetic field and induces an AC voltage
via mutual inductance. This AC voltage is then rectified and filtered to power the battery
charging circuit.

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• Component Used:
o Schottky diodes (e.g., MBR2045) for fast switching and low voltage drop.
o Capacitor filter (e.g., 1000μF/50V).
o Voltage regulators (LM317 or DC-DC buck converter) to ensure safe battery
charging levels.

[Link]. Battery Protection and Charging Circuit

• Component Used: TP4056 module or custom CC-CV charging circuit with thermal
cutoff.
• Battery Specs: 3.7V Lithium-Ion cell packs (configured to match desired capacity
and voltage).

4.3.5. Arduino Integration

The ESP8266/ESP32 microcontroller acts as a central control and monitoring unit:

• Reads battery voltage using ADC.

• Activates charging only when authorized via NFC.
• Sends charging data to Firebase via WiFi.
• Displays voltage/charging status on I2C LCD (16x2) or OLED.

4.3.6. Safety and Protection Circuits

To prevent overcharging, short circuits, and fire hazards, safety circuits include:

Protection Type Implementation

Over-voltage Zener diode clamps or voltage regulators
Over-current Fuses, PTC thermistors, or current sense logic
Reverse Polarity Schottky diode or ideal diode circuit
Over-temperature Software shutdown or thermal cut-off ICs

Table 4 : safety and protection circuits

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4.4 Sensor Calibration

Proper sensor calibration is essential for accurate data collection in IoT systems. Both code
samples demonstrate different sensor implementations that require specific calibration
approaches.

1. IR Sensor Calibration (Payment System)

The IR sensor in the payment system functions as a trigger for timing operations. Proper
calibration ensures reliable object detection and accurate billing.

Key Calibration Considerations:

• The IR sensor operates on a binary state (HIGH/LOW)

• Threshold adjustment is critical for environmental adaptation
• Sensitivity must be balanced to prevent false triggers

Calibration Procedure:

1. Position the IR sensor at the optimal detection distance

2. Adjust the potentiometer on the IR module for environment-specific sensitivity
3. Test with various object types to ensure consistent detection
4. Verify signal stability under different lighting conditions

2. Voltage Sensor Calibration (Battery Monitor)

The battery monitoring system relies on accurate voltage measurement for percentage
calculation and charging detection.

Key Calibration Considerations:

• Voltage divider resistors (R1, R2, R3, R4) must be precisely measured
• ADC readings require correction factors for accurate conversion
• Battery chemistry affects voltage-to-percentage correlation

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Calibration Procedure:

1. Measure actual resistor values using a precision multimeter

2. Calculate the exact voltage divider ratio: (R1 + R2) / R2
3. Calibrate the ADC reference voltage (typically 3.3V but may vary)
4. Validate readings with a calibrated multimeter at multiple charge levels
5. Adjust MIN_BATTERY_VOLTAGE and MAX_BATTERY_VOLTAGE
constants based on actual battery specifications

Fig 29 Voltage Sensor Calibration Circuit Image

3. NFC/RFID Reader Calibration

The NFC reader in the payment system requires proper calibration for reliable identification
of authorized tags.

Key Calibration Considerations:

• Antenna positioning affects read distance and reliability

• Environmental interference (metals, other RF sources) impacts performance
• Read timing and polling frequency affect power consumption and response time

Calibration Procedure:

1. Position the antenna away from metal objects and power lines
2. Adjust the polling frequency in software to balance power use vs. response time
3. Test with all authorized tags at various angles and distances

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4. Verify UID reading consistency across multiple scans

5. Implement debounce logic to prevent duplicate readings

Fig 30 NFC Sensor Calibration Setup Image

Advanced Sensor Calibration Techniques

Environmental Compensation

Both systems would benefit from environmental compensation to maintain accuracy across
varying conditions:

Temperature Compensation:

cpp

// Example temperature compensation for battery voltage

float compensateBatteryVoltage(float rawVoltage, float temperature) {

// Typical LiPo temperature coefficient: -0.15% per °C above 25°C

float tempCoefficient = -0.0015;

float compensation = (temperature - 25.0) * tempCoefficient * rawVoltage;

return rawVoltage + compensation; }

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4.5 System Integration and Testing

Effective system integration and testing are crucial for ensuring that both the payment
system and battery monitoring system function properly as complete units. This section
outlines comprehensive approaches for integrating hardware components, software
modules, and conducting thorough testing protocols.

Integration Architecture

The integration of various components in IoT systems requires careful planning to ensure
seamless operation. Both systems involve multiple hardware and software components that
must work in harmony.

Hardware Integration

Fig 31 Hardware Integration Architecture Image

Software Integration

Fig 32 Software Integration Architecture Image

Integration Testing Strategy

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A comprehensive testing strategy ensures all components work together seamlessly and
identifies potential issues before deployment.

1. Unit Testing

Begin by testing individual components:

cpp

// Example: Unit test for battery voltage reading function

void testBatteryVoltageReading() {

float voltage = readBatteryVoltage();

[Link]("Battery Voltage: ");

[Link](voltage);

[Link]("V");

// Verify reading is within expected range

if (voltage >= MIN_BATTERY_VOLTAGE && voltage <=

MAX_BATTERY_VOLTAGE) {

[Link]("[PASS] Voltage reading within expected range");

} else {

[Link]("[FAIL] Voltage reading outside expected range");

2. System Testing

Test the complete system with all components working together:

cpp

// Example: Test full payment flow

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void testCompletePaymentFlow() {

[Link]("Testing Complete Payment Flow...");

// Step 1: Simulate object detection (IR sensor)

[Link]("1. Simulating object detection...");

// Step 2: Wait for NFC authentication

[Link]("2. Waiting for NFC authentication...");

if (!checkNFC()) {

[Link]("[FAIL] NFC authentication failed");

return;

// Step 3: Start timing

[Link]("3. Starting timing...");

unsigned long startTime = millis();

delay(5000); // Simulate 5 seconds of usage

// Step 4: Calculate amount

unsigned long elapsedTime = (millis() - startTime) / 1000;

int amount = elapsedTime * 5;

[Link]("4. Time elapsed: ");

[Link](elapsedTime);

[Link](" seconds, Amount: ₹");

[Link](amount);

// Step 5: Generate payment link

[Link]("5. Generating payment link...");

String paymentLink = createPaymentLink(amount);

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if (paymentLink == "") {

[Link]("[FAIL] Payment link generation failed");

return;

// Step 6: Display QR Code

[Link]("6. Displaying QR code...");

drawQRCode(paymentLink.c_str());

// Step 7: Wait for payment confirmation

[Link]("7. Waiting for payment confirmation...");

[Link]("[INFO] This step would normally wait for Razorpay payment

confirmation");

[Link]("[PASS] Complete payment flow test completed");

3. End-to-End Testing

Simulate real-world usage scenarios to verify system behavior:

cpp

// Example: End-to-end battery monitoring test

void testBatteryMonitoringSystem() {

[Link]("Testing Battery Monitoring System (End-to-End)...");

// Test initial state display

float batteryVoltage = readBatteryVoltage();

int batteryPercentage = calculateBatteryPercentage(batteryVoltage);

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

bool charging = isCharging();

// Update display

[Link]();

[Link](0, 0);

[Link]("Voltage: ");

[Link](batteryVoltage, 2);

[Link]("V");

[Link](0, 1);

[Link]("Batt: ");

[Link](batteryPercentage);

[Link]("% ");

if (charging) {

[Link]("CHARGING");

digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH);

} else {

[Link]("NOT");

digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW);

// Verify LED state

bool ledState = digitalRead(LED_PIN);

if ((charging && ledState) || (!charging && !ledState)) {

[Link]("[PASS] LED indicator matches charging state");

} else {

[Link]("[FAIL] LED indicator does not match charging state");

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// Log results

[Link]("Battery Voltage: ");

[Link](batteryVoltage);

[Link]("V, Percentage: ");

[Link](batteryPercentage);

[Link]("%, Charging: ");

[Link](charging ? "Yes" : "No");

[Link]("[PASS] Battery monitoring system test completed");

Automated Testing Framework

Implementing an automated testing framework ensures consistent validation of system

functionality:

// Example: Simple test runner

void runAllTests() {

[Link]("\n===== STARTING AUTOMATED TESTS =====\n");

// Unit Tests

[Link]("\n----- Unit Tests -----\n");

testBatteryVoltageReading();

testIRSensorReading();

testNFCReaderFunction();

testDisplayFunction();

// Integration Tests

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[Link]("\n----- Integration Tests -----\n");

testNFCDisplayIntegration();

testIRSensorTiming();

testBatteryLEDIntegration();

Load and Stress Testing

Fig 33 Load and Stress Testing Framework Image

For robust system testing, implement load and stress testing scenarios:

1. NFC Performance Testing

o Test multiple tag reads in rapid succession
o Validate system behavior with unauthorized tags
o Measure response time under heavy usage
2. Network Resilience Testing
o Simulate network interruptions during payment processing
o Test system recovery from connection failures
o Validate timeout handling and retry mechanisms
3. Battery Load Testing
o Monitor voltage under different load conditions
o Validate charging circuit behavior under stress
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4.6 Summary

This chapter details the complete hardware setup of the Wireless EV Charging System
with IoT Connectivity. It includes component selection, circuit design, power electronics
integration, sensor setup, and system-level integration.

Key Components:

• ESP8266 NodeMCU: Central controller for data processing and IoT

communication.
• Voltage Sensor (Voltage Divider): Measures battery voltage.
• Power Electronics: Includes MOSFETs, coils, capacitors, and diodes to manage
wireless power transfer.
• Wireless Charging Setup: Two inductive coils (transmitter & receiver) aligned for
efficient energy transfer.
• 12V and 5V Regulators: Stabilize voltage levels for various modules.

Circuit Design & Explanation:

• The transmitter coil is powered by a 12V DC supply controlled via a high-frequency

oscillator.
• The receiver coil captures AC signals and rectifies them to DC using a bridge
rectifier and filtering capacitors.
• A buck converter steps down voltage to charge the EV battery.

Sensor Calibration:

• Voltage readings are calibrated through a known-resistor voltage divider and

mapped to actual voltage using scaling formulas.

System Integration & Testing:

• ESP8266 reads real-time voltage data and uploads it to Firebase via Wi-Fi.

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CHAPTER 5 SOFTWARE INTEGRATION

5.1 Firmware Programming for ESP32

This technical documentation outlines two ESP32-based embedded systems: a payment

processing system and a battery monitoring system. The payment processing code
implements a sophisticated automated charging station that detects objects using an IR
sensor, authorizes users via NFC authentication, calculates time-based fees, and processes
payments via the Razorpay API with QR code generation. The battery monitoring
firmware provides real-time battery status tracking with voltage measurement, percentage
calculation, and charging detection through analog voltage sensing. Both systems
demonstrate effective use of ESP32's capabilities including I2C communication, ADC
functionality, WiFi connectivity, secure API integration, and peripheral interfacing. The
documentation covers hardware integration, software architecture, and implementation
details for both projects.

1. Payment Processing System

The payment processing system creates a time-based charging mechanism using object
detection, NFC authentication, and online payment processing via Razorpay. The system
calculates fees based on the duration an object is detected and generates a QR code
payment link for the user.

Hardware Components

• ESP32 Development Board: Main microcontroller

• OLED Display (SSD1306): 128x64 pixel I2C display for QR code presentation
• NFC Reader (PN532): For authentication via NFC cards/tags
• IR Sensor: Object detection on pin 34
• Power Supply: Not specified in code

Software Dependencies

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#include <Wire.h> // I2C communication

#include <Adafruit_GFX.h> // Graphics library

#include <Adafruit_SSD1306.h> // OLED display driver

#include "qrcodegen.h" // QR code generation

#include <WiFi.h> // WiFi connectivity

#include <WiFiClientSecure.h> // Secure connections

#include <HTTPClient.h> // HTTP requests

#include <ArduinoJson.h> // JSON parsing

#include <Adafruit_PN532.h> // NFC reader

Circuit Connections

Component ESP32 Pin Connection

IR Sensor GPIO34
NFC Reader SDA → GPIO21, SCL → GPIO22
OLED Display I2C connection (SDA/SCL pins)

Table 5 Circuit Connections

API Integration

The system integrates with Razorpay's payment gateway via its REST API:

• Creates payment links with the payment_links endpoint

• Monitors payment status via periodic API calls
• Uses basic authentication with API keys

Security Considerations

• NFC authentication using whitelisted UIDs

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• API credentials stored in plaintext (should be improved in production)

• Insecure client for HTTPS requests ([Link]()) - acceptable for testing
only

2. Battery Monitoring System

This system monitors battery voltage, calculates charge percentage, detects charging
status, and displays this information on an LCD screen. It's designed for a 3-cell battery
system with appropriate voltage dividers for measurement.

Hardware Components

• ESP32 Development Board: Main microcontroller

• LCD Display (PCF8574): 16x2 I2C LCD for information display
• Voltage Dividers: For battery and charger voltage measurement
• LED Indicator: Connected to GPIO4 for charging status indication

Software Dependencies

Circuit Connections

Component ESP32 Pin Connection

Battery Sensor GPIO34 (via voltage divider)
Charger Sensor GPIO32 (via voltage divider)
LED Indicator GPIO4
LCD Display I2C (SDA → GPIO21, SCL → GPIO22)

Table 6 Battery Circuit Connections

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5.2 Real-Time Data Transfer

Real-time data transfer in ESP32-based systems involves transmitting and receiving

information with minimal latency. The provided code examples demonstrate several key
aspects of real-time data handling that can be documented and expanded upon.

WiFi-Based Communication

The payment processing system uses WiFi to establish connections with the Razorpay
payment gateway. The implementation includes:

• WiFi connection setup with credential management

• HTTPS requests to external APIs
• Polling mechanisms for payment status updates

This approach enables the system to generate payment links and monitor transactions in
real-time, with the ability to respond to payment confirmations as they occur.

Client-Server Integration

The payment system demonstrates client-server architecture where:

• The ESP32 functions as a client connecting to Razorpay's servers

• HTTP POST requests create payment links
• HTTP GET requests poll for payment status
• JSON formatting structures data exchange

This integration allows for standardized communication between the embedded device and
cloud services, facilitating real-time transaction processing.

Data Formatting and Serialization

Both systems utilize data formatting for effective communication:

• The payment system uses JSON for API communication (via ArduinoJson)
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• The battery monitoring system formats data for human-readable display

• QR code generation transforms payment URLs into scannable visual data

These formatting approaches optimize data transfer for different purposes: machine-to-
machine communication, visual presentation, and user interaction.

Real-Time Status Updates

The battery monitoring system implements a periodic status update system:

• Battery voltage readings are taken at 10-second intervals

• Charging status is immediately reflected via LED indicator
• LCD display presents current information to users

Though operating at different timescales than the payment system, this still represents real-
time data presentation relevant to the battery monitoring use case.

Non-Blocking Operation

Both systems implement non-blocking operation to maintain responsiveness:

• The payment system uses time-based checks rather than blocking waits
• Timeout mechanisms prevent indefinite waiting for external responses
• Multiple operations (like NFC scanning, IR detection, and payment processing) can
occur within the same execution loop

This approach ensures the systems remain responsive to inputs while managing data transfer
operations.

Security Considerations

The payment processing system includes security elements for data transfer:

• Basic authentication for API requests

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• HTTPS for encrypted communication (though using insecure client settings for
testing)
• NFC-based authentication for physical access

These aspects help protect sensitive payment information during transfer, although
additional security measures would be recommended for production systems.

Resource Optimization

The code demonstrates resource optimization techniques for efficient data transfer:

• Timeout handling to prevent resource exhaustion

• Memory-efficient JSON parsing
• Selective data transfer (only transmitting when status changes)

These approaches help manage the ESP32's limited resources while maintaining effective
real-time communication capabilities.

Connectivity Management

Both systems handle connectivity management differently:

• The payment system requires active WiFi connection for operation

• The battery monitoring system operates independently of network connectivity

This difference highlights the range of connectivity requirements in ESP32 applications,

from fully connected to standalone operation.

By building on these aspects, ESP32 developers can implement efficient real-time data
transfer systems tailored to specific application requirements while working within the
constraints of embedded hardware resources.

The project’s ESP32-based systems are designed to perform real-time data operations
effectively using WiFi connectivity, non-blocking execution, secure communication, and

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efficient resource management. Whether it's generating dynamic QR codes for UPI
transactions or periodically reading and displaying battery voltage, each subsystem is
optimized to deliver timely data feedback, ensure secure processing, and respond quickly
to user or system inputs.

This flow combines hardware interfacing, real-time data monitoring, cloud

communication, secure transaction handling, and non-blocking execution into one
unified system. These principles collectively define the real-time capabilities of the
ESP32 platform and form the backbone of its application in modern IoT-based embedded
systems.

Interrupt Handling and Real-Time Responsiveness

To maintain real-time behavior, the ESP32 supports the use of hardware interrupts,
which are crucial when the system needs to respond instantly to specific events. For
example:

• NFC card scanning or IR sensor triggers can be set up using GPIO interrupts,
allowing the system to respond the moment a card is tapped or a vehicle is
detected without waiting for the loop to cycle.
• Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs) are written to be fast and efficient, often setting
flags that are handled in the main loop, ensuring system responsiveness without
overloading processing time.

Interrupts improve latency and enable parallel handling of asynchronous events, which is
particularly useful in systems where both user interaction and background processes are
ongoing.

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5.3 MQTT Protocol and IoT Communication

In the proposed smart EV charging system, real-time communication between embedded

hardware and cloud services is vital for enabling monitoring, control, and payment
verification. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is employed as the core
communication protocol due to its lightweight nature and high efficiency, making it ideal
for constrained devices like ESP32 and ESP8266.

MQTT uses a publish/subscribe model, allowing IoT devices to send or receive data
asynchronously through a centralized broker. This decouples the sender and receiver,
enabling scalable and responsive system design.

Application in Wireless EV Charging System

MQTT enables the transmission of key data points such as battery voltage, charging status,
NFC access logs, and payment confirmations to a cloud interface or server. The integration
ensures that every interaction—starting from NFC-based access to session timing and
payment confirmation—is logged and monitored in real-time.

The microcontroller publishes system data to predefined MQTT topics while subscribing
to command topics for OTA updates or system-level control. This setup enables seamless
interoperability between multiple charging stations and a centralized control panel.

MQTT Communication Architecture

Fig 34 MQTT Communication Architecture

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The communication setup consists of ESP32 nodes acting as publishers and a cloud-based
or locally hosted MQTT broker acting as the mediator. Web or mobile dashboards can
subscribe to MQTT topics to receive real-time updates. The architecture also supports cloud
connectors like Node-RED, Firebase bridges, or custom webhooks for further

Topic Hierarchy Design

A well-structured topic hierarchy is essential for scalable and readable MQTT integration.
This structure allows selective subscription by clients to specific streams of interest, such
as monitoring only charging status or payment events.

MQTT Payload Structure

Payloads are transmitted in JSON format to ensure easy parsing on both ends of the
communication. Sample payloads include:

Security and Communication Reliability

To ensure secure data transmission, the MQTT connection is established over TLS (port
8883). Device authentication is managed using credentials or certificates provided by the
broker. Retained messages are enabled for critical status updates to ensure new subscribers
receive the latest data.

Quality of Service (QoS) levels are selected based on data importance:

• QoS 0 for frequent sensor data.

• QoS 1 for essential data like payment confirmation or NFC authorization logs.

The system architecture supports multiple clients and stations, making it scalable and
future-proof for deployment across distributed EV charging networks.

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5.4 Dashboard and Monitoring Tools

Monitoring and visualizing real-time sensor data is essential for the validation, debugging,
and demonstration of IoT-based systems. The Arduino IDE provides several built-in tools
that support live data inspection, system diagnostics, and communication debugging during
development.

Battery Monitoring System Dashboard

Key Features:

1. Battery Voltage Measurement:

o The system continuously monitors the battery voltage, using an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) to read the battery's voltage levels.
o The voltage is then corrected by a voltage divider circuit and converted into
an accurate value. This data is displayed in real-time.
2. Battery Percentage Calculation:
o Based on the battery voltage, the system calculates the percentage of battery
life remaining. The range is typically from 0% to 100%, where the fully
charged state corresponds to a higher voltage (e.g., 4.2V for a lithium-ion
battery) and the empty state corresponds to a lower voltage (e.g., 3.0V).
o This calculation helps give a clearer view of how much battery capacity
remains for use.
3. Charging Status Detection:
o The system monitors the charging state by comparing the voltage of the
charger against the battery voltage. If the charger’s voltage is higher, the
device is charging.
o This status is reflected on the dashboard to inform the user whether charging
is in progress or not.
4. Visual Indicators:

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o An LCD display shows real-time information, including the current battery

voltage, the percentage of battery remaining, and whether the device is
charging.
o An LED indicator lights up when the device is charging, offering a quick
visual cue.

Dashboard Display:

• Voltage and Battery Percentage:

o The LCD displays the current battery voltage (e.g., "Voltage: 3.85V") on
the first line, followed by the battery percentage (e.g., "Batt: 75%") on the
second line.
• Charging Status:
o If the device is charging, the second line will show something like “Batt:
75% CHARGING.” If not, it will simply show the percentage without
“CHARGING.” The LED will indicate charging status with a light.
• Serial Monitoring:
o Data regarding the battery voltage, percentage, and charging state is also sent
to the serial monitor, allowing for easy troubleshooting and monitoring
during development or in a professional setup.

Utility:

• This dashboard helps monitor the battery health, usage, and charging status of
devices, ensuring optimal usage and preventing overcharging or battery damage.
• In the case of electric vehicles (EVs), it can alert users when the vehicle battery
needs charging or when it's fully charged.

Payment Processing System with NFC and QR Code Dashboard

Key Features:

1. Object Detection and Timing:

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o The system uses an IR sensor to detect the presence of an object (for

example, a customer or user). Once detected, the system starts a timer to
track how long the object has been detected.
o This timing is crucial because the amount to be paid is based on how long
the object remains present.
2. NFC Authentication:
o NFC tags (such as cards or smartphones) are used for user authentication.
When a valid NFC tag is scanned, the system confirms that the user is
authorized to make a payment.
o A list of authorized NFC IDs is maintained in the system. If an NFC tag is
not recognized, the system alerts the user that they are not authorized.
3. Payment Link Generation:
o Once the object is detected and NFC authentication is successful, the system
calculates the payment based on the elapsed time.
o This payment amount is then used to generate a payment link using a
payment service provider like Razorpay. The system creates a QR code
representing the payment link, which can be scanned by the user to complete
the payment.
4. Payment Status Monitoring:
o The system monitors the payment status to confirm whether the payment has
been made. It periodically checks the payment status from the payment
provider’s API (e.g., Razorpay) to see if the transaction is successful.
o If the payment is successful, the system completes the transaction and
notifies the user. If the payment times out or fails, it alerts the user and may
prompt them to try again.

Dashboard Display:

• QR Code for Payment:

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o The main feature of this dashboard is the QR code displayed on the screen
(an OLED display in this case). This QR code contains the unique payment
link generated for the user, which they can scan using any payment app.
• Payment Information:
o The display shows real-time updates such as:
▪ "Object Detected, Waiting for NFC..."
▪ "Scanning NFC tag..."
▪ "Generating Payment Link..."
▪ "Payment Pending..."
▪ "Payment Successful!" (when the payment is confirmed)
• Payment Amount and Time:
o The amount to be paid is dynamically calculated based on the elapsed time
the object has been detected. For example, the system might display
"Amount Due: ₹25" if the object has been detected for 5 minutes (5 minutes
× ₹5/minute).
o The time countdown or total time can also be displayed for transparency.
• Payment Status Monitoring:
o A status message is shown on the screen indicating whether the payment is
pending or successful.
o If the user has made the payment, the system can display a "Thank You"
message or trigger a visual cue (like a checkmark or “success” message) on
the screen.

Serial Monitoring:

• The system logs detailed information such as the NFC tag ID, time duration for
which the object was detected, the generated payment link, payment status, and any
errors or issues encountered during the process.

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5.5 CODE

Code setup for car

Fig 35 code setup for car -1

Fig 36 code setup for car -2

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Fig 37 code setup for car -3

Code setup for Charging Station

Fig 38 code setup for Charging Station -1

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Fig 39 code for Charging Station -2

Fig 40 code for Charging Station -3

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Fig 41 code for Charging Station -4

Fig 42 code for Charging Station -5

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Fig 43 code for Charging Station -6

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5.5 Summary

Chapter 5 explores the design and implementation of the real-time data communication
architecture central to the dual ESP32-based embedded systems. This architecture enables
seamless interaction between hardware components, cloud infrastructure, and end-user
interfaces in two major subsystems:

1. Smart Payment and Access Control System

2. Wireless EV Charging with Battery Monitoring System

Core Communication Framework

At the heart of the system is the MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
protocol, chosen for its lightweight nature and efficiency in low-bandwidth environments.
Using a publish/subscribe model, the ESP32 microcontrollers transmit sensor data, system
status, and control commands over Wi-Fi to an MQTT broker, such as Mosquitto or
HiveMQ, ensuring minimal latency and reliable message delivery.

Each ESP32 acts as an IoT node, publishing to specific topics (e.g., /payment/status,
/charging/voltage) and subscribing to control topics (e.g., /system/start, /user/auth). This
modular structure allows asynchronous, scalable, and event-driven communication, making
it ideal for real-time embedded applications.

Real-Time Payment and Authentication Handling

The Smart Payment System uses IR sensors to detect usage events and NFC tags to
authenticate users at the point of access. Upon session start, the ESP32 calculates usage
duration and dynamically generates a UPI-based payment request using the Razorpay
API. This involves:

• Formatting HTTP POST requests with secure headers and parameters

• Generating a QR code containing UPI payment information
• Using webhook callbacks or polling mechanisms to verify payment status

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CHAPTER 6 RESULTS, ANALYSIS & CONCLUSION

6.1Testing Conditions and Observations

Test Conditions

1. Battery Voltage Reading

• Test Scope: Verify accuracy of battery voltage readings across different charge
levels
• Method: Compare voltage readings from the ESP32 ADC with multimeter
measurements
• Expected Values:
o Fully charged: ~4.2V (100%)
o Mid-range: ~3.6V (~50%)
o Low battery: ~3.0V (0%)

2. Charging Detection

• Test Scope: Verify the system correctly detects when the battery is charging
• Method: Connect and disconnect charger while monitoring the
"CHARGING"/"NOT" status
• Expected Behavior: LED turns ON when charging, OFF when not charging

Observations

General Performance

• System initializes correctly showing "Battery Monitor" splash screen

• Display updates at 10-second intervals
• Serial monitor output provides diagnostic data

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6.2 Performance Evaluation

Case 1 : Car at rest Position

Fig 45 car during rest condition

It is a prototype battery monitoring system integrated into a toy car model. This shows the
system in its rest position (case 1).

The hardware setup includes:

• An ESP32 development board mounted on top of the car

• A 16x2 LCD display connected via I2C (likely at address 0x27)
• Various colored wires connecting the components
• The toy car chassis serving as the housing

Case 2 : Car While Charging

The battery monitoring system code implements functionality to track, display, and indicate
the status of a battery. Here's a detailed explanation of how the code works:

Initialization and Setup

1. During setup(), the system:

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Fig 46 car while charging

o Initializes serial communication at 115200 baud

o Configures GPIO4 as an output for the LED indicator and turns it off initially
o Sets up I2C communication on pins 21 (SDA) and 22 (SCL)
o Initializes the 16x2 LCD display at I2C address 0x27
o Turns on the LCD backlight
o Displays a "Battery Monitor" splash screen for 2 seconds

Main Operation Loop

The loop() function executes continuously, performing these operations:

1. Battery Voltage Measurement:

o Calls readBatteryVoltage() which:
▪ Reads the analog value from BATTERY_PIN (GPIO34)
▪ Converts the raw ADC value (0-4095) to the ESP32's reference
voltage (3.3V)
▪ Applies the voltage divider formula to calculate the actual battery
voltage
▪ Returns the calculated battery voltage
2. Battery Percentage Calculation:

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o Calls calculateBatteryPercentage() which:

▪ Takes the measured battery voltage
▪ Compares it against defined minimum (3.0V) and maximum (4.2V)
thresholds
▪ Returns 100% if voltage is at or above maximum
▪ Returns 0% if voltage is at or below minimum
▪ Otherwise calculates a linear percentage between these extremes
3. Charging Detection:
o Calls isCharging() which:
▪ Reads the analog value from CHARGER_PIN (GPIO32)
▪ Converts and applies the voltage divider formula for the charger
input
▪ Compares charger voltage with battery voltage
▪ Returns true if charger voltage exceeds battery voltage (indicating
charging)
4. Display Updates:
o Clears the LCD
o Displays battery voltage (with 2 decimal places) on the first line
o Displays battery percentage on the second line
o Shows "CHARGING" status text if charging is detected, or "NOT" if not
charging
5. LED Indicator Control:
o Turns ON the LED connected to GPIO4 when charging is detected
o Turns OFF the LED when not charging
6. Serial Monitoring:
o Outputs all measurements and status information to the serial monitor
o Reports voltage, battery percentage, and charging status
7. Operation Cycle:
o Waits for 10 seconds (delay(10000)) before repeating the process

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6.3 Limitations of Current Prototype

Hardware Limitations

1. ADC Resolution Issues: The ESP32's ADC has non-linear characteristics,

especially at the extremes of its range, which can lead to inaccurate voltage readings
without proper calibration.
2. Voltage Divider Tolerance: The resistor values in the voltage dividers
(100kΩ/220kΩ and 15kΩ/3kΩ) likely have standard tolerances (±5% or ±1%),
which can introduce measurement errors.
3. Power Consumption: The system runs continuously with an always-on LCD
backlight, which significantly reduces battery life for a battery-powered application.
4. Temperature Sensitivity: The code doesn't account for temperature effects on
battery voltage or resistor values, which can affect measurement accuracy in
different environments.
5. Limited Physical Protection: The exposed wiring and components mounted on the
toy car chassis lack proper enclosure protection against dust, moisture, or physical
damage.

Software Limitations

1. Linear Battery Percentage Model: The code uses a simple linear mapping
between voltage and battery percentage, which doesn't accurately reflect the non-
linear discharge characteristics of most batteries.
2. Simple Charging Detection: The charging detection relies solely on voltage
comparison without accounting for current flow or charge states, potentially leading
to false positives or negatives.
3. No Data Logging: The system doesn't store historical data, making it impossible to
track battery performance over time or analyze discharge patterns.
4. Fixed Delay Timing: The 10-second fixed delay doesn't adapt to different battery
states (e.g., more frequent monitoring during critical levels or charging).

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5. No Error Handling: The code lacks robust error handling for scenarios like
disconnected sensors, I2C communication failures, or out-of-range readings.

Functional Limitations

1. No Battery Health Assessment: The system only measures voltage without

estimating battery health, remaining cycles, or internal resistance changes.
2. No User Interface Controls: There are no buttons or controls to adjust settings,
change display modes, or customize alarm thresholds.
3. Single Battery Chemistry: The voltage thresholds are fixed for a specific battery
chemistry (likely Li-ion), with no support for different battery types.
4. No Alerting System: Beyond the LED indicator, there's no audible alarm or
notification system for critical battery levels.
5. No Wireless Connectivity: The prototype lacks wireless capabilities that would
enable remote monitoring or integration with other systems.

Technical Limitations

1. ADC Noise Susceptibility: The analog readings lack filtering or averaging

mechanisms to reduce noise in the voltage measurements, potentially causing
fluctuating readings.
2. Single-point Calibration: The system uses fixed conversion factors rather than
multi-point calibration, reducing accuracy across the full range of battery voltages.
3. No Battery Load Testing: The prototype can't measure battery performance under
load conditions, which would provide more meaningful information about actual
battery capacity.
4. Limited Input Protection: There's no apparent overvoltage protection for the ADC
inputs, risking damage to the ESP32 if input voltages exceed specifications.
5. No Battery Authentication: The system cannot identify or authenticate specific
battery types or verify genuine vs. counterfeit batteries.

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6.4 Future Enhancements

The current prototype successfully demonstrates NFC-based user authentication, QR code

generation for time-based billing, Razorpay integration for payment processing, and battery
voltage monitoring during wireless charging. To expand functionality and scalability, the
following future enhancements are proposed:

1. Real-Time Dashboard Integration

A centralized web dashboard can be developed to monitor real-time data including charging
time, battery status, and payment verification. Tools such as Firebase, Node-RED, or
ThingsBoard can be used to implement this feature, allowing operators or users to remotely
view session history and current charging activity.

2. User Authentication with Wallet Linking

Each NFC tag can be linked to a unique user profile stored in the cloud. A wallet system
can also be introduced, where users maintain a balance that is automatically deducted based
on charging time. This enhancement enables tap-and-pay functionality and allows for
subscription or loyalty-based systems.

3. Smart Battery Alerts and Predictive Analysis

The battery monitoring system can be extended to provide alerts for overvoltage,
undervoltage, and charging anomalies. By analyzing voltage trends over time, the system
can also predict battery health and estimate time to full charge, helping with preventive
maintenance.

4. Adaptive Charging Control

A control mechanism using solid-state relays or MOSFETs can be added to enable or

disable charging based on payment confirmation and battery status. This ensures energy is
only used after successful payment and stops charging when the battery is full.

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6.5 Conclusion

This project successfully demonstrates the design and implementation of a dual ESP32-
based IoT system aimed at enabling secure, automated wireless charging for electric
vehicles along with real-time billing and battery monitoring. The prototype merges multiple
embedded technologies including NFC authentication, QR code generation, secure payment
via Razorpay API, and voltage-based battery diagnostics, making it a highly interactive and
intelligent system for EV charging environments.

The payment system module utilizes an IR sensor to detect vehicle presence and verifies
user identity through NFC card scanning. Upon validation, it initiates a timer to track usage
duration and calculates the corresponding fare at a fixed per-minute rate. A dynamic
Razorpay payment link is then generated, converted into a QR code, and displayed on an
OLED screen for user interaction. This automated payment flow not only simplifies the
user experience but also ensures accountability and transparency in billing.

Simultaneously, the battery monitoring unit continuously reads real-time voltage values
using the ESP32's ADC channels and calibrated voltage dividers. It determines the battery's
state-of-charge (SOC) and charging condition, displaying the results on an I2C LCD
module. The system provides live updates on battery percentage and detects whether
charging is actively occurring, allowing users to make informed decisions about their
charging needs.

The integration of secure cloud-based payment processing with local hardware-level

monitoring creates a robust foundation for modern EV infrastructure. This prototype
minimizes manual intervention, improves energy efficiency, and offers a seamless,
contactless experience for users.

From a sustainability perspective, the system promotes clean energy adoption by

supporting wireless EV charging, a technology known for its reduced physical wear and
potential for green energy integration. Real-time monitoring prevents overcharging and

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Wireless EV Charging Stations with IoT Connectivity Smart, Scalable, and Automated Charging Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles

supports efficient power management, contributing to longer battery life and energy
conservation.

In terms of scalability, the modular nature of the design allows for easy expansion to
support multiple charging stations. By leveraging Wi-Fi and MQTT protocols, centralized
dashboards and cloud-based control systems can be added without changing the core
architecture. The use of OTA firmware updates further enables remote maintenance and
feature upgrades, essential for wide-scale deployment.

Regarding commercial viability, the solution demonstrates a market-ready approach to

implementing smart EV charging stations in urban environments, corporate parking spaces,
and public transport hubs. The ability to authenticate users, calculate real-time cost, process
payments instantly, and track battery health makes the system attractive for businesses and
municipalities looking to monetize EV infrastructure.

In conclusion, the prototype provides a complete end-to-end solution combining secure

transactions, user access control, smart monitoring, and wireless charging—all essential
components of the future electric mobility ecosystem. With further enhancements, this
system holds the potential to evolve into a commercially deployable smart charging
platform aligned with global smart city and clean energy goals.

References

[Link]

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