occur in plies that are bolted or in plies that are welded.

The condition where there are indeed two or more shear planes,
only difference between the treatments of either the bolted but the forces are not evenly distributed. (e.g. double-sided
or welded block shear limit state is that in the absence of connections)
bolt holes, the gross areas are equal to the net areas. Figure If the load path does not pass through the center of grav-
2-1 shows the condition of the gusset plate well after the ity of a bolt group, then the load is considered eccentric.
block shear rupture limit state has occurred. Eccentrically loaded bolt groups are subject to a moment
force that induces either additional shear (for in-plane
loads) or combined shear and tension (for out-of-plane
BB BOLT BEARING loads). In reality most connections possess some degree of
eccentricity, however some of these eccentricities are small
Bolt bearing is concerned with the deformation of material and are commonly neglected.
at the loaded edge of the bolt holes. Bearing capacity of the
connection is influenced by the proximity of the bolt to the
loaded edge. Bolt bearing is applicable to each bolted ply BT BOLT TENSION FRACTURE
of a connection. The AISC specification contains two
design equations, one equation is based on strength (when If bolts are subject to loading along their length then the bolt
deformation around bolt holes is not a consideration) and is loaded in tension. Bolts that fail in tension will do so
the other is based on serviceability (when deformation within the threaded portion of the bolt, through one of the
around the bolt holes is a design consideration).

BS BOLT SHEAR

Bolt shear is applicable to each bolted ply of a connection

that is subjected to shear. The shear strength of a bolt is
directly proportional to the number of interfaces (shear
planes) between the plies within the grip of the bolt that a
single shear force is transmitted through. Single shear
occurs when the individual shear force is transmitted
through bolts that have two plies within the grip of the bolt.
Additional plies further distribute the shear force. Three
plies of material represent two shear planes, thus the bolt or
bolt group is in double shear and has effectively twice the
strength as single shear. It is important to realize that dou- Figure 2-3. Bolt Shear Limit State
(Photo by P.S. Green)
ble shear, triple shear, etc. requires an individual shear force
vector evenly distributed across the plies. There may be a

BS

Figure 2-2. Bolt Bearing Limit State Figure 2-4. Bolt Tension Fracture Limit State
(Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon, (Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon,
courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology) courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology)

2-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

roots of the threads. This coincides with the least cross-sec-
tional area.

CONCENTRATED FORCES

FLB FLANGE LOCAL BENDING

WCB WEB COMPRESSION BUCKLING

WC WEB CRIPPLING

WLB WEB LOCAL BUCKLING

WLY WEB LOCAL YIELDING

Sometimes forces that are transferred from one member to

another create localized deformation (yielding) or buckling.
The applicable limit states depend on the specific connec-
tion geometry. The limit states for concentrated forces most
often occur in seated connections and moment connections. Figure 2-6. Web Crippling Limit State
For example, when the supported beam is coped, (i.e. flange (Photo by T. Murray, Virginia Tech)
material has been removed) the remaining web may be sus-
ceptible to web local buckling.
For seated connections, the outstanding angle leg on the
seat provides a bearing area for the bottom flange of the
supported beam. This bearing area creates a concentrated
reaction at the end of the beam. The web of the supported
beam is susceptible to web crippling and web local yielding.
Since most moment connections provide continuity
between the supporting and supported members, the flanges
of the supported member transfer concentrated tension and

Figure 2-5. Flange Local Bending Limit State Figure 2-7. Web Local Buckling Limit State
(Beedle, L.S., Christopher, R., 1964) (SAC Project)

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-3

compression forces to the supporting member. Flange local
SHEAR YIELDING AND
bending, web local yielding, web crippling and web com- SY SR
SHEAR RUPTURE
pression buckling limit states must be investigated.
Most connections are subjected to the shear component of
loading. Even moment connections must have provisions
FY FLEXURAL YIELDING for shear transfer. Thus, those elements in the connection
that are subject to shear forces must be investigated for
When a beam is coped, the reduced section modulus of the shear yielding and shear rupture. Both limit states will
remaining beam cross section may significantly reduce the apply regardless of fastening method (bolt or weld). For
flexural strength of the member. Other instances of flexural welded plies, without bolt holes, shear yielding will usually
yielding are flexure of the stem of a tee shape in a shear tee control over shear rupture. (The net area of welded plies
connection and bending of the outstanding angle leg of an without bolt holes is equal to the gross area. If the ratio of
unstiffened seated connection. yield strength to ultimate tensile strength is less than 1.2,
then shear rupture will generally control).

PA PRYING ACTION

Prying action is a phenomenon in which additional tension

forces are induced in the bolts due to deformation of the
connection near the bolt. Flexibility of the connected parts
within the grip of the bolts creates these additional tension
forces.

Figure 2-9 Tee Stem Deformation

(Astaneh, A., Nader, M.N., 1989)

Figure 2-8 Web Local Yielding Limit State Figure 2-10 Seat Angle Deformation
(SAC Project) (Yang, W.H. et al., 1997)

2-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Shear yielding is a ductile limit state; it is a function of
the gross shear area of the element. The failure path associ- TENSION YIELDING
TY TR
ated with shear yielding is linear in the direction of load AND TENSION RUPTURE
from the top edge of the element to the bottom edge and
through the thickness of the ply. The tension yielding limit state is a function of the gross
Shear rupture is an ultimate limit state; it is a function of cross-sectional area of the member subjected to tension
the net shear area of the element. The failure path associ- load. The tension rupture mode is a limit state that is a func-
ated with shear rupture is also linear, in the direction of load tion of the effective net area. The net area is the reduced
from the top edge of the element to the bottom edge and gross area due to bolt holes or notches. This net area is fur-
through the thickness of the ply. If both flanges of the sup- ther reduced to account for the effects of shear lag. Shear
ported member are coped, then a potential shear failure path lag occurs when the tension force is not evenly distributed
on the beam is present and shear yielding and shear rupture through the cross sectional area of a member. Certain geo-
must be investigated for this member. metric areas of a section may have higher localized stresses.
Shear lag often occurs in angle members when they are used
as struts. The fastening (bolting or welding) is generally

Figure 2-12. Shear Yielding Limit State

(Astaneh, A. and Nader, M.N. 1989)

Figure 2-11. Prying Action Limit State Figure 2-13. Shear Rupture Limit State
(Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon, (Astaneh, A. and Nader, M.N., 1989)
courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology)

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-5