1. What is SCADA system? With the help of figures discuss briefly its functions.

Ans: SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition. It refers to a general hardware and
software system that performs data acquisition and remote control. SCADA systems are typically
installed at various sites including system control centers, where they oversee the operation of critical
infrastructure such as power plants, water systems, and manufacturing processes.

Functions of SCADA systems include: These systems are primarily computer-based and provide a
flexible set of functions.

1. Data Acquisition: This is the foundational process where the SCADA system gathers real-time
data from various field devices like sensors, collected by RTUs (Remote Terminal Units) or
PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers).
2. Monitoring: The processed data is displayed visually on the Human-Machine Interface (HMI),
allowing operators to track equipment status, and quickly identify both normal and abnormal
operating conditions.
3. Control: Operators can issue commands directly from the HMI, which are then sent to
RTUs/PLCs to activate actuators (e.g., valves, motors) and execute physical actions.
4. Alarm Management: A critical function is detecting and alerting operators to abnormal
conditions or critical events. If measurements deviate from predefined thresholds, the SCADA
system triggers an alarm to highlight urgency.
5. Data Logging and Reporting: SCADA systems continuously log all operational data, events, and
alarms, creating a comprehensive historical record. This data is used for trend analysis,
troubleshooting past issues, optimizing operational efficiency, and fulfilling regulatory
compliance requirements. The system can then generate various reports based on this logged
data.
2. Difference between Primary Control and Secondary Control:

• Primary Control:
i. Responds quickly to a load change.
ii. Causes a steady-state frequency deviation
iii. Works by governor action response (droop characteristic).
iv. Frequency stabilizes but not at nominal value.
v. Reasonable frequency correction
vi. Acts on all units on regulation

• Secondary Control:
i. Acts slower
ii. Eliminates steady-state frequency error caused by load changes.
iii. Works by Automatic Control Action (AGC) response
iv. Adjusts load reference setpoint via speed changer motor.
v. restores frequency to nominal (e.g., 50 Hz).
vi. Acts on selected units

• Frequency vs Time curve:

AGC automatically adjusts generator output to match system load and restore system frequency to its
nominal value. It is implemented centrally in Energy Management Systems (EMS) to maintain frequency
and power interchange between control areas. The components of AGC in modern power system are:
• Load Frequency Control (LFC)
• Economic Dispatch (ED)
• Interchange Scheduling (IS)
4. How to implement AGC: At the control center, AGC requires:
i. Megawatt output of each committed unit.
ii. Megawatt flow over each tie line with neighboring systems.
iii. System frequency.
5. Objectives of AGC:

Primary (LFC & IS)

Purpose
• Used to absorb excess reactive power due to line capacitance.
• Help limit voltage rise during open circuit or light load conditions.
• Prevent temporary overvoltages (up to 1.5 pu, for less than 1 second).
Types and Connection
• Permanently connected shunt reactors on long lines reduce temporary overvoltages.
• Extra reactors may be connected to:
o EHV bus (extra high voltage bus).
o Tertiary winding of transformers (3rd winding used for voltage control).
• Tapped reactors allow variable reactance using tap-changing.
Operation
• During heavy load, some reactors are switched off using circuit breakers.
• During light load, reactors are connected to keep voltage normal.
Construction
• Similar to transformers but with:
o Single winding per phase.
o Iron core with air gaps.
o Oil-immersed design.
o Built in single-phase or three-phase types.
7. Shunt Capacitors

Purpose
• Supply reactive power to the system.
• Boost local voltages (especially under heavy load).
• Improve power factor and transmission efficiency.
 • Reduce losses in distribution and transmission systems.
Advantages
• Low cost.
• Flexible installation at different system points.
• Easy to operate and maintain.
Disadvantages
• Reactive power output is proportional to the square of voltage.
• Less effective at low voltage—when reactive power is often needed most.
Applications
▪️ In Distribution Systems:
• Used for power factor correction and voltage control.
• Installed as:
o Fixed (permanently connected) capacitors.
o Switched capacitors (auto-controlled by time/voltage/current).
• Improve voltage profile along feeders.
• Installed at:
o Individual motors.
o Groups of motors.
o Entire plants (see Figure 11.36 – Industrial plant compensation).
▪️ In Transmission Systems:
• Used to compensate for line reactance (XP losses).
• Help maintain voltage levels during heavy load.
• Installed as capacitor banks, either:
o Tertiary connected, or
o High voltage (HV) banks (see Figure 11.37).
8. Series Capacitors
• Connected in series with transmission line conductors.
• Compensate for inductive reactance of the line.
• Reduces transfer reactance between connected buses.
• Increases power transfer capability of the line.
• Reduces reactive power loss (X²/R loss).
9. Synchronous Condensers : A synchronous machine running without a load or prime mover.
• Works like a generator but only for reactive power.
Function:
• By adjusting field excitation, it can:
o Absorb or generate reactive power.
• Maintains constant terminal voltage using a voltage regulator.
• Draws a small amount of active power for its internal losses.
Application:
• Used in transmission and subtransmission levels.
• Often connected to tertiary windings of transformers.
• Known as an active shunt compensator.
Disadvantage:
• High cost (purchase + operation).
• Mostly replaced by Static VAR Compensators (SVCs) in modern systems.
 10. Static Var Compensators (SVCs)
• Shunt-connected static devices (no rotating parts).
• Generate or absorb reactive power to control power system parameters (like voltage).
• Called “static” because they have no moving components, unlike synchronous condensers.
o Static Var Generators (SVGs)
o Static Var Absorbers
o Control devices
11. Static Var Systems (SVS) A combination of:
o SVCs
o Mechanically Switched Capacitors (MSCs)
o Mechanically Switched Reactors (MSRs)
• Their outputs are coordinated for system compensation.
Types of Reactive Power Control Elements in SVS:
i. Saturated Reactor (SR)
ii. Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)
iii. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)
iv. Fixed Capacitor (FC) Banks (not automatically switched)
Use in Power Systems:
• Commonly used for transmission system compensation.
• Help maintain voltage stability and power quality.
11. Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)
Basic Principle:
• Consists of a reactor in series with a bidirectional thyristor switch.
• Thyristors control the current by changing the firing angle (α).
Operation:
• Firing angle (α) is measured from the zero-crossing of voltage.
• Full conduction occurs at α = 90°.
• Partial conduction occurs when α = 90° to 180°.
• Increasing α → less current → higher effective inductance.
Current Characteristics:
• Current is reactive and sinusoidal.
• TCR acts as a controllable inductance (or controllable susceptance).
• Due to switching, only odd harmonics are generated.
Three-Phase Arrangement:
• Preferred configuration: Delta connection (6-pulse TCR).
• Helps cancel out triple harmonics (3rd, 9th, etc.) under balanced conditions.
Dynamic Response:
• Fast response: around 5 to 10 milliseconds.
• Actual control speed: 1 to 5 cycles (due to controller and measurement delays).
• Fast reactive power control, useful in voltage regulation and power system stability.
12. Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC) Composed of capacitor banks split into units.
• Each unit has:
o Capacitor (C)
o Thyristor switch
o Small inductor (L) (to control switching surges)
• Units are switched ON/OFF using thyristors.
Operation:
• Used to inject reactive power into the system.
• Susceptance is controlled by varying the number of capacitor units in use.
• Units can be switched every half-cycle of the AC supply.
• No harmonics generated (since no partial conduction like TCR).
Three-Phase Application:
• Single-phase units are connected in delta (Δ) for 3-phase systems.
• Figure 11.48(b) shows this arrangement.
Voltage Control:
• Works on a stepwise (discrete) control of voltage.
• Controller monitors bus voltage vs. reference (Vref).
o If voltage rises, capacitor banks are switched out.
o If voltage drops, capacitor banks are switched in.
• Maintains voltage within a dead band (±ΔV/2).
Dynamic Response:
• Fast switching: response time is 0.5 to 1 cycle.
• Capacitor units are switched in steps, based on system needs.
• Control aims to bring voltage back to the normal range quickly.
Limitations:
• High cost at HV levels (due to expensive thyristors).
• Stepwise control may not be as smooth as in other systems.
13. Wheeling:
Wheeling in power systems refers to the transfer of electricity through a third-party transmission
network when a direct path between the buyer and seller is not fully available.
• Case 1 (No Wheeling):
Utility A wants to sell 200 MW to Utility B. If line 1 (owned by A) has enough capacity (e.g., >200
MW), the power flows directly. No wheeling happens.
• Case 2 (With Wheeling):
If line 1 can carry only 100 MW, Utility A uses lines 2 and 3, owned by a third party, to transfer
the remaining power. This is wheeling.
• Wheeling charges are applied to compensate the third-party utility for:
o Use of its transmission system.
o Associated power losses.
o Operational impacts on its network.
So, wheeling is essential in open access systems where power must be routed through shared
networks, and it involves both technical coordination and economic pricing. Wheeling occurs on the
interconnected areas or the systems that contain more than two utilities.