1.

THERMAL MODEL
1.1. IDEAL GAS
[Link]
PV =nRT =NkT

n=number of moles
R=8.3145 J /mol K
N=number of molecules
−23 J −5
k =Boltzmann constant =1.38066 x 10 =8.617385 x 10 eV /K
K
k =R/ Na
23
Na= Avogrado ’ s number=6.0221 x 10 /mol

1.1.2. Relation between P and T

( )
k−1
P
T 4=T 3 . 4 k
P3

Where k=1.4 for air.

1.1. HEAT TRANSFER (Appendix B – Page 91)

[Link]
q=k A dT / s

q=heat transfer(W , J / s , Btu /hr )

A=heat transfer area(m2 , ft 2)
W W
k =thermal conductivity of the material(K∨ )
m m
dT =temperature gradient−difference−¿ the material (K∨oC , oF)
s=material thickness(m , ft )

[Link]
Q̇=hc A dT

q=heat transferred per unit time(W )

A=heat transfer area of the surface(m2)
hc=convectiveheat transfer coefficient of the process (W /(m2 K )∨W /(m2 oC ))

1
dT =temperature difference between the surface∧the bulk fluid (K ∨oC)

[Link] Convection (page 91)

- Calculate the Nusselt Number

NU D =( DVρ)/μ

D=diameter [m]
V =velocity [m/s]
ρ=density ( )
kg
m
μ=viscosity (Pa . s)

- Calculate Pr, suppose Prw=Pr

V μ . Cp
Pr= =
α k

(
Cp=heat capacity CP=4185.5
J
kg ⋅ K
for water ,1.012
J
g⋅K
for air .)
- Calculate h

NUd . K
h=
D

- Use the convection formula

q=hA ∆ T

[Link] Number

[8]

where:

 is the maximum[9] velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)
 is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic
diameter when dealing with river systems) (m)
 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m² or kg/(m·s))
 is the kinematic viscosity ( ) (m²/s)
 is the density of the fluid (kg/m³).

2
 Note that multiplying the Reynolds number by yields , which is the ratio
of the inertial forces to the viscous forces.[10] It could also be considered the ratio of the
total momentum transfer to the molecular momentum transfer.

[Link]
4 4
Q̇=ε . σ . A .(T hot −T col )
4
q=σ T A

ε =heat transfer emissivity (0.1 for alluminium)

−8
σ =Stefan−Boltzman constant (5.670 x 10 )

[Link] transfer in solids submerged in fluids (ex. 3.1)

 Resistance of Sphere
r out −r ¿
R=
4 π . k . r out r ¿

 Change in internal energy=heat flow

−ρcV ΔT (t )=Q=q As Δt=h As (T (t)– Tf ) Δt

ρ=mass density of the solid

c=specific heat of solid
V =volume of the solid
As=contacting surface between solid∧bulk fluid

Solving it, temperature in solid is:

∆ T ( t ) −h
= . A [T ( t )−T F ]
∆t ρcV s

h
Considering the constant term =α
ρcV

∆ T (t )
=−α . A .[T ( t )−Tf ]
dt
❑
With an initial condition: T ( t )∨t −0❑=¿ T ( o )=T 0

Using the thermal equivalent:

dT d ( t )
Q=m. Cp. =
dt R

Solving:

3
 dT dt
=
T o −T ∞ R . m. Cp

Integrating both sides:

T1 t

∫ T dT =∫
dt
¿ o −T ∞ 0 R . m. Cp

ln ( T 1−T ∞
T o−T ∞
= ) 1
R . m .Cp
.(o−t)

∆T
Using thermal equivalent again: Q̇=
R

[Link] temperature (ex.3.5)

1.2. ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT

[Link] in thermal model
General formula:

L
R=
kS

Resistance of Sphere:

r out −r ¿
R=
4 π . k . r out r ¿

Resistance of plane wall:

R=x /kA

Cylinder:

R=
ln ( rr 21 )
2 πLk

4
Convective:

R=1/hA

Radiative:

R=1/hradA

1.3. ISENTROPIC PROCESS

Adiabatic and in which the work transfers of the system are frictionless; there is no
transfer of heat or of matter and the process is reversible.

Thus for isentropic processes with an ideal gas:

( )
k−1
p
or
T = 2
or 2 ,s
k
T1
p1

Internal energy in function of ideal gas:

U 2 , s−U 1 =m2, s Cv(T 2 , s−T 1)

Work:

W =P .dV

Ẇ =ṁ ∆ h

1.4. THERMODYNAMICS
1.4.1.1st Law – Conservation of energy
∆ U =Q−W

5
Enthalpy: H=U + PV

For a constant pressure system: Q=∆ U + P ∆ V

V2

System work: W =P ∆ V or W =∫ PdV

V1

Heat:

Q̇=Cp . ṁ. dT

1.4.2.2nd Law
Places constraints upon the direction of heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of
heat engines. In so doing, it goes beyond the limitations imposed by the first law of
thermodynamics.

In any cyclic process the entropy will either increase or remain the same.

1.4.3.3rd Law
It is impossible for any process, no matter how idealized, to reduce the entropy of a
system to its absolute-zero value in a finite number of operations.

1.4.4.0th Law
The "zeroth law" states that if two systems are at the same time in thermal equilibrium
with a third system, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

[Link] Identity

Thermodynamic identity:
U = internal energy
S = entropy
dU = TdS - PdV V = volume
T = temperature
P = pressure
"d" denotes the total differential of the associated quantity

6
2. ELECTRICAL MODEL
2.1. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
[Link] Components

7
The RLC series circuit is a very important example of a resonant circuit. It has a
minimum of impedance Z=R at the resonant frequency, and the phaseangle is equal to
zero at resonance.

One way to visualize the behavior of the RLC series circuit is with the phasor diagram
shown in the illustration above. The phasor diagram shown is at a frequency where the
inductive reactance is greater than that of the capacitive reactance. This would occur at
a frequency above the resonant frequency.

[Link] reactance
Check Curie temperature.

[Link]

ω 0=2 π f 0

Natural Frequency

1
ω 0=
√ LC

8
 2.2. CONFIGURATIONS

2.3. TESTS

[Link] load test

In case of no load, we can neglect the series elements. The parallel magnetizing
inductance Xh1 and resistance RFe are obtained from the following equations:

U NL √ 3
R Fe=
cos ( ∅ NL ) . I NL

9
 U NL √ 3
X h1=
sin ( ∅ NL) . I NL

P NL
cos ( ∅ NL )=
3 U NL
.I
√ 3 NL

[Link] rotor test (short circuit)

In case of short-circuit, we can neglect the parallel elements. The series leakage
inductance XSC and winding resistance RSC are obtained from the following equations:

U SC
.cos ( ∅ NL )
R SC =
√3
I SC

U SC / √ [Link] ( ∅ NL)
X SC =
I SC

PSC
cos ( ∅ SC ) =
3 U SC
.I
√3 SC

The series elements can be equally divided across the primary and secondary side:

R SC
R1=R ' 2=
2

X SC
X 1 =X ' 2=
2

2.4. SKIN EFFECT

Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed
within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the surface of the
conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor. The electric current
flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface and a level called
the skin depth. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to
increase at higher frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the
effective cross-section of the conductor. The skin effect is due to opposing eddy

10
currents induced by the changing magnetic field resulting from the alternating current.
At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm. At high frequencies the skin depth
becomes much smaller. Increased AC resistance due to the skin effect can be mitigated
by using specially woven litz wire. Because the interior of a large conductor carries so
little of the current, tubular conductors such as pipe can be used to save weight and cost.

J=J s exp ( −xδ )

where δ is called the skin depth. The skin depth is thus defined as the depth below the
surface of the conductor at which the current density has fallen to 1/e (about 0.37)
of JS. The general formula for the skin depth is:

Where:

= resistivity of the conductor

= angular frequency of current = 2π × frequency
= relative magnetic permeability of the conductor
= the permeability of free space
=
= relative permittivity of the material
= the permittivity of free space
=

Current:

I =∬ J s dA

The effective resistance due to a current confined near the surface of a large conductor
(much thicker than δ) can be solved as if the current flowed uniformly through a layer of
thickness δ based on the DC resistivity of that material. The effective cross-sectional area
is approximately equal to δ times the conductor's circumference. Thus a long cylindrical
conductor such as a wire, having a diameter D large compared to δ, has a
resistance approximately that of a hollow tube with wall thickness δ carrying direct current.
The AC resistance of a wire of length L and resistivity is:

11
 2.5. MOTOR (ELECTRICAL)
[Link] motor
Number of poles:

Srpm=120 f /P

Where f is frequency,Srpm is the rotational speed in rpm and P is poles.

The power is given by:

Tω
P=
Pair of poles

[Link] motor

2.6. TRANSIENT
[Link] constant for transients
The electrical transient phenomena in capacitors and inductors are exponential
processes. The coefficient of time in the exponential is an important rate parameter and
is typically expressed in terms of a time constant.

Having the units of time, the time constant represents the time for the exponential term
to drop to 1/e or 36.79% of its original value. Each subsequent time constant will
decrease it by the same fraction. The time constant is a standard parameter used to
describe the characteristics offilter circuits. A standard application of low pass filters is
to eliminate high frequency noise on signals like electrocardiograms. If the time

12
constant is too short, there will not be enough filtering, but if it is too long, you will start
to distort the shape of the ECG you are trying to preserve.

3. MECHANICAL MODEL
3.1. PRESSURE LOSS
This dimensionless chart is used to work out pressure drop, ΔP (Pa) (or head loss, hf
(m)) and flow rate through pipes. Head loss can be calculated using the Darcy–
Weisbach equation:

(not to be confused with the Fanning equation and the Fanning friction factor:

which uses a friction-factor equal to one fourth the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor).

Pressure drop can then be evaluated as:

or directly from

Where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the average velocity in the pipe, fD is the
friction factor from the Moody chart, L is the length of the pipe and D is the pipe
diameter.
The chart plots Darcy–Weisbach friction factor against Reynolds number Re for a
variety of relative roughnesses, the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the
pipe to the pipe diameter or ε / D .
The Moody chart can be divided into two regimes of flow: laminar and turbulent. For
the laminar flow regime (Re < ~3000), roughness has no discernible effect, and
the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor fD was determined analytically by Poiseuille:

For the turbulent flow regime, the relationship between the friction factor fD, the
Reynolds number Re, and the relative roughness ε / D is more complex. One model
for this relationship is the Colebrook equation (which is an implicit equation in fD):

13
 3.2. PUMPS
[Link]
P=g . ( h+ ∆ h ) . ṁ (Power in pumps)

[Link] Laws

( ) ( )
2 2
R 2 n2 h2 n2
= =
R 1 n1 h1 n1

( )
ṁ2 n2 P 2 n2 3
= =
ṁ1 n1 P 1 n1

Where n2 and n1 are operating points in the iso-n curve.

[Link] difference due to pumps

1−ηp
Δ T =Pp .
Cp . ṁ

Iso-η curve equation:

2
h=K η ṁ

Where K is constant to determine, according to pump.

Affinity law for diameters:

( ) ( )
2
h 1 d 1 2 m1 d 1 3
= ; = =¿ h=K η ṁ3 if differnt diameters .
h 2 d 2 m2 d 2

Flow rate is max for minimum head.

Power for speed: P=ωT

3.3. COMBUSTION
LHV: Lower Heating Value

14
 P= ṁg LHV

Power Transfer Diagram:

3.4. OTTO CYCLE

Similar to Carnot, but not reversible. Page 49 of Combustion Engines book.

3.5. CARNOT CYCLE

The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two isothermal
processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most
efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws. When the second law of
thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do
work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can
be so used. In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the
heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in entropy. This means that
the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real engine processes are reversible and all
real physical processes involve some increase in entropy.

15
The temperatures in the Carnot efficiency expression must be expressed in Kelvins.

3.6. LINEAR EXPANSION

3.7. FORCE
[Link] Force (also aerodynamic)

[Link]

3.8. MOTOR (Mechanical)

PDE motor:

[Link]
The difference between the synchronous speed of the magnetic field, and the shaft
rotating speed is slip - and would be some number of RPM or frequency. The slip
increases with an increasing load, thus providing a greater torque.

S=(ns−na) 100 % /ns

Where:

S = slip
ns = synchronous speed of magnetic field (rev/min, rpm)
na = shaft rotating speed (rev/min, rpm)
When the rotor is not turning the slip is 100 %.

Slip and Voltage: When the motor starts rotating the slip is 100 % and the motor
current is at maximum. The slip and motor current are reduced when the rotor starts to
turn.

Slip Frequency: Frequency decrease when slip decrease.

16
Slip and Inductive Reactance: Inductive reactance depends on the frequency and the
slip. When the rotor is not turning, the slip frequency is at maximum and so is the
inductive reactance.

A motor has a resistance and inductance and when the rotor is turning, the inductive
reactance is low and the power factor approaches to one.

Slip and Rotor Impedance: The inductive reactance will change with the slip since the
rotor impedance is the phase sum of the constant resistance and the variable inductive
reactance.

When the motor starts rotating the inductive reactance is high and impedance is mostly
inductive. The rotor has a low lagging power factor. When the speed increases the
inductive reactance goes down equaling the resistance.

[Link] Slip
Related to breakdown torque T e, bd .

Te 2
=
T e ,bd s sbd
+
s bd s

Check ex. 2.11.

[Link]
M =F .a

3.9. CAVITATION
Cavitation is a common problem in pumps and control valves - causing serious wear,
tear and damage. Under the wrong conditions cavitation reduces component life time
dramatically. Cavitation may occur when local static pressure in a fluid reach a level
below the vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature. According the
Bernoulli Equation this may happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or
around a pump impeller. The vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the
damage happens when the vapor almost immediately collapses after evaporation when
the velocity is decreased and pressure is increased.

[Link] equation
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of
energyprinciple appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually
labeled with the term "Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions
where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure in a constriction of a

17
flow path may seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you consider pressure to
be energy density. In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy
must increase at the expense of pressure energy.

+h (head
losses)

Steady-state flow caveat: While the Bernoulli equation is stated in terms of universally
valid ideas like conservation of energy and the ideas of pressure, kinetic energy and
potential energy, its application in the above form is limited to cases of steady flow.

It should also be said that while conservation of energy always applies, this form of
parsing out that energy certainly does not describe how that energy is distributed under
transient conditions. A good visualization of the Bernoulli effect is the flow through a
constriction, but that neat picture does not describe the fluid when you first turn on the
flow.

Another approximation involved in the statement of the Bernoulli equation above is the
neglect of losses from fluid friction. Idealized laminar flow through a pipe can be
modeled by Poiseuille's law, which does include viscous losses resulting in a lowering
of the pressure as you progress along the pipe. The statement of the Bernoulli equation
above would lead to the expectation that the pressure would return to the value P1 past
the constriction since the radius returns to its original value. This is not the case because
of the loss of some energy from the active flow process by friction into disordered
molecular motion (thermal energy). More accurate modeling can be done by combining
the Bernoulli equation with Poiseuille's law. A real example which might help visualize
the process is the pressure monitoring of the flow through a constricted tube.

In a pump:
18
n a pump, cavitation will first occur at the inlet of the impeller. Denoting the inlet by i,
the NPSHA at this point is defined as:

Applying Bernoulli's principle from the suction free surface 0 to the pump inlet i, under
the assumption that the kinetic energy at 0 is negligible, that the fluid is inviscid, and
that the fluid density is constant:

Using the above application of Bernoulli to eliminate the velocity term and local
pressure terms in the definition of NPSHA:

In a turbine: same as pump.

3.10. WAVE PROPAGATION

Period ¿ 1/f , where f is frequency in Hz.

f =c / λ

Where c is speed (m/s) and λ is wavelength in m.

Angular frequency is ω=2 πf

4. MODELS COMBINED
[Link] heat electrical/thermal behavior

structural hydraulic electrical

type thermal
analogy analogy analogy
quantity ... ... [...] m3 of water heat Q [J] charge q [C]
potential displacement pressure P [N/ temperature T potential V
X [m] m2] [ K=J /k B ] [V =J /C ]
flux load or flow heat transfer current I [A=C/
force F [N] rate Q[m3 /s ] Q̇[W =J /s ] s]
flux density stress \sigma velocity [m/s] heat flux current
[N/m2 = Pa] →
density j [C/(m
q [W / m2] 2
·s) = A/m2]
resistance flexibility fluid thermal electrical

19
 1/k [...] resistance R [...] resistance R [... resistance R [Ω
] ]
conductivity stiffness k thermal electrical
[N/m] conductivity1/ conductance 1/
R [W/(K·m)] R [...]
lumped Hooke's Hagen– Newton's law Ohm's
element law ∆ x=F /k Poiseuille of cooling law ∆ V =IR
linear model equation ∆ T =Q̇ R
∆ P=Q R
distributed ... ... Fourier's law Ohm's
linear model →
law J=σ E
q =−k ∇ T

[Link] Temperature

[Link] Panel
P=qsun . A . η

[Link]
Rotating mechanical device used to store rotational energy.

1 2
E= . I . ω
2

Where I=Inertia [kg.m2] and ω =angular velocity [rad/s].

[Link]/Elec/Therm models
Consider efficiencies for converters:

Rectifier: 98%

Inverter: 80%

DC-AC: 80-90%

5. CALCULUS
5.1. FIRST ORDER HOMOGENEOUS AND NON-HOMOGENEOUS
An example of a first order linear non-homogeneous differential equation is

df ( x )
a +bf ( x ) +c=0
dx

20
Having a non-zero value for the constant c is what makes this equation non-
homogeneous, and that adds a step to the process of solution. The path to a general
solution involves finding a solution to the homogeneous equation (i.e., drop off the
constant c), and then finding a particular solution to the non-homogeneous equation
(i.e., find any solution with the constant c left in the equation). The solution to the
homogeneous equation is
−b
x
a
f ( x )= A e

By substitution you can verify that setting the function equal to the constant value -c/b
will satisfy the non-homogeneous equation.

−c
f ( x )=
b

It is the nature of differential equations that the sum of solutions is also a solution, so
that a general solution can be approached by taking the sum of the two solutions above.
The final requirement for the application of the solution to a physical problem is that the
solution fits the physical boundary conditions of the problem.

21