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CYBER SYSTEM
CYBER SYSTEM OPERATION
JS CITS R&D
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Table of Contents
1. Operation of a cyber system................................................................1
a. People......................................................................................................................................1
b. Technology.............................................................................................................................2
(1)Firmware..........................................................................................................................2
(a) Low-Level Firmware...........................................................................................2
(b) Embedded Firmware.........................................................................................3
(c) How Firmware Operates.................................................................................3
(d) Functions of the firmware..............................................................................4
(2)Operating System.......................................................................................................5
(a) Composition of Operating System............................................................6
(b) Operating System Processes........................................................................7
(c) Process Scheduling............................................................................................8
(d) Types of Operating System...........................................................................9
(e) Examples of Operating Systems................................................................9
(f) Features of the Operating System..........................................................11
(g) Version Handling...............................................................................................13
(3)Architectural Overview of Operating Systems.........................................14
(4)Architectural Approaches.....................................................................................15
2. Security For Operating Systems........................................................19
a. Access Control...................................................................................................................19
b. Protection Mechanisms................................................................................................20
3. Future trends in Operating systems.................................................22
a. Increased Focus on Security......................................................................................22
b. Rise of Specialized Operating Systems..............................................................22
c. Cloud-centered Operating Systems......................................................................23
4. Conclusion.............................................................................................23
5. References............................................................................................24
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Use Cases of Firmware devices in the real world..........................................................................2
Figure 2. Firmware process Operation.........................................................................................................3
Figure 3. Firmware boot process order........................................................................................................4
Figure 4. Operating System..........................................................................................................................5
Figure 5. Components of the Operating Systems.........................................................................................6
Figure 6. Processes in the operating system................................................................................................7
Figure 7. Process Life cycle..........................................................................................................................7
Figure 8. Examples of Operating system......................................................................................................9
Figure 9. Windows Operating system..........................................................................................................9
Figure 10. Mac Operating system..............................................................................................................10
Figure 11. iOS Operating system................................................................................................................10
Figure 12. Linux.........................................................................................................................................10
Figure 13.. Android Operating system.......................................................................................................10
Figure 14. Chrome Operating System........................................................................................................11
Figure 15. Operating system Architectural Overview.................................................................................14
16. DOS (Disk Operating System)..............................................................................................................15
Figure 17. Monolithic Architecture............................................................................................................15
Figure 18. Layered Architecture.................................................................................................................16
Figure 19. Microkernel Architecture..........................................................................................................17
Figure 20. The Hybrid Architecture............................................................................................................17
Figure 21. Exokernel Architecture..............................................................................................................18
Figure 22. Virtual Machine Architecture....................................................................................................18
Figure 23. File Permissions in Operating systems......................................................................................19
Figure 24. User Authentication in Operating systems................................................................................19
Figure 25. Multi-Factor Authentication......................................................................................................20
Figure 26. Multi-Factor Authentication......................................................................................................20
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ACRONYM MEANING
OS OPERATING SYSTEM
BIOS BASIC INPUT AND OUTPUT SYSTEM
POST POWER ON SELF TEST
I/O INPUT AND OUTPUT
CPU CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
MBR MASTER BOOT RECORD
UEFI UNIFIED EXTENSIBLE FIRMWARE INTERFACE
OPSEC OPERATIONAL SECURITY
IOS INTERNETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
ROM READ-ONLY MEMORY
TV TELEVISION
MBR MASTER BOOT RECORD
GUI GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE.
CLI COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE
FCFS FIRST COME FIRST SERVED
SJN SHORTEST JOB NEXT
SRT SHORTEST REMAINING TIME
RR ROUND ROBIN
ATMS AUTOMATED TERROR MACHINE
LAN LOCAL AREA NETWORK
IC INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
PC PERSONAL COMPUTER
CHAR CHARACTER
DOS (DISK OPERATING SYSTEM)
API APPLICATION PROGRAMMERS INTERFACE
MFA MULTI-FACTOR AUTHENTICATION
IDS INTRUSION DETECTION
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1. Operation of a cyber system.
Operation of a cyber system requires a low-level Software categorized as a
System Software and supports a computer's basic functions, such as;
Memory management, Tasks scheduling, and Controlling
peripherals.
Think of a computer hardware as a body of the computer system, and a low-level
software as its soul which brings it alive i.e. Operational.
We can never use a computer system if it does not have a low-level software
(system software) installed on it.
To fully understand the operation of any device, we need to consider three
key elements: people, processes, and technology.
a. People.
(1) System administrators – They install, configure, and maintain
operating systems and firmware. They ensure the smooth
operation and troubleshoot any problems that may arise.
(2) Developers - They design and create operating systems and
firmware. They write code, test functionality, and ensure
compatibility with hardware. They are responsible for;
(a) Development - Creating operating systems and firmware.
(b) Deployment - Installing and configuring operating systems
and firmware on devices.
(c) Maintenance - Keeping operating systems and firmware up-
to-date and functioning properly.
(3) End-users - The people who use devices with operating systems
and firmware. They rely on these systems to perform tasks, such
as running applications, managing files, and connecting to
networks.
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b. Technology.
(1) Firmware.
It is a specific type of system software that is permanently stored in
the read-only memory (ROM) of a computing device, such as a
computer's BIOS, a router, or a smart TV.
It is Low-Level Code, Device-Specific, with limited functionality, and
Permanently Stored (Un or Updateable).
Figure 1. Use Cases of Firmware devices in the real world.
It provides the low-level instructions for a device to operate and
communicate with other devices. Firmware can either be low-level
and embedded.
(a) Low-Level Firmware.
Directly interacts with the hardware. It is written in low-level
languages like assembly language that the hardware
understands. Examples include;
i. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) or Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) - Found on
personal computers, these initiate the Power-On Self-
Test (POST) and manage basic hardware interaction
during startup.
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ii. Bootloaders - Present in various devices, they load
the main operating system from storage into memory.
(b) Embedded Firmware.
Often found in standalone devices or embedded systems that
don't use a full-fledged operating system.
Examples include; Firmware in thermostats controlling
temperature regulation, routers, smartwatches.
(c) How Firmware Operates.
Computing devices, such as computers and smartphones, have
various processes that occur to enable their operation.
At the firmware level, firmware processes operate in computing
devices as below;
Figure 2. Firmware process Operation.
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(d) Functions of the firmware.
i. Boot Process Orchestration.
When a computer is turned on, firmware first comes to life. It
is a background program, waking up the essential hardware
components in a specific order.
Figure 3. Firmware boot process order
ii. Hardware Communication.
Firmware acts as a translator, enabling communication
between the various hardware components within the
device.
iii. Low-Level Operations.
Firmware is responsible for basic low-level functionalities like
Power Management (putting the device into sleep
mode) and Security (password verification during boot
up)
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Firmware security
(2) Operating System.
An Operating System (OS) is a software program that manages casing
hardware resources, provides essential services for application
software, and facilitates user interaction.
When you start using a Computer System, it's the Operating System
(OS) that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware.
Figure 4. Operating System
At the core of an operating system is the kernel and provides services
including; Program execution, I/O operations, File System
manipulation, Communication, Error Detection, Resource
Allocation, Protection.
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(a) Composition of Operating System.
Figure 5. Components of the Operating Systems.
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i. Kernel - The heart of the OS, responsible for managing
system resources such as memory, CPU, and input-
output devices, processes, interrupts, and system
calls.
ii. Shell - This serves as the user interface, allowing users to
interact with the system. It can be a command-line interface
(CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI).
iii. File system - Organizes and stores data on the disk. The
file system manages the allocation, access, and protection of
files and directories. The file system also maintains
metadata, such as file name, size, type, permissions,
and location.
iv. Device drivers - Device drivers are software modules that
communicate with specific hardware devices, such as
keyboards, mice, printers, scanners. They are either pre-
installed or loadable.
v. System utilities - Software programs that handle
maintenance and operation of the system. Examples of
system utilities are file managers, backup tools,
antivirus programs, disk defragmenters. System
utilities can be either part of the OS or installed separately
by the user.
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(b) Operating System Processes.
At the operating system level, there are two main categories of
processes involved in the operation of a computing device; i.e.
Background Processes and Application Processes.
Figure 6. Processes in the operating system.
i. Process Lifecycle.
During operation, a process goes through different stages.
Figure 7. Process Life cycle.
i. New - On program launch, the OS creates a new process for it.
ii. Ready - The process is waiting for its turn to use the CPU.
iii. Running - Using CPU actively and executing instructions.
iv. Waiting - The process is temporarily paused, waiting for a
resource like a file access or network response.
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v. Terminated - On closing a program, the OS terminates the
process and reclaims its resources.
(c) Process Scheduling.
Operating systems rely on algorithms to manage various tasks
efficiently. These algorithms determine how the system allocates
resources like CPU, memory, and I/O devices to running programs.
They are either Preemptive or non-preemptive.
i. CPU Scheduling Algorithms.
(1) First Come First Served (FCFS) - This is the
simplest scheduling algorithm. Processes are executed
in the order they arrive in the ready queue.
(2) Shortest Job Next (SJN) - This prioritizes processes
with the shortest execution time.
(3) Priority Scheduling - Each process is assigned a
priority level. Processes with higher priorities are
executed first.
(4) Shortest Remaining Time (SRT) - It schedules the
process with the shortest remaining time at any given
moment.
(5) Round Robin (RR) - Allocates the CPU to each
process for a fixed time slice (quantum). After the time
slice expires, the process is preempted and placed at
the back of the ready queue.
ii. Disk Scheduling Algorithms
(1) SCAN: The disk head scans back and forth across the
disk, servicing requests in the order they are
encountered.
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(d) Types of Operating System.
i. General-purpose OS - Designed to run a multitude of
applications on various hardware, allowing simultaneous
execution of multiple tasks.
ii. Mobile OS - Tailored for mobile devices, accommodating
the unique needs of mobile computing and communication-
centric devices.
iii. Embedded OS - Used in dedicated devices like digital
assistants, ATMs, and IoT devices, requiring specialized
operating systems.
iv. Network OS - Facilitates communication between devices
on a LAN, specialized for network management.
v. Real-time OS - Ensures constant and repeatable time
constraints for devices interacting with the real world.
(e) Examples of Operating Systems.
Figure 8. Examples of Operating system.
i. Windows: Developed and marketed by Microsoft. It has a
graphical user interface (GUI) that allows users interaction.
It has different versions including Windows 8, Windows 10, and 11.
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Figure 9. Windows Operating system.
ii. Unix based Operating system.
aa. MacOS - A Unix based developed and marketed by Apple since
2001.
Figure 10. Mac Operating system
bb. iOS - A mobile OS, created and developed by Apple exclusively
for its mobile devices like iPhone and iPad.
Figure 11. iOS Operating system.
cc. Linux - A Unix based OS, first released on September 17, 1991
by Linus Torvalds. Today, it has 30+ variants available like
Fedora, OpenSUSE, CentOS, Ubuntu, Red hat.
Figure 12. Linux
dd. Android: A mobile OS developed by Google, based on a
modified version of the Linux kernel and other open-source
software, designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices
such as smartphones and tablets.
Figure 13.. Android Operating system.
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ee. Chrome OS. A lightweight operating system developed by
Google. Chrome OS is designed for use on Chromebook
computers. Chrome OS is based on the Linux kernel.
Figure 14. Chrome Operating System.
(f) Features of the Operating System.
i. Resource Management.
aa. Memory Management: The OS efficiently allocates and
deallocates memory (RAM) to processes (running
programs) and the system itself.
[Link] Management: The OS acts as a traffic
controller for programs. It handles creating and
terminating processes, allocating resources to them.
cc. Device Management: The OS bridges the gap between
software and hardware devices.
ii. Data Management.
aa. File Management - The OS keeps track of where
information is stored on disks and allows users to access,
create, delete, and organize files and directories.
iii. Security and Protection.
aa. Security Management - The OS safeguards the system
from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption,
modification, or destruction.
iv. User Interaction.
The operating system provides a way for users to interact with
the system through graphical user interface (GUI), or a
command-line interface (CLI)
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v. Communication.
aa. Network Management - (modern operating systems)
This component allows computers to communicate with
each other over a network.
vi. Error Handling.
The operating system identifies, isolates, and recovers from errors
that may occur during program execution, device communication,
or other system operations.
vii. Performance Optimization.
The OS monitors system performance and can take actions to
optimize it, such as allocating resources efficiently or prioritizing
critical tasks.
viii. Task Management.
The OS allows users to manage tasks, such as launching
programs, switching between applications, and monitoring
resource usage.
ix. Multitasking.
The OS allows multiple programs running concurrently by rapidly
switching between processes - This relies on process
management.
x. Multithreading.
The ability of an OS to execute multiple threads within a single
process. A thread is a sequence of instructions that can be
executed independently by a processor or core.
xi. Plug and play.
This feature allows for automatic device detection, driver
installation, and configuration, simplifying device connection for
users.
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xii. Virtualization.
This allows for creating virtual machines (VMs) that act like
separate computers within a physical machine. This can be used
for running different operating systems or applications on a single
machine.
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(g) Version Handling.
Versioning is the creation and management of multiple product
releases, all of which have the same general function, but are
improved, upgraded or customized.
Versioning plays a key role in understanding generations of operating
systems (OS).
Generatio Electronic device
Year Types of OS Device
n used
First 1945-55 Vacuum Tubes Plug Boards
Second 1955-65 Transistors Batch Systems
Third 1965-80 Integrated Circuits (IC) Multiprogramming
Since
Fourth Large Scale Integration PC
1980
i. Why Version Handling?
aa. Track Changes: Version control allows you to see
exactly what has changed between different versions of a
file.
bb. Rollback Mistakes: in case of an error in a newer
version, revert to a previous version that was working
correctly.
ii. Version Naming Schemes.
aa. Version Numbers: Simple version numbering uses
sequential numbers (e.g., v1.0, v2.1).
bb. Date-based Versions: Versions can be tagged with
dates for reference (e.g., 2023-05-02).
cc. Descriptive Version Names: Names that reflect the
changes made (e.g., "feature added", "bugfix").
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(3) Architectural Overview of Operating Systems.
It acts as an intermediary between users and the computer hardware.
Figure 15. Operating system Architectural Overview
(a) A Character Device is a device whose driver
communicates by sending and receiving single characters
(bytes, octets).
Example - serial ports, parallel ports, sound cards, keyboard.
(b) A Block Device is a device whose driver communicates by
sending entire blocks of data. Example - hard disks.
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(4) Architectural Approaches.
i. Monolithic Architecture.
In this traditional architecture, all components are contained
within a single kernel, communicating via function calls.
E.g. DOS (Disk Operating System)
16. DOS (Disk Operating System)
Figure 17. Monolithic Architecture
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ii. Layered Architecture.
The operating system is divided into hierarchical layers, each
performing specific functions.
This approach simplifies development and maintenance but can
introduce performance overhead due to inter-layer
communication. E.g. UNIX OS’.
Figure 18. Layered Architecture
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iii. Microkernel Architecture.
This architecture minimizes the kernel, running most system
services in user space, which can enhance security and stability.
E.g. BlackBerry QNX, Mach.
Figure 19. Microkernel Architecture
iv. Hybrid Architecture.
Hybrid architecture combines elements of monolithic,
microkernel, and other architectures, aiming to provide a
balance between performance, scalability, and flexibility.
Examples include Windows OS.
Figure 20. The Hybrid Architecture
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v. Exokernel Architecture.
Exokernels provide a minimal kernel that safely multiplexes
resources to be used at user space, exposing the bare hardware
rather than a higher-level API. No major OS has been developed
today except Nemesis concept.
Figure 21. Exokernel Architecture
vi. Virtual Machines.
Virtual machines abstract the hardware into different execution
contexts, simulating multiple computers on a single physical
machine.
Figure 22. Virtual Machine Architecture
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2. Security For Operating Systems
The security of an operating system (OS) is paramount for protecting user
data, privacy, and the overall functionality of the system. Ensure the
following key aspects for a secure OS.
a. Access Control.
(1) User Accounts and Permissions.
Assigning user accounts with different access levels. This restricts what
users can access, modify, or delete on the system.
Figure 23. File Permissions in Operating systems.
(2) Authentication.
Verify a user's identity before being granted access to the system or
specific resources. This involves;
(a) Passwords
Figure 24. User Authentication in Operating systems.
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(b) Multi-factor authentication (MFA).
Figure 25. Multi-Factor Authentication
(c) Biometric authentication.
Figure 26. Multi-Factor Authentication
b. Protection Mechanisms.
(1) File Encryption - This ensures that even if someone gains
unauthorized access, they cannot read the files without the decryption
key.
(2) Disk Encryption - Encrypting the entire storage drive for an
extra layer of protection.
(3) Regular Backups - Creating regular backups of your important
data to a secure location through imaging and cloud.
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(4) Security Software.
i. Firewalls: These software programs act as gatekeepers,
monitoring and filtering incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predefined security rules.
Firewalls can help prevent unauthorized access attempts
and malicious software from entering the system. E.g.
Windows Defender.
ii. Intrusion Detection (IDS) - These monitor system activity
for suspicious behavior and can alert administrators or take
actions to block potential threats.
(5) Sandboxing.
This creates a virtual environment where untrusted or potentially
malicious code can be executed without harming the rest of the
system. Sandboxes typically restrict access to resources and
functionality.
(6) Logging and Auditing.
Most operating systems provide logging mechanisms that record
system activity. Administrators can analyze these logs to identify
suspicious activity that might indicate an intrusion attempt. For
instance, failed login attempts or unauthorized access to files could be
signs of trouble.
(7) Updates and Patch Management.
(a) Regular OS Updates - Operating system vendors
regularly release updates that patch security vulnerabilities
discovered in the software. Installing these updates promptly
is essential to maintaining a secure system.
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(8) Secure Coding Practices.
Operating system developers strive to write secure code by following
best practices and employing coding techniques that minimize
vulnerabilities. However, no software is perfect, so updates remain a
crucial aspect of security.
(9) User Awareness.
Educating users about cybersecurity best practices such as strong
password creation, and responsible downloading habits plays a vital
role in overall system security.
3. Future trends in Operating systems.
Operating systems (OS) are quickly evolving to address new technological
advancements and user demands. some potential future trends that might
shape the way we interact with computers include;
a. Increased Focus on Security.
(1)Enhanced Security Features: This will involve biometric authentication,
hardware-based security modules, and stricter application sandboxing to
prevent malware propagation.
(2)Focus on Privacy: OSes might offer greater control over data collection
and sharing, allowing users to manage their privacy settings more
granularly.
b. Rise of Specialized Operating Systems.
(1) Internet of Things(IoT) Specialization: As the number of
interconnected devices grows, specialized operating systems designed for
low-power and resource-constrained devices might become more popular.
(2) AI Integration: AI could be used for tasks like personalized user
experience customization, proactive system optimization, and even
automated threat detection.
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c. Cloud-centered Operating Systems.
(1) Shift towards Cloud-based Workloads: As cloud computing
becomes more ubiquitous, OS’ might evolve to seamlessly integrate
with cloud services.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, the operation of any computing device requires a software to
communicate with the hardware and these systems must be secured for a
friendly smooth operation.
By prioritizing user-friendliness, performance, security, and adaptability,
operating system designers create the foundation for a seamless and
productive computing experience.
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5. References.
a. [BS+09] “Tolerating File-System Mistakes with EnvyFS” by L.
Bairavasundaram, S. Sundararaman, A. Arpaci-Dusseau, R. Arpaci-
Dusseau. USENIX ’09, San Diego, CA, June 2009.
b. [BH00] “The Evolution of Operating Systems” by P. Brinch Hansen. In
’Classic Operating Systems: From Batch Processing to Distributed
Systems.’ Springer-Verlag, New York, 2000.
c. [B+72] “TENEX, A Paged Time-Sharing System for the PDP-10” by D.
Bobrow, J. Burchfiel, D. Murphy, R. Tomlinson. CACM, Volume 15,
Number 3, March 1972.
d. [B75] “The Mythical Man-Month” by F. Brooks. Addison-Wesley, 1975.
e. [BOH10] “Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective” by R.
Bryant and D. O’Hallaron. Addison-Wesley, 2010.
f. [Link]
os_process_scheduling_algorithms.htm
g. [G85] “The GNU Manifesto” by R. Stallman. 1985.
[Link]/gnu/[Link].
h. [K+61] “One-Level Storage System” by T. Kilburn, D.B.G. Edwards, M.J.
Lanigan, F.H. Sumner. IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers, April
1962.
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