ECP-202 ELECTRONIC DEVICES LAB

MANUAL

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2024-2025 2025 - 2026
BATCH: 2023-2027 2024 - 28
YEAR: II
SEMESTER: III
SECTION: B
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. V-I characteristics of semiconductor diodes
a) PN Junction diode
b) Point contact diode
c) Zener diode

2. Characteristics of BJT in CB configuration

a) Determination of input and output characteristics
b) Determination of voltage gain, current gain, input and output resistances of BJT

3. Characteristics of BJT in CE configuration

a) Determination of input and output characteristics
b) Determination of voltage gain, current gain, input and output resistances of BJT

4. Characteristics of JFET
a) Determination of output and transfer characteristics
b) Determination of pinch off voltage, rd, gm and μ of JFET

5. Characteristics of MOSFET
a) Determination of output and transfer characteristics
b) Determination of pinch off voltage, rd, gm and μ of MOSFET

6. Characteristics of UJT, SCR and TRIAC

7. Characteristics of photonic devices

a) Determination of V-I characteristics of LED
b) Determination of V-I and intensity characteristics of phototransistor

8. Design and testing of biasing circuits

a) Fixed bias
b) Collector to base bias
c) Self bias

9. Rectifier and Voltage Regulators

a) Determination of ripple factor for different types of rectifiers with and without filters.
b) Voltage regulation characteristics of shunt, series and IC regulators

10. i) Clipper circuits using diodes

Positive, negative, biased and combinational clippers
ii) Switching circuit
a) AND and OR logic gates using diodes
b) NOT gate using transistor
Date Exp. No Title of the Experiment Sign
1 V-I characteristics of semiconductor diodes
Characteristics of BJT in CB configuration
2

Characteristics of BJT in CE configuration

3

4 Characteristics of JFET

5 Characteristics of MOSFET

6 Characteristics of UJT, SCR and TRIAC

7 Characteristics of photonic devices

8 Design and testing of biasing circuits

9 Rectifier and Voltage Regulators

i) Clipper circuits using diodes
Positive, negative, biased and combinational
clippers
10 ii) Switching circuit
a) AND and OR logic gates using diodes
b) NOT gate using transistor
Exp:No:

Date: V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

Aim
To study the VI characteristics of PN junction diode, zener diode and point contact diode
and to plot the same.
Apparatus Required

Sl. No. Component Range / Specification Quantity

1 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Voltmeter (0 – 1) V 1
4 Ammeter (0 – 30)mA 1
5 Connecting Wires As required

Symbol
Anode

Circuit Diagram
Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

1
Model Graph

Tabulation

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR(mA)

2
Formula:
𝑉𝑓
Static forward resistance = 𝐼𝑓

𝑉𝑟
Static reverse resistance = 𝐼𝑟

∆𝑉𝑓
Dynamic forward resistance = ∆𝐼𝑓

∆𝑉𝑟
Dynamic reverse resistance = ∆𝐼𝑟

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

1. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the forward voltage VF and forward
current IF.
2. Connect the circuit in reverse biased condition.
3. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the reverse voltage VR and reverse
current IR.
4. Plot the graph VF Vs IF and VR Vs IR.

Result:
Thus the VI characteristics of a semi – conductor PN junction diode are plotted and the
static and dynamic resistances are calculated.

3
 VIVA-VOCE
1. What is depletion region in PN junction?
The region around the junction from which the mobile charge carriers (electrons and holes) are
depleted which is called as depletion region. Since this region has immobile ions, which are
electrically charged, the depletion region is also known as space charge region.
2. What is barrier potential?
The oppositely charged ions present on both sides of PN junction an electric potential is
established across the junction even without any external voltage source which is termed as
barrier potential.
3. Define drift current?
When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move towards the negative
terminal of the battery and electron move towards the positive terminal of the battery. This drift
movement of charge carriers will result in a current termed as drift current.
4. List the PN diode switching times
• Recovery time
• Forward Recovery time
• Reverse Recovery time
• Storage and transition time

5. State the applications of PN junction diode

• PN Junction Diodes are mostly used for rectification
• They are used as clipper to clip the portion of AC.
• They are used as clamper to change the reference voltage.
• They are used as switches in many electronic circuits.

4
Exp:No:

Date: V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:
To study the VI characteristics of Zener diode and to plot the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity

1 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
2 Diode FZ 6.2 1
(0 – 1) V
3 Voltmeter 1
(0 – 10)V
4 Ammeter (0 – 30)mA 1
5 Connecting Wires - Accordingly

Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias

IF
VF

Reverse Bias

5
Formula:
𝑉𝑓 ∆𝑉𝑓
Static forward resistance = Dynamic forward resistance =
𝐼𝑓 ∆𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑟 ∆𝑉𝑟
Static reverse resistance = Dynamic reverse resistance =
𝐼𝑟 ∆𝐼𝑟

Model Graph

Tabular Column
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR(mA)

6
PROCEDURE:
Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

1. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the forward voltage VF and forward
current IF.
2. Connect the circuit in reverse biased condition.
3. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the reverse voltage VR and reverse
current IR.
4. Plot the graph VF Vs IF and VR Vs IR.

RESULT:
Thus the VI characteristics of a Zener diode are plotted.

7
 VIVA-VOCE

1. What is break down? What are its types?

When the reverse voltage across the PN junction is increased rapidly at a voltage the
junction breaks down leading to a current flow across the device. This phenomenon is called as
break down and the voltage is break down voltage.
The types of break down are
i) Zener break down
ii)Avalanche breakdown

2. What is Zener breakdown?

Zener break down takes place when both sides of the junction are very heavily doped.
When a small value of reverse bias voltage is applied, a very strong electric field is set up across
the thin depletion layer. This electric field is enough to break the covalent bonds.
Now extremely large number of free charge carriers are produced which constitute the
zener current. This process is known as zener break down.

3. What is avalanche break down?

When bias is applied, thermally generated carriers which are already present in the diode
acquire sufficient energy from the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing valence
electron from their bonds.
These newly generated additional carriers acquire more energy from the potential and
they strike the lattice and create more number of free electrons and holes. This process goes on
as long as bias is increased and the number of free carriers gets multiplied.
This process is termed as avalanche multiplication. Thus the break down which occurs in
the junction resulting in heavy flow of current is termed as avalanche break down.

5. List some applications of zener diode.

• As voltage regulators.
• As Peak clippers or voltage limiters
• For wave shaping
• As a reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purpose for calibrating
voltmeters

8
5. Differentiate Zener diode from a PN Junction diode.
.
Basis For Comparison PN Junction Diode Zener Diode

Definition It is a semiconductor diode The diode which allows the

which conducts only in one current to flow in both the
direction, i.e., in forward direction i.e., forward and
direction. reverse, such type of diode is
known as the Zener diode.

Symbol

A K A K

Applications For rectification Voltage stabilizer, motor

protection and wave shaping.

9
Exp No:

Date: V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF POINT CONTACT DIODE

AIM:
To study the VI characteristics of Point Contact Diode and to plot the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity

1 Resistor 1 KΩ 1
2 Diode 0A79 1
(0 – 1) V
3 Voltmeter 1
(0 – 10)V
(0 – 30)mA
4 Ammeter 1
(0-500)µA
5 Connecting Wires - Accordingly

Circuit Diagram:
Forward Bias

IF
VF

Reverse Bias

10
Model Graph

Tabular Column

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR(mA)

11
PROCEDURE:
Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

1. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the forward voltage VF and forward
current IF.
2. Connect the circuit in reverse biased condition.
3. By varying the supply voltage gradually, note down the reverse voltage VR and reverse
current IR.
4. Plot the graph VF Vs IF and VR Vs IR.

RESULT:
Thus the VI characteristics of a point contact diode is plotted.

12
 VIVA-VOCE
1. What is point contact diode?

Point contact diode is formed by touching a metallic wire with an N-type semiconductor to
form a small area of contact. This form a small point junction. It is widely used because such a
small point junction possesses a small value of junction capacitance.
Thus, the charge storage at the junction is low. Due to this, the switching ability of diode is
much better than a conventional diode.

2. What makes point contact diode suitable for very high frequency operation?

Due to fast switching, it is suitable for high-frequency applications.

3. What are the applications of point contact diode?

High-Frequency Circuits: Due to small junction area and low junction capacitance and
diffused capacitance as discussed above, the diode is suitable for high-frequency applications
(about 10 GHz).
Radio Frequency Mixers: In communication, Mixers play a crucial role in circuitry and the
point contact diode is used extensively in radio frequency mixers.
Detector Circuits: For detecting high-frequency signal these diodes play a crucial role in
circuitry.

13
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of BJT in CB Configuration

Aim
To study the input and output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor in common base
(CB) configuration and to determine the values of voltage gain, current gain, input and output
resistances from the characteristics.

Apparatus Required
[Link] Particulars Specification Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 - 1
2 Resistor - 200 Ω 2
3 Regulated Power - (0-30) V 2
Supply
4 Voltmeter - (0-1) V 1
(0-10) V 1
- (0-500) mA 1
5 Ammeter
(0-50) mA 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting wires - -

Pin Configuration

14
Formula Used:
[Link] Impedance (hib) = ∆ VBE/ ∆IE ;VCB constant
2. Output Admittance (hob) = ∆IC / ∆ VCB; IE constant
3. Forward current gain (hfb) = ∆IC /∆IE; VCB constant
4. Reverse Voltage gain (hrb) = ∆ VEB /∆ VCB ; IE constant

Circuit Diagram

Model Graph
Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

15
Tabular Column:
Input Characteristics:-

VCB = (V) VCB= (V) VCB= (V)

VEB(V) IE (mA) VEB(V) IE (mA) VEB(V) IE (mA)

16
Output Characteristics:-
IE = (mA) IE = (mA) IE = (mA)

VCB(mA) IC VCB(mA) IC VCB(mA) IC

(mA) (mA) (mA)

Procedure:
Input Characteristics:
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the output voltage VCB = 0V by adjusting the collector power supply VCC.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down both emitter current IE and base - emitter voltage VEB
4. Repeat above procedure for different values of VCB.
5. Plot the graph of base – emitter voltage Vs emitter current.

17
 Output Characteristics:
1. Make connections as per circuit diagram.
2. By varying VEE keep the emitter current I E =1mA.
3. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and
collector-base voltage (VCB).
4. Repeat above procedure for different values of IE.
5. Plot the graph of collector- base voltage (VCB) and collector-current (IC)

RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor in common base
configuration is obtained and the values of voltage gain, current gain, input and output resistances are
determined from the characteristics.

18
 VIVA-VOCE

1. Define transistor action.

A transistor consists of 2 coupled PN junctions. The base is a common region to both junctions and
makes a coupling between them. Since the base regions are smaller, a significant interaction between
junctions will be available. This is called transistor actions.

2. Which is the most commonly used transistor configuration? Why?

The CE Configuration is most commonly used.

The reasons are

 High Current gain
 High voltage gain
 High power
 Moderate input to output ratio.

3. Define Current Amplification Factor

Current Amplification Factor or Current Gain is basically the ratio of the ratio of the output
current to the input current when its passing through an electrical device. So, it gives us the amount
of current gained as it flows through.

i.e., output current/input current

For example: for CE Transistor, β=ic/ib

4. Why BJT is also called as current controlled device?

BJT is a current controlled device because the output characteristics of BJT are determined by the
input current. In a p-n junction i.e base-emitter junction in BJT the change in voltage (Vbe) is
produced only after the change in base current.

5. What are the various types of configurations and three portions of transistor?

 The three physical portions of transistor are Emitter, Base, and Collector.
 The three configurations are Common Emitter, Common Base, and common Collector
configurations
 The three regions in the VI characteristics are Active region, Cut off region, Saturation
region.

19
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of BJT in CE Configuration

Aim:
To study the input and output characteristics of a bipolar junction transistor in common
emitter(CE) configuration and to determine the values of voltage gain, current gain, input and
output resistances from the characteristics.
Apparatus Required:
[Link] Components Specification Range Quantity
1 Transistor BC107 - 1
2 Resistor - 200 Ω 2
3 Regulated Power - (0-30) V 2
Supply
4 Voltmeter - (0-1) V 1
(0-10) V 1
- (0-500) mA 1
5 Ammeter
(0-50) mA 1
6 Bread Board - - 1
7 Connecting wires - -
Formula Used:

[Link] Impedance (hie) = ∆ VBE/ ∆IB; VCEconstant

2. Output Admittance (hoe) = ∆IC / ∆ VCE; IB constant

3. Forward current gain (hfe) = ∆IC /∆IB; VCEconstant

4. Reverse Voltage gain (hre) = ∆ VEB /∆ VCE; IBconstant

20
Circuit Diagram

Pin Configuration

Model Graph:
Input Characteristics Output Characteristics

21
Tabular Column:

Input Characteristics:
VCE= (V) VCE= (V) VCE= (V)

VBE(V) IB (µA) VBE(V) IB (µA) VBE(V) IB (µA)

Output Characteristics:
IB = (mA) IB = (mA) IB = (mA)

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

22
Procedure:
Input Characteristics:-

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the output voltage VCE = 0V by adjusting the collector power supply VCC.
3. Varying VBB gradually, note down the values base current IB and emitter – base voltage
VBE
4. Repeat above procedure for different values of VCE.
5. Plot the graph of emitter – base voltage Vs base current.
Output Characteristics:-
6. Make connections as per circuit diagram.
7. By varying VBB keep the emitter current IB=1mA.
8. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collector-
emitter voltage (VCE).
9. Repeat above procedure for different values of IB.
10. Plot the graph of collector- emitter voltage (VCE) and collector-current (IC)

RESULT:
Thus the input and output characteristics of the bipolar junction transistor in common emitter
configuration is obtained and the values of voltage gain, current gain, input and output resistances are
determined from the characteristics.

23
 VIVA-VOCE

1. What is the significance of the arrow-head in the transistor symbol?

Arrow head is always marked on the emitter. The direction indicated the conventional
direction of current flow( from emitter-to-base in case of p-n-p transistor and from base-to-emitter in
case of n-p-n transistor).

Generally no arrow head is marked for collector since its reverse leakage current is always
opposite to the direction of emitter current.

2. Why silicon type transistors are more often used than germanium type?

Because silicon transistor has smaller cut-off current , small variations in current due to variations
in temperature and high operating temperature as compared to those in case of germanium type.

3. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very small compared to other
regions?

Base region of a transistor is kept very small and very lightly doped so as to pass most of the
injected charge carriers to the collector.

4. Why emitter is always forward biased?

Emitter is always forward biased w.r.t base so as to supply majority charge carriers to the base.

5. Why collector is always reverse-biased w.r.t base?

Collector is always reverse-biased w.r.t base so as to remove the charge carriers from the base-
collector junction.

24
Exp:No:
Characteristics of JFET
Date:

Aim
To plot the drain and transfer characteristics of JFET and to determine the pinch off
voltage, dynamic drain resistance, transconductance and amplification factor from the
characteristics.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity
1 Junction Field Effect transistor BFW10 1
2 Voltmeter (0 – 5) V, (0 – 30) V 1 each
3 Ammeter (0 – 30) mA 1
4 Resistors 1 KΩ 2
5 RPS (0-30)V 2
6 Connecting Wires Accordingly

Pin Configuration

25
Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE:
(a) Drain Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Keep the gate source voltage VGS = 0V by adjusting the gate power supply VGG.
3. Vary the drain to source voltage (VDS) in small steps and note down the drain current (ID)
in each step.
4. Repeat above procedure for VGS =-1V and -2V.
5. Plot the drain characteristics between VDS and ID when VGS = constant and calculate the
JFET parameters.
(b) Transfer Characteristics:
1. Keep the drain source voltage VDS a constant value by adjusting the drain power supply
VDD.
2. Vary the gate to source voltage (VGS) in small steps and note down the drain current (ID)
in each step.
3. Taking VDS as constant plot a graph between VGS and ID. The pinch off voltage drain
saturation current is marked on the graph.

26
MODEL GRAPH
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

Tabulation
Drain Characteristics:
VGS= (V) VGS= (V) VGS= (V)
ID ID ID
VDS(V) VDS(V) VDS(V)
(mA) (mA) (mA)

27
Transfer Characteristics
VDS= (V)
ID
VGS(V)
(mA)

RESULT:

Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of Field Effect Transistor is obtained and the
parameters are determined.

28
29
 VIVA-VOCE

1. Define FET?

A field effect transistor (FET) is a three terminal semiconductor device which can be used as
an amplifier or switch. The three terminals are Drain (D), Source (S), and Gate (G).

2. What is pinch-off voltage in FET?

In the VI characteristics of JFET, Vds, drain current Id cannot be increased further, due to
reduction in channel width. Any further increase in Vds, does not increase the drain current Id. Id
approaches the constant saturation value. The voltage Vds at which the current Id reaches to its
constant saturation level is called “ Pinch-off voltage”, Vp

3. Why FET is called as “voltage operated device”?

In FET the output current, Id is controlled by the voltage applied between gate and source
(Vgs). Therefore FET is said to be voltage controlled device.

4. What are the operating regions of a JFET?

 Ohmic region
 Pinch-off region
 Breakdown region

5. Give the drain current equation of JFET.

The relationship is quadratic: where Vp is the pinch-off voltage and Idss is the saturation
drain current for Vgs = 0 (i.e. gate shorted to source).

30
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of MOSFET

Aim
To plot the transfer and drain characteristics of MOSFET.
Apparatus Required
Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity
1 MOSFET IRF840 1
2 Voltmeter (0 – 10) V, (0 – 30) V 1 each
3 Ammeter (0 – 30) mA 1
4 Resistors 10 KΩ, 30Ω 2
5 RPS (0-30)V 2
6 Connecting Wires - Accordingly

Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE:
(a) Drain Characteristics:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Set a constant gate to source voltage (VGS) .VDS voltage.

31
 3. Vary the drain to source voltage (VDS) in small steps and note down the drain current (ID)
in each step.
4. Repeat above procedure for different values of VGS.
5. Plot the drain characteristics between VDS and ID when VGS = constant and calculate the
MOSFET parameters.
(b) Transfer Characteristics:
1. Keep the drain source voltage VDS a constant value by adjusting the drain power supply
VDD.
2. Vary the gate to source voltage (VGS) in small steps and note down the drain current (ID)
in each step.
3. Taking VDS as constant plot a graph between VGS and ID. The pinch off voltage drain
saturation current is marked on the graph.

MODEL GRAPH

32
Tabulation
Drain Characteristics:
VGS= (V) VGS= (V) VGS= (V)
ID ID ID
VDS(V) VDS(V) VDS(V)
(mA) (mA) (mA)

Transfer Characteristics

VDS= (V)
VGS(V) ID(mA)

RESULT:

Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of MOSFET is obtained and the parameters are
determined.

33
 VIVA-VOCE

1. Why MOSFET is called IGFET?

MOSFET is constructed with gate terminal insulated from the channel. So it is also called as
insulated gate FET or IGFET.

2. What is MOSFET?

MOSFET stands for Metal oxide Semiconductor field effect transistor. A type of transistor
that is controlled by voltage rather than current. The power MOS field effect transistor
(MOSFET) evolved from the MOS integrated circuit technology.

3. Comparison between JFET and MOSFET

JFET MOSFET

Gate is not insulated from channel Gate is insulated from channel by a thin layer
of SiO2

There are two types – N-channel and P-channel Four types - P-channel enhancement, P channel
JFET depletion, N-channel enhancement, N-channel
depletion

4. Explain the three regions of operation of a MOSFET.

 Cut-off region: When VGS < Vt, no channel is induced and the MOSFET will be in cut-
off region. No current flows.
 Triode region: When VGS ≥ Vt, a channel will be induced and current starts flowing if
VDS > 0. MOSFET will be in triode region as long as VDS < VGS – Vt.
 Saturation region: When VGS ≥ Vt, and VDS ≥ VGS – Vt, the channel will be in
saturation mode, where the current value saturates. There will be little or no effect on
MOSFET when VDS is further increased.

34
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of UJT

Aim:

To determine the emitter characteristics of Unijunction Transistor (UJT).

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity

1 Uni - Junction Transistor 2N2646 1

2 Voltmeter (0 – 30) V 2

3 Ammeter (0 – 30) mA 1

4 Resistors 1 K Ω, 560Ω 1 each

5 RPS (0-30)V 2

6 Connecting Wires Accordingly

Circuit Diagram:

35
Tabulation

VB1B2 = VB1B2 =

VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

MODEL GRAPH:

36
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set the voltage across base 2 and base 1, VB2B1 as 5V.

3. Increase the emitter voltage gradually and note the corresponding values of emitter
current.

4. Repeat the above procedure for VB1B2=10V.

5. Plot the graph of VEB Vs IE.

6. Determine the value of intrinsic standoff ratio as 𝜂 =(VP-VV)/VB1B2

RESULT:

Thus the emitter characteristics of the given uni-junction transistor is determined and the
intrinsic standoff ratio is calculated.

37
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of SCR

AIM:

To study the volt ampere characteristics of Silicon Controlled Rectifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Range /
Sl. No. Item Name Quantity
Specification

1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier TYN 612 1

2 Resistor 1K–¼ W , 1K – 1W 1 each

3 Ammeter (0-50)mA 1

4 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1

5 RPS (0-300)V, (0-30)V 1 each

5 Connecting Wires Accordingly

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM PIN DIAGRAM

38
Model Graph

Tabulation

IG =

VAK(V) IA (mA)

39
PROCEDURE

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the gate current constant.

3. By varying theanode to cathode voltage VAK, note the values of anode current.

4. Plot the graph of VAK Vs IA.

RESULT

Thus the forward characteristics of silicon controlled rectifier was studied and the graph
is drawn.

40
 VIVA VOCE

1. Define thyristor.

A thyristor is a solid state and four-layered semiconductor used in electronic devices and
equipment to control electrical power or current output through a phase angle control technique.
A thyristor is also known as a semiconductor-controlled rectifier (SCR) or silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR).

2. What is an SCR?

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier. A semiconductor device that functions as an electrically

controlled switch. (a) An SCR is one in the family of semiconductors that includes transistors
and diodes. (b) The basic purpose of a SCR is to function as a switch that can turn on or off small
or large amounts of power.

3. Explain the construction of SCR.

The Silicon Control Rectifier start conduction when it is forward biased. For this purpose the
cathode is kept at negative and anode at positive. When we apply a clock pulse at the gate
terminal, the junction J2 become forward bias and the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start
conduction.

4. Draw the two transistor equivalent of transistor.

5. What is holding current?

The holding current (hypostatic) for electrical, electromagnetic and electronic devices is the
minimum current which must pass through a circuit in order for it to remain in the 'ON' state. The
term can be applied to a single switch or to an entire device.

41
 6. What is the role of gate in SCR?

A Silicon-Controlled Rectifier, or SCR, is essentially a Shockley diode with an extra terminal

added. This extra terminal is called the gate, and it is used to trigger the device into conduction
(latch it) by the application of a small voltage.

7. What are applications of SCR?

SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high
voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium- to high-voltage
AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming, power regulators and motor control.

42
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of TRIAC

AIM

To study the VI characteristics of TRIAC.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Range /
Sl. No. Item Name Quantity
Specification

1 TRIAC BT 136 1

2 Resistor 3.3KΩ, 500Ω 1 each

3 Ammeter (0-500) mA, (0-10) mA 1 each

4 Voltmeter (0-30) V 1

5 RPS (0-30) V, (0-30) V 1 each

6 Connecting Wires - Accordingly

Circuit Diagram

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

43
Model Graph

Tabulation

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

IG = IG=

VMT1MT2(V
VMT1MT2(V) IA (mA) IA (mA)
)

44
PROCEDURE

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram for forward bias.

2. Keep the gate current constant.

3. By varying VMT1MT2, note the values of anode current.

4. Connect the circuit under reverse bias.

5. Keep the gate current constant.

6. By varying VMT1MT2, note the values of anode current.

7. Plot the VI characteristics.

RESULT

Thus the forward and reverse characteristics of TRIAC were studied and the graphs were
drawn.

45
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is a TRIAC?

TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a generic trademark for a three terminal electronic
component that conducts current in either direction when triggered. Its formal name
is bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor. A thyristor is analogous to a relay in
that a small voltage induced current can control a much larger voltage and current.

2. Draw the structure of TRIAC.

3. What are the applications of TRIAC?

TRIACs are used in numerous applications such as light dimmers, speed controls for electric
fans and other electric motors and in the modern computerized control circuits of numerous
household small and major appliances. They can be used both into AC and DC circuits however
the original design was to replace the utilization of two SCRs in AC circuits. There are two
families of TRIACs, which are mainly used for application purpose, they are BT136, BT139.

4. What are the limitations of TRIAC?

 It can be triggered in any direction so we need to be careful about

triggering circuit.
 As compared to SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) it has low ratings.
 The TRIACs are not much reliable as compared to SCR.
 This is not suitable for DC applications.
 The dv/dt rating is very low as compared to SCR.
 It has a very high switching delay.

46
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of LED

Aim:

To obtain the VI characteristics of light emitting diode (LED)

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity

1 Resistor 220Ω 1

2 LED 2T120 1

3 Voltmeter (0 –5) V 1

4 Ammeter (0 – 100)mA 1

5 Connecting Wires Accordingly

Circuit Diagram

Procedure

1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the LED as shown in the circuit
diagram.
2. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 20V in step as shown in the
observation table
47
 3. Measure voltage across LED and current through the LED. Note down readings in the
observation table and also observes light coming from LED.
4. Reverse DC power supply polarity for reverse bias
5. Repeat the above procedure for the different values of supply voltage for reverse bias
6. Draw VI characteristics for forward bias and reverse bias in one graph

Model Graph

Tabulation

Forward Voltage VF(V) Forward Current IF (mA)

Result:

Thus the VI characteristics of LED is obtained.

48
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is an LED?

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light when current flows
through it. The first visible-light LEDs were of low intensity and limited to red.
Modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with high
light output.

2. Differentiate LED from an ordinary PN Junction diode.

The ―Light Emitting Diode‖ or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialised
type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN junction diode. This
means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in
the reverse direction.

3. Explain the working of LED.

A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode that
emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.

4. What are the materials used for the construction of LED?

Raw Materials To Manufacture LEDs include: Diodes: (Thin Layers of Semi-Conductor

Materials) Semiconductors mostly used for LED manufacturing aregallium arsenide (GaAs),
gallium phosphide (GaP), or gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP).

5. What is meant by recombination rate?

Recombination of electrons and holes is a process by which both carriers annihilate each other:
electrons occupy - through one or multiple steps - the empty state associated with a hole. In the
case of radiative recombination, this energy is emitted in the form of a photon.

49
Exp:No:

Date: Characteristics of Phototransistor

Aim:

To obtain the VI characteristics of phototransistor.

Apparatus Required:

Sl. No. Item Name Range / Specification Quantity

1 Resistor 1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ 1,2,1

2 Photo Transistor 2T120 1

3 Voltmeter (0 –10) V 1

4 Ammeter (0 – 100)µA, (0-10) mA 1

5 Connecting Wires Accordingly

Regulated Power
6 (0-30) V 1
Supply

Circuit Diagram

50
Procedure

1. Connect the power supply, voltmeter, current meter with the LED as shown in the circuit
diagram.
2. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 20V in step as shown in the
observation table
3. Measure voltage across LED and current through the LED. Note down readings in the
observation table and also observes light coming from LED.
4. Reverse DC power supply polarity for reverse bias
5. Repeat the above procedure for the different values of supply voltage for reverse bias
6. Draw VI characteristics for forward bias and reverse bias in one graph

Model Graph

51
Tabulation

Forward Voltage VF(V) Forward Current IF (mA) Distance

Result:

Thus the VI characteristics of photo transistor is obtained.

52
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is a phototransistor?

A phototransistor generally has an exposed base that amplifies the light that it comes in
contact with. This causes a relatively high current to pass through the phototransistor. As the
current spreads from the base to the emitter, the current is concentrated and converted into
voltage.

2. Differentiate photodiode and phototransistor.

Basis For
Photodiode Phototransistor
Comparison

Definition It is a type of PN-junction It is a type of transistor

diode which generates electric which converts the light
current when light or photon is energy into an electrical
incident on their surface. energy

Symbol

Generates Current Current and Voltage

Uses For generating solar power, for Smoke detector, compact

detecting ultraviolet or infrared disc players, invisible light
rays, for measuring light etc. receiver, in laser etc.

3. Mention the applications of phototransistor.

Phototransistors are used extensively to detect light pulses and convert them into digital
electrical signals. These are operated by light rather than electric current. Providing large amount
of gain, low cost and these phototransistors might be used in numerous applications.

53
Exp:No:

Date: Design and Testing of Fixed Bias Circuit

Aim

To design, construct and test the fixed bias circuit for the following specification.

β =250, ICQ =2mA, VCEQ = 5V.

Equipments Required

[Link] PARTICULAR SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1. Transistor BC 107 --- 1

2. Resistors --- 1K,560K 1

3. Bread board --- --- 1

4. Multimeter --- --- 1

5. RPS --- (0-30) V 1

6. Connecting wires --- --- required

DESIGN

Given

β=250,ICQ=2mA and VCEQ = 5V

WKT
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 = . Therefore VCC= 10V
2

ApplyingKVLtothe outputside,

VCC– ICQRC–VCEQ=0

10 – 2 x10-3 x RC – 5 =0

RC= 2.5KΩ

By applying KVL to the inputside,

VCC– IBRB–VBE=0

54
IB= IC/β=6mA/250=24µA

RB=(VCC–VBE)/IB

=(10–0.7)/24x10-6

=387.5KΩ

RB=387.5KΩ and RC= 2.5KΩ

Circuit Diagram For Fixed Bias Analysis

FIXED BIAS

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

VBE 0.7V

VCE 5V

IC 2mA

IB 24µA

RESULT

Thus the various biasing circuits has been designed and tested successfully.

55
Exp:No:

Date: Design and Testing of Collector to Base Bias Circuit

Aim

To design, construct and test the collector to base bias circuit for the following specification.

β =300, ICQ =2mA, VCEQ = 5V

Equipments Required

[Link] PARTICULAR SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1. Transistor BC 107 --- 1

2. Resistors --- 270KΩ,1KΩ 1

3. Bread board --- --- 1

4. Multimeter --- --- 1

5. RPS --- (0-30) V 1

6. Connecting wires --- --- required

Collector To Base Bias Circuit Diagram

56
Design

Specification:

β =300, ICQ =2mA, VCEQ = 5V

WKT
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 = . Therefore VCC= 10V
2

Applying KVL to the collector circuit

VCC – (IC + IB) RC –VCE = 0

W.K.T,

IB = IC / β

= 2 x10-3 /300 = 6.66µA

RC = (VCC - VCE) /( IC + IB)

= (10 – 5) / ( 2 x10-3 + 6.66x 10-6) = 2.5KΩ

In the base circuit

VCC – (IC + IB) RC – IBRB –VBE = 0

RB = [VCC – VBE – ( IB + IC) RC ] / IB = RB =643 KΩ

IB = 6.6 µA, RC = 2.5 KΩ and RB = 643KΩ

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

VBE

VCE

IC

IB

RESULT

Thus the various biasing circuits has been designed and tested successfully.

57
Exp:No:

Date: Design and Testing of Voltage Divider Bias Circuit

Aim

To design, construct and test the voltage divider bias circuit for the following specification.

β =300, ICQ =2mA, VCEQ = 5V

Equipments Required

[Link] PARTICULAR SPECIFICATION RANGE QUANTITY

1. Transistor BC 107 --- 1

2. Resistors --- 100K,53k,1k,581ῼ 1

3. Bread board --- --- 1

4. Multimeter --- --- 1

5. RPS --- (0-30) V 1

6. Connecting wires --- --- required

Design

Specification:

β =300, ICQ =2mA, VCEQ = 5V

𝑉𝐶𝐶
WKT 𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑄 = . Therefore VCC= 10V
2

W.K.T, IB = IC / β

= 2 x10-3 /300 = 6.66µA

In the base circuit

Apply the voltage divider rule,

VB = VCC × R2 / (R1 + R2)

58
In the collector circuit

Apply KVL to collector circuit,

VCC – ICRC – VCE – IERE =0

Let the drop across RC be 40% of VCC and the drop across RE be 10% of VCC.

IE = IC + IB= 2x10-3 + 6.6 x 10-6= 2.0066 mA

IERE = 10 % of VCC = 1V

RE = VE/ IE= 1/ (2.0066 x 10-3) =498 Ω ≈ 500Ω

VCC – ICRC – VCE – IERE =0

RC = 1.99 KΩ ≈ 2KΩ

To find the biasing resistance R1 and R2

Apply voltage divider rule we have,

VB = VCC × R2 / (R1 + R2)

RB= R1R2 / (R1 + R2)

R1=1KΩ,R2=50KΩ

Circuit Diagram

59
 Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

VBE

VCE

IC

IB

RESULT

Thus the various biasing circuits has been designed and tested successfully.

60
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is biasing and its types.

TYPES OF BIASING

There are two main classes of biasing—FIXED and SELF. In a tube circuit that uses fixed bias,
the grid-bias voltage is supplied from a power source external to the circuit. Because
the biasing resistor is in the cathode leg of the circuit, the method is called
CATHODE BIASING or CATHODE BIAS.

2. What is the need for biasing

A biasing is a phenomenon of getting a proper dc collector current at a certain dc voltage by

setting up a proper point. Transiator biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating
voltage or current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified
correctly by the transistor.

3. Define operating point

The operating point is a specific point within theoperation characteristic of a technical device.
This pointwill be engaged because of the properties of the system and the outside influences and
parameters. In electronic engineering establishing an operating point is called biasing.

4. What is bias stability?

Bias Stability (also known as Bias Instability) can be defined as how much deviation or drift the
sensor has from its mean value of the output rate. Essentially, the Bias Stability measurement
tells you how stable the bias of a gyro is over a certain specified period of time.

5. What are the factors that shift the operating point of the circuit ?

The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point shifts due
to change in temperature. As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected. So the
main problem which affects the operating point is temperature.

6. What are the advantages of fixed bias ?

 This is a simple circuit which uses very few components

 The operating point can be selected anywhere in the active region of the
characteristics by simply changing the value of [Link],it provides maximum
flexibility in the design.

61
7. What are disadvantages of fixed bias?

 Thermal stability is not provided in the [Link] Q-point is not maintained.

Ic = β Ib + Ico
Ic = β Ib
 Since Ib is already fixed,Ic depends on β which changes unit to unit and shifts the Q-
[Link] the stability is very poor.

62
Exp:No:

Date: Half Wave Rectifier

AIM:

To construct and trace the input and output waveform of an half wave rectifier and to
determine its ripple factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

[Link]. Name Range Quantity

1. Transformer 230 V / 6-0-(-6) 1

2. Diode 1N4007 1

3. Resistor 1 kΩ 1

4. Capacitor 100µF 1

5. CRO 30 MHz 1

6. Bread Board 1

Formula

Practical Value:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Ripple Factor,𝛾 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 3
1
Theoretical Value of ripple factor 𝛾 = 2 3𝑓𝐶𝑅

63
Circuit Diagram:

Without Filter:

With Filter:

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Apply a.c input using transformer.
3. Measure the amplitude and time period for the input and output waveforms.
4. Calculate ripple factor

64
MODEL GRAPH:

Tabulation

Input signal Output signal

Amplitude Time period Amplitude Time period

(ms) (ms)
(V) (V)

Without Filter

With Filter

Result:

Thus the half wave rectifier was constructed and its input and output waveforms are
drawn. The ripple factor of capacitive filter are calculated.

65
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by rectifier?

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of
current.

2. Which type of transformer used for the rectifier input

 A full wave rectifier is much better to use, as it draws symmetric current from
thetransformer, and is easier to filter.
 Isolation Transformer : An isolation transformeris a device which is used to decouple two
circuits, the load connected to the output of Isolation transformer and to the input supply.

3. Define ripple factor

Ripple factor (γ) may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of
the ripple voltage to the absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage,
usually expressed as a percentage. However, ripplevoltage is also commonly
expressed as the peak-to-peak value.

4. Write the efficiency of this rectifier

 Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC power to the applied input

AC power. The AC input power is given by: Pac= I2rms(rf + RL) , where rf is
diode resistance.
 Therefore, maximum rectifier efficiency = 40.6%. This means only 40.6% of
the input AC power is converted into DC power.

66
Exp:No:

Date: Full Wave Rectifier

AIM:

To construct and trace the input and output waveform of an half wave rectifier and to
determine its ripple factor.

Apparatus Required:

[Link]. Name Range Quantity

1. Transformer 230 V / 6-0-(-6) 1

2. Diode IN4007 2

3. Resistor 1 kΩ 1

4. Capacitor 100µF 1

5. CRO 30 MHz 1

6. Bread Board 1

Formula

Practical Value:
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Ripple Factor,𝛾 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑉𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 3
1
Theoretical Value of ripple factor 𝛾 = 2 3𝑓𝐶𝑅

67
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

68
Formula

Ripple Factor = √ [(Im/√2) / (2*Im /л)] 2-1

Where Im is the peak current

Procedure:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram wiyhout filter.

2. Note the amplitude and time period of the input signal at the secondary winding of
the transformer and rectified output.

3. Repeat the same steps with the filter and measure Vdc.

4. Calculate the ripple factor.

5. Draw the graph for voltage versus time.

MODEL GRAPH

69
Tabulation

Input signal Output signal

Amplitude Time period Amplitude Time period

(ms) (ms)
(V) (V)

Without Filter

With Filter

Result:

Thus the full wave rectifier was constructed and its input and output waveforms are
drawn. The ripple factor of capacitive filter is calculated.

70
Exp:No:

Date: Voltage Regulator

Aim:

To construct the series and shunt voltage reglators and to obtain their load and line regulation
characteristics.

Apparatus Required:

[Link]. Name Range Quantity

1. Zener diode FZ 6.2 1

2. Resistance 2

3. Transistor BC107 1

4. Regulated power supply (0-30) V 1

5. Connecting wires A required

Circuit Diagram

Shunt Voltage Regulator

71
Series Regulator

Formula

Percentage Voltage Regulation

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
%R = x 100
𝑉𝑁𝐿

Theory

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level.

Shunt Voltage Regulator:

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward direction it
behaves just like a normal signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage
remains constant for a wide range of currents.

Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase
until the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region. At
this stage maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This breakdown point is referred
as ―Zener voltage‖.

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve we can study
that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative
voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly
constant even with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between
the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

72
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage
regulator.

Series Voltage Regulator

The series voltage regulator or series pass voltage regulator uses a variable element placed in
series with the load. By changing the resistance of the series element, the voltage dropped across
it can be varied to ensure that the voltage across the load remains constant.

The advantage of the series voltage regulator is that the amount of current drawn is effectively
that used by the load, although some will be consumed by any circuitry associated with the
regulator. Unlike the shunt regulator, the series regulator does not draw the full current even
when the load does not require any current. As a result the series regulator is considerably more
efficient. 66

Using feedback within a voltage regulator enables the output to be sampled, and compared with a
stable reference voltage. The error is then used to correct the output voltage. In this way, a far
higher level of performance can be obtained in terms of the required output voltage as well as
ripple and spikes.

Tabulation

Shunt Voltage Regulator

Line Regulation:

VNL = ___________

[Link]. RL Vi1 Vi2 Vi3

73
Load Regulation:

VNL = ___________

[Link]. Vi RL1 RL2 RL3

74
Series Voltage Regulator

Line Regulation:

VNL = ___________

[Link]. RL Vi1 Vi2 Vi3

75
Load Regulation:

VNL = ___________

[Link]. Vi RL1 RL2 RL3

76
PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are given as per the circuit Diagram.

2. An input voltage of 6V is given to the diode circuit using the transformer.

3. Measure the value of output voltage using the multimeter.

4. Calculate the percentage of regulation using the formula.

5. Repeat the same procedure for various resistance values and plot the graph.

Result:

Thus the series and shunt voltage regulator has been designed using zener diode and its
characteristics are obtained.

77
 VIVA VOCE

1. What are the different types of break downs

 The Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown are two different

mechanisms by which a PN junction breaks.
 The Zener and Avalanche breakdown both occur in diode under reverse bias.
 The avalanche breakdown occurs because of the ionisation of electrons and
hole pairs whereas the Zener diode occurs because of heavy doping.

2. What is the difference between Avalanche Zener break down

 One of the major differences between the Avalanche and the Zener
breakdown is that the Avalanche breakdown occurs because of the collision of
the electrons, whereas the Zener breakdown occurs because of the high
electric field.
 Because of this saturation current, the avalanche breakdown mechanism
occurs in the diode.

3. Why Zener break down and Avalanche BD voltage increase with temperature

 Due to increase in temperature, vibrations of atoms increases and thus reduces

the mean free path for electrons.
 Hence in avalanche breakdown, breakdown voltage
increases with increase in temperature.
 Thus avalanche breakdown is positive temperature coefficient.

4. What are the applications of Zener diode

 Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge
suppressors, and in switching applications and clipper circuits.

5. Explain operation of Zener diode as Voltage Regulator

 Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to
regulate the voltage across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a
variable voltage source so that it is reverse biased, a Zener diode conducts
when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage.

78
Exp:No:

Date: Clipper Circuits

Aim:

To construct various clipper circuits and to observe the waveforms.

Components Required:

Range /
Sl. No. Components / Equipment Quantity
Specifications

1 Function generator (0 – 3M)Hz 1

2 CRO (0-20M)Hz 1

3 Resistor 1K / 100K 1

4 Capacitor 0.1F 1

5 Connecting wires Accordingly

Circuit Diagram:

(a) Series Positive Clipper:

1N4007 CRO
Vin=5V R
f=1KHz 10K (0-20M)Hz

79
 (b) Shunt Positive Clipper:

R 10K

D
(0-20M)Hz
Vin=5V
f=1KHz
1N4007 CRO

(c) Series Negative Clipper:

1N4007 CRO (0-20M)Hz

Vin=5V R
f=1KHz 10K

(d) Shunt Negative Clipper:

R 10K

CRO
D
Vin=5V
f=1KHz (0-20M)Hz
1N4007

(e) Positive Biased Series Positive Clipper:

1N4007
R
10K 
CRO
Vin=5V (0-20M)Hz
f=1KHz VB

2V

80
 (f) Positive Biased Shunt Positive Clipper:

R 10K

1N4007 D
CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz VB (0-20M)Hz
2V

(g) Positive Biased Series Negative Clipper:

1N4007
R
10K
CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz (0-20M)Hz
VB

2V

(h) Positive Biased Shunt Negative Clipper:

R 10K

1N4007 D
CRO
Vin=5V
(0-20M)Hz
f=1KHz VB

2V

81
 (i) Negative Biased Series Positive Clipper:

1N4007
R
10K CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz VB (0-20M)Hz
2V

(j) Negative Biased Shunt Positive Clipper:

R 10K

D
1N4007
CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz VB

2V

(k) Negative Biased Series Negative Clipper:

1N4007
R
10K CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz
VB
(0-20M)Hz
2V

82
 (l) Negative Biased Shunt Negative Clipper:

R 10K

D
1N4007
CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz VB
(0-20M)Hz
2V

(m) Combinational Clipper

R 10K

D D
1N4007 1N4007
CRO
Vin=5V
f=1KHz VB (0-20M)Hz
VB
2V
2V

83
Model Graph

84
85
Result

Thus different clipper circuits were constructed and their output waveforms are plotted.

86
 VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by clipping circuits?

 In electronics, a clipper is a circuit designed to prevent a signal from

exceeding a predetermined reference voltage level.
 A clipper circuit can remove certain portions of an arbitrary waveform near
the positive or negative peaks or both. Clipping changes the shape of the
waveform and alters its spectral components.

2. What are the other names for clipper circuits?

The Diode Clipper, also known as a Diode Limiter, is a wave shaping circuit that
takes an input waveform and clips or cuts off its top half, bottom half or both halves
together.

3. Give the classification of clipper circuits.

 The clipper circuit can be designed by utilizing both the linear and nonlinear
elements such as resistors, diodes or transistors.
 In general, clippers are classified into two types: Series Clippers and Shunt
Clippers.

4. Mention some applications of clipper circuits.

 For the generation of new waveforms or shaping the existing

waveform, clippers are used.
 Frequently used half wave rectifier in power supply kits is a typical example
of a clipper.
 It clips either positive or negative half wave of the input. Clippers can be used
as voltage limiters and amplitude selectors.

87
Exp:No:

Date: Switching Circuits

AIM

To construct AND, OR and NOT gates using PN junction diode and transistor and to
verify its operation..

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sl No Apparatus Type Range Quantity

1 Resistor 10KΩ, 330Ω 1 each

2 Regulated Power Supply (0 – 30)V 1

3 PN Junction Diode 1N4007 - 1

4 Transistor BC107 - 1

5 Connecting Wires - - As required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AND GATE

OR GATE

88
NOT GATE

TRUTH TABLE

OR GATE

Input Output

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

89
AND GATE

Input Output

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

NOT GATE

Input Output

0 1

1 0

RESULT

Thus switching circuits are constructed and the corresponding truth tables are verified.

90
 VIVA VOCE

1. Define switching circuit.

A circuit which can turn ON or OFF the current in the electronic circuits is called
switching circuit

2. What are the Applications of Logic Gates?

Logic circuits are found in several devices including multiplexers,

arithmetic logic units, computer memory and registers.
Also, logic gates are the building blocks of digital electronics and are formed by
the combination of transistors in order to realize some digital operations.

3. What are the uses of OR gate?

The function of an OR gate is to find the maximum between the inputs which are
binary in nature. It is one of the basic gates used in Boolean algebra and electronic
circuits like transistor-transistor logic, and complementary metal-oxide semiconductors
make use of it.

4. What is universal logic circuit?

A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean function without
need to use any other gate type. The NAND and NOR gates are universal gates. In
practice, this is advantageous since NAND and NOR gates are economical and easier to
fabricate and are the basic gates used in all IC digital logic families.

5. What is the use of logic gates in computer?

In electronics, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a

Boolean function; that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more binary inputs and
produces a single binary output.

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