Unit 3

Visual Aids in technical communication

Visual aids are an important part of written technical communication.

Graphics can be used to represent the following elements in technical writing

Concepts
Concepts show ideas or things that are not physical.

They help explain how different parts of something are related.

For example, to show how a company is organized, you can use an

organization chart.

An organization chart uses boxes and circles connected by lines.

It shows the structure of departments and staff.

This type of drawing is a graphic that explains a concept.

Objects
Photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics are the types of graphics
that show objects.

If you are describing a fuel-injection system, you will probably need a drawing
or diagram to
explain the system properly.

If you are explaining how to graft a fruit tree, you will need some
illustrations of how it is done.

Numbers
Numbers are used while presenting data and statistics.

If you are discussing the rising cost of housing in a particular city, you could
use a table, with the columns showing the data for five year periods since
1995.

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 The rows could be for different types of housing.

You could show the same data in the form of bar charts, pie charts, or line
graphs.

Words
Graphics are also used to depict words.

You have probably noticed how textbooks put key definitions and examples in
boxes with words.

To further understand visual aids, let us answer the following questions:

When to use?
Illustrations are very effective when there is a mass of statistics and complex
ideas to be represented.

Statis-tical data is best explained through tables, graphs, charts, maps,

diagrams, or photographs.

Whenever the information to be communicated is too complicated or

technical to transmit just through words, we use visual aids.

How to use?
The following are some guidelines to use illustrations effectively. The illustrations
should be

• neat, accurate, and self-contained

• appropriate to the data

• labelled completely

• self-contained
• integrated with the text

• placed as close to the first reference as possible

• sized appropriately so that they are clear even upon reproduction

• such that they create a good balance between the verbal and the visual

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 Why to use?
Visual communication has more impact than verbal communication. Using
illustrations has many advantages:

Arouses interest and focuses on essentials

Leads the reader to quicker comprehension

Supports and reinforces words

Saves much time and effort in explaining and interpreting complex ideas

Explains the data in much lesser space but with greater accuracy

Simplifies numerical data

Emphasizes and clarifies certain facts and relationships

Makes the descriptions vivid and eye-catching

Renders a professional flavour to the communication

What are the types

The figure classifies the various types of illustrations

It is clear from this figure that though there are various kins of visual aids, they
can be broadly classified into two main categories, namely tables and figures.

All illustrations other than tables are usually categorized under figures.

Tables:

A table is a systematic arrangement of numbers, words or phrases in rows and

columns, used to depict original numerical data as derived statistics.

It permits rapid access to and relatively easy comparison of information.

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 If the data is arranged chronologically, the table can show trends-patterns of
rising or falling activity.

The most important use of tables is for presenting numerical data.

E.g comparing different models of laser printers in terms of physical

characteristics

The title of a table is placed on top of the table or in the first row of the table.

If the table is clear and not used anywhere else, you don't need to add a title.

To avoid complications, tables can be considered as figures (the same as

other graphics), and numbered within the same sequence.

there are three types of tables:

Dependent:

Dependent tables are those whose contents cannot be understood

without going through the text. This type is used for presenting less
data.

Independent

Independent tables are the most commonly used ones. Though the
text should explain each table, readers need not go through the text to
understand the contents of these tables.

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 Phrase

Phrase tables are used when the data is in words or phrases instead of
numerical figures.

Advantages:

You can show a lot of numbers in a small space.

You can mix numbers and words together.

Tables help organize information clearly.

Disadvantages:

It's not always easy to understand everything quickly.

Too much information can make the table confusing.

Tables don’t look very interesting or attractive.

Graphs

Graphs are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is
presented in tables—in a more impressive and interesting way.

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 Chart or diagram offers less detail or precision than tables.

The graph presents a better sense of the overall trend but not the precise
sales figure.

Producing Graphs

Producing graphs is similar to making illustrations.

The following options are available for creating graphs: photocopying from
other sources, generating graphics using special software, and manually
drawing original graphics.

Many spreadsheet application software packages (such as MS Excel) have

fancy features for generating graphs.

Once the data is fed and the format specified, the application generates the
required graph.

Several types of graphs can be used.

The various types are rectilinear or line graph, bar graph, pie graph, scatter
graph, pictorial graph, and surface graph.

Line Graphs

Line graphs [Figure 1.8(a) and (b)] are used to show continuous change with
respect to time.

For example, the increase, decrease, or no change in temperature along with

time can be depicted through a line graph.

If two or three experiments have been conducted, the three different readings
can be depicted using three lines.

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 Bar Graphs

Bar graphs are effective in showing the comparison of various data items.

They can be used to depict the quantity of different items during the same
period.

They can also show the same item during different periods.

These are the simplest to construct and very easy to understand.

They could be of various types: vertical with singular or multiple bars stacked
or comparative and horizontal.

If these graphs depict more than one variable, two colors or designs are used
to highlight the difference between the two variables.

These graphs are comparative and if more than two variables in terms of the
same time frame are used, a stacked vertical or horizontal bar graph is used.

The greatest advantage of these bar diagrams is that they can also be used
with a three-dimensional effect.

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 Pie graphs

A pie chart, also called a percentage or circle graph, is a round chart divided
into slices to show parts of a whole.

In this type of graph, the size of each slice (its arc length, angle, and area)
matches the amount it represents.

A pie chart is a popular way to show how different parts make up a whole.

Each slice shows a category’s share as a percentage of the total.

To highlight a slice, it can be pulled out from the pie—this is called a floating
wedge, and the chart is then called an exploded pie.

Pie charts are eye-catching and make it easy to see the breakdown of data at
a glance.

Categories can be labeled inside, outside, or next to the chart.

Using colors helps to distinguish the different slices.

Very small segments, like 0.5%, can be hard to see.

Pie charts are not ideal when there are more than five categories, as too many
slices can be confusing.

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 Scatter Graph

A scatter graph shows the relationship (correlation) between two variables.

Data points are usually marked with dots (•) or crosses (×).

The points are plotted based on values from the horizontal (x-axis) and
vertical (y-axis) axes.

If the points form clusters or patterns, it means there is a correlation between

the two variables.

If there is no clear clustering, it means there is no correlation between them.

Scatter graphs help to visually spot trends, patterns, or relationships in data.

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 Pictograms/pictorial graph

Pictograms are like bar graphs but use pictures or symbols instead of bars.

The pictures are chosen based on what is being represented (e.g., human
figures for population).

A group of similar pictures shows quantity—more pictures mean a larger

amount.

Pictograms are easy to understand and visually appealing.

They are not commonly used in business reports, as they are better for
general or visual content.

They are useful for magazines or presentations where grabbing attention is

important.

Designing a good pictogram takes time to make sure it clearly represents the
data.

They work best when showing simple, visual comparisons rather than detailed
data.

Area Graphs

Area graphs show how something changes over time.

The x-axis usually represents time, and the y-axis shows the value being
measured.

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 They are useful for showing ups and downs (peaks and valleys) in data.

Area graphs help compare trends over a time period.

They can display both total values and parts of the total (like water use in
different areas).

Unlike line graphs that focus on lines, area graphs highlight the space under
the lines.

Different shades of color are used—darker at the bottom, lighter as it goes up.

Peaks in the graph show the highest values during that time.

Charts
There are two types of charts: organization charts and flow charts

Organization Charts

Organization charts show the structure of an organization, including roles and

responsibilities.

They display how different positions or departments are connected.

These charts also show communication flow within the organization.

Besides company structure, they can be used to organize ideas, instructions,

or decisions.

They help in clearly understanding hierarchy and decision-making paths.

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 Boxes and lines are typically used to represent different levels and
connections.

Flow chart

Flow charts show a step-by-step sequence of activities from start to finish.

They are used to explain processes, procedures, or relationships clearly.

Different shapes represent different types of actions:

Ovals show the start or end of the process.

Rectangles show tasks or steps to be done.

Diamonds show decision points where a choice is made.

Arrows connect the shapes and show the direction of the process flow.

Flow charts help make complex processes easy to understand.

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 Drawings and diagrams

Drawings and diagrams are used in technical documents to show objects,

processes, or systems.

They help explain what’s being described by giving a visual representation.

Diagrams can show normal, sectional, or cut-away views of an object.

Drawings range from simple to highly detailed, depending on the need.

Simple line drawings are used for instructions—they highlight only the key
parts.

Detailed drawings are used in descriptions and may include shading and 3D
effects.

Schematic diagrams, like wiring diagrams, show how systems work without
looking like the actual objects.

Clip arts are ready-made images (e.g., phones, computers) available in

software like MS Word and can be labeled for technical use.

These visuals help make technical content easier to understand and follow.

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 Photographs

Photographs are used in reports like feasibility, recommendation, and

evaluation to support the content.

They help provide a realistic view of the objects being discussed, such as
photocopiers or cars.

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 Photographs should have high resolution to remain clear when reproduced.

Irrelevant details can be removed by editing the photograph's negatives.

Including photographs adds credibility and helps the reader visualize the
subject more clearly.

Maps

Maps visually represent spatial relationships and are useful for understanding
places and navigation.

They are helpful for showing areas like political territories, store layouts, or
business market areas.

Maps are ideal for presenting statistical data tied to specific locations, like
population density.

The scale of a map depends on its purpose and how much detail is needed.

Maps must accurately show geographic details like places, buildings, and
streets.

Cross-hatching or shading can be used to display data like population, traffic

flow, or land usage.

Colors, symbols, and pictograms make maps more visually appealing and
easier to understand.

Noise
Any interference in the message sent and the message received leads to the
production of ‘noise’.

Noise here does not mean sound, but a break or disturbance in the
communication process.

If noise occurs because of technological factors, it is not too much of a

problem as it can be removed by correcting the technological faults.

If the noise is due to human error, the parties involved in the communication
process need to take corrective measures.

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 Noise is defined as any unplanned interference in the communication
environment, which affects the transmission of the message.

Noise can be classified as channel and semantic.

Channel noise is any interference in the mechanics of the medium used to

send a message.

examples include distortion from a faulty background, noise in telephone

lines, or overly loud or high-pitched sounds from speakers.

In written communication, illegible handwriting can be considered a form

of channel noise.

Channel noise usually comes from external factors that disrupt the
transmission or reception of the message.

Semantic noise occurs internally and arises from issues within the message
itself.

It happens when the sender and receiver interpret words or phrases

differently, often due to connotative meanings (implied meanings).

For example, the word "condescend" could be intended positively, but the
receiver might interpret it negatively, thinking it implies superiority.

Other examples of semantic noise include ambiguous sentence structure,

faulty grammar, misspellings, and incorrect punctuation.

This type of noise affects how the message is understood, even if the
message itself is clear in terms of delivery.

Classification of Barriers
A barrier in communication acts like a filter, allowing only part of the message
to be received, which prevents the desired response.

To communicate effectively in an organization, it's important to understand

how barriers work, why they cause misunderstandings, and how to reduce
their negative effects.

We've all experienced moments where we say, “I meant to say this, not that,”
showing how even with good intentions, barriers can cause

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 miscommunication.

Intrapersonal Barriers
Individuals are unique because of differences in perceptions, experiences,
education, culture, personality, etc.

Each of us interprets the same information in different ways, as our thinking

varies.

These differences lead to certain inbuilt or interpersonal barriers

Let us explore all the common causes that lead to these intrapersonal barriers:
Wrong Assumption

Wrong assumptions are a common barrier to effective communication.

They occur when one person assumes the other understands something
without checking.

For example, a doctor saying "take the medicine SOS" might confuse a patient
who doesn’t know what "SOS" means.

This happens when the sender assumes the receiver has the same level of
knowledge or background.

Such assumptions can come from lack of awareness, false beliefs, or fixed
ideas.

To avoid this, always consider the listener’s perspective and background.

Putting yourself in the receiver's shoes helps you communicate more clearly
and avoid misunderstandings.

Varied perceptions

The story of the six blind men and the elephant shows how people can see
the same thing differently based on their limited experience.

Each blind man described the elephant as a different object (fan, rope, wall,
etc.)—none were wrong, just incomplete.

Similarly, in an organization, people perceive situations differently depending

on their role, experience, or relationships.

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 In a conflict, if you're close to one person, bias may affect your judgment—
you may only see one side.

This barrier is based on perception, where personal views can limit

understanding.

The best way to handle this is to step back, stay neutral, and try to see the
bigger picture.

Different background

Different backgrounds (education, culture, language, environment, financial

status) affect how people understand messages.

Our background influences how we interpret and relate to information.

For example, a talk about rock climbing might interest students who’ve done
it, but others may not connect with it at all.

Similarly, a tech-heavy presentation may confuse a non-technical audience,

like doctors.

To communicate well, it's important to understand your audience’s

background and shape your message accordingly.

Using empathy—trying to see things from the listener's point of view—can

help bridge the gap.

Use language your audience understands to avoid confusion or

misinterpretation.

Be careful with words that have multiple meanings or connotations, as they

can lead to misunderstanding.

A good communicator will rephrase and explain messages clearly, keeping

the listener in mind.

Wrong inferences

Wrong inferences happen when someone assumes something based on

limited information.

For example, thinking your colleagues were laid off just because they’re
absent—when in fact, they were promoted—is a fact-inference confusion.

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 This confusion arises when people don’t separate facts from assumptions.

Inferences often seem more exciting or dramatic, which is why they can lead
to rumours or gossip.

In professional settings, it’s important to base inferences on solid facts.

Roles like analysts, marketers, engineers, etc., must gather factual data
before drawing conclusions.

When sharing an inference, it’s helpful to use phrases like “evidence

suggests”, or “in my opinion” to clarify that it’s not a confirmed fact.

Blocked categories

People usually accept information that matches their own views and
attitudes.

When information doesn’t match their beliefs or seems unfavourable, they

may react negatively—by rejecting it, distorting it, or avoiding it.

Some people resist new technologies or changes, not because they’re bad,
but because they are uncomfortable with change.

This resistance comes from having a closed mind, and such individuals are
called misoneists.

Misoneists tend to ignore differences, leading to poor understanding or

wrong conclusions.

People with deep-seated prejudices or rigid opinions often struggle to

communicate well.

For example, thinking only science students are logical, or that young
professionals are always better than older ones, shows blocked thinking.

These blocked categories prevent people from accepting other

perspectives, limiting effective communication.

Categorical thinking

People who think they know everything are called pansophists.

They often refuse to accept new information on a topic they believe they
already understand.

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 For example, someone might skip listening in a meeting about the annual
budget because they were told about it earlier, only to miss important
decisions made during the meeting.

This “know-it-all” attitude can create communication barriers and

misunderstandings.

A common sign of this thinking is the use of extreme words like:

all, always, everybody, everything, every time

none, never, nobody, nothing

These words can make communication sound rigid and closed-minded.

Instead, use softer phrases like:

in most situations, most likely, it appears to me, or the evidence suggests.

If you don’t have all the facts, it’s better to admit it openly rather than act like
you do.

Good communicators stay open, avoid extreme language, and remain willing
to learn.
• Be non-judgemental
• Be empathetic
• Not assume anything

• Stick to the subject

• Listen, and above all, paraphrase
• Remember that generalizations do not always hold good in all situations

Interpersonal barriers
Intrapersonal barriers come from an individual’s own attitudes or habits.

Interpersonal barriers happen due to poor exchange of words between two or

more people.

These barriers fall into two categories:

• Inefficient communication skills

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 • Negative thinking spread in the environment

Negative thinking by some people can influence others and create a negative
atmosphere.

Communication barriers can occur due to poor skills of the speaker or listener,
or both.

Problems can also arise from disturbances in the communication medium.

In workplaces, personal traits can cause communication issues.

Though we can't change people's traits, we can try to understand them to

avoid communication breakdowns.

The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:

Limited Vocabulary

Not having enough vocabulary can be a big problem in communication.

Sometimes, we struggle to find the right word or phrase to express what we

mean.

For example, forgetting words during a speech can make you sound
unprepared and leave a bad impression.

A strong and varied vocabulary helps create a good impression on your

audience.

Just knowing many words isn’t enough—you must know how to use them
correctly.

It's important to be clear with both the literal (denotative) and implied
(connotative) meanings of words.

To improve vocabulary, read regularly and listen to native speakers.

Practice using new words often to become more comfortable and natural with
them.

Incompatibility of verbal and non-verbal messages

Verbal and non-verbal messages should match—if they don’t, people may feel
confused.

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 Example: A CEO says he’s happy to welcome a new manager but looks
unhappy—this creates confusion.

A communicator should adapt to the environment, consider the listener’s point

of view, and communicate clearly.

Misread or ignored non-verbal cues (like facial expressions or gestures) can

block effective communication.

Understanding and using body language properly is important.

Don’t judge people based on appearance—it can cause communication

barriers.

Example: Einstein was judged negatively at first due to his messy look.

Tips for improving appearance:

Dress appropriately for the occasion

Wear neat and clean clothes

Keep a proper hairstyle

Wear clean and polished shoes

Different cultures interpret non-verbal cues differently—what’s polite in one

place may be rude in another.

Example: In Kenya, mothers-in-law and sons-in-law avoid eye contact; in

America, that may seem disrespectful.

In short, non-verbal signals should support your spoken words to make

communication effective and to build a good impression.

Emotional outburst

Emotions can interfere with communication, especially when they are intense.

Example: A president of a company is accused falsely and fails to speak

clearly due to anger.

A little emotion can make communication more personal and effective.

Too much emotion—like anger, prejudice, or boredom—can block clear

communication.

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 Even positive emotions like excitement can interfere, but less so than negative
emotions.

Being emotionally aware and empathetic helps improve communication.

Negative reactions like hostility (attacking back) and defensiveness

(resisting) hurt communication.

These responses come when someone feels threatened by the message.

Such behaviors cause others to misunderstand or judge the communicator

poorly.

Staying calm and seeing things from other viewpoints helps prevent emotional
outbursts.

If someone is angry or upset, don’t react. Instead, take them somewhere quiet
and help them calm down.

Communication selectivity

Communication selectivity happens when the receiver pays attention to only

part of a message.

This creates a communication barrier—not due to the sender, but the receiver.

It usually occurs because the receiver focuses only on what is personally

useful or relevant.

Example: In a meeting, a CEO talks about multiple topics.

The production manager listens only to production-related points.

The marketing manager does the same for marketing.

As a result, they miss the bigger picture the CEO is trying to share.

This barrier also happens with written communication—like reading only

selected parts of a document.

To avoid it, the receiver should give full attention and try to understand the
complete message.

Cultural variations

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 Cultural variations are a major cause of communication failure between
people.

As businesses expand globally, companies deal with people from different

countries and cultures.

Employees and managers must understand the laws, customs, and business
practices of other countries.

Overcoming language and cultural differences is key to effective global

communication.

This applies to education too—students studying abroad should learn about

the culture of their campus.

Whether in business or education, success depends on understanding the

culture, customs, and etiquette of the country you're in.

Poor listening skills

Poor listening is a major communication barrier.

Listening is different from hearing—hearing is passive, while listening needs

focus and understanding.

Not listening properly can cause misunderstandings and conflicts.

Common distractions while listening include:

Emotional disturbances

Indifference

Aggression

Wandering thoughts

Being preoccupied with personal worries can also reduce listening ability.

Divided attention (like shifting papers or avoiding eye contact) harms

communication and relationships.

Noise in the channel

Noise is any unwanted signal that disrupts communication.

It can be:

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 Audio, visual, audio-visual, written, physical, or psychological.

Noise distracts the receiver and may cause irritation.

Technical/physical noise examples:

Loud machines or music

Disturbances in phone lines

Poor room acoustics

Faint or unclear printed material

Illegible handwriting

Human noise examples:

A latecomer interrupting a meeting and diverting attention

Organizational Barriers
Communication barriers can exist across entire organizations, not just
between individuals.

Every organization has its own communication style and climate.

In large organizations, information usually flows downward, and feedback

isn’t always assured.

Organizations with a flat structure have more closely connected

communication networks.

Communication policies define how information should be shared.

Complex protocols in big companies often cause barriers.

Hierarchical structures can slow or distort communication due to too many

transfer points.

Direct communication between sender and receiver helps reduce

misunderstandings.

Oral communication can minimize the need for intermediaries, reducing the
chances of message distortion.

The main organizational barriers are as follows

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 Too many Transfer stations

More links in a communication chain increase the chances of

miscommunication.

Example: A professor tells you to convey a message to X, but you pass it on

through your friend Y.

With four people in the chain, the message can easily get distorted.

Original message: X should meet the professor on Friday about an

assignment.

Final message received: X thinks they have to meet the professor today.

This shows how message distortion can occur in large organizations with
many layers.

Distortion can result from:

Poor listening

Lack of focus

Filtering out parts of the message

Having too many transfer stations is a major communication barrier.

While transfer stations may be necessary, excessive use of them is counter-

productive.

Fear of superiors

In strict organizations, fear of superiors stops employees from speaking

openly.

Employees might not like their boss’s behavior but won’t speak up due to fear
of losing favor.

Supervisors should create an open environment where people feel safe to

express themselves.

Some employees:

Avoid communication with their boss altogether, or

Share too much information out of fear of being judged.

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 This can lead to bulky reports filled with both useful and useless details.

Such unfocused messages waste time and reduce communication efficiency.

Superiors must eliminate such practices and encourage active participation.

Doing so leads to more ideas, better resources, and more solutions from the
team.

Negative tendencies

Organizations form work groups for task-related purposes or for social,

recreational, or community activities.

These groups can be formal or informal, with members sharing similar values,
attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and behaviors.

A communication barrier can arise due to a conflict of ideas between group

members and non-members.

Example: Student members of a sports club may be frustrated with non-

members who oppose the club’s funding requests.

Insider–outsider conflicts can lead to negative tendencies in the

organization.

These negative tendencies create noise in interpersonal communication,

disrupting effective communication.

Use of inappropriate media

Common communication media used in organizations include:

Graphs, charts, telephones, facsimile machines, boards, email, films,

slides, computer presentations, teleconferencing, and videoconferencing.

When choosing the medium, consider the following factors:

Time

Cost

Type of message

Intended audience

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 Example: The telephone is not ideal for conveying confidential information.
Such messages are better delivered in person or via private chat messenger.

Printed letters are best for information that needs to be stored for future
reference.

A mix of media is often the best approach for effective communication (e.g.,
follow-up calls after an online order).

Information overload

Information overload happens when too much data is manually handled,

leading to decreased efficiency.

Consequences of information overload include:

Fatigue

Disinterest

Boredom

Vital information often gets mixed with irrelevant details, making it ignored by
the receiver.

Quality of information is more important than quantity.

To reduce overload:

Screen information before sharing it.

Direct messages only to people who will benefit from it.

Highlight major points and leave out irrelevant details.

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