Communicative

Language Teaching
Today
Jack C. Richards
As the framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials: The series Cambridge
English for Schools (Littlejohn and Hicks 1996), is the first EFL series in which
content from across the curriculum provides the framework for the course. My
own conversation course Springboard (Richards 1998) is also a content-based
course with themes and topics serving as the framework. The topical syllabus
was chosen through surveys of the interests of Asian college students.

Task 15
What problems does CBI pose for teachers? What are some
advantages and limitations of this approach in your opinion?

Issues in implementing a CBI approach

Content-based instruction raises a number of issues. A central issue is the extent
to which focusing on content provides a sufficient basis for the development of
the language skills. It has been pointed out, for example, that when English is
used as the basis for teaching school subjects, learners often bypass grammatical
accuracy since their primary concern is mastery of content rather than develop-
ment of accurate language use. This has been a common complaint in places like
Hong Kong, where English has traditionally been the main medium for teach-
ing school subjects in many schools. Another issue concerns whether language
teachers have the necessary subject-matter expertise to teach specialized content
areas such as marketing, medicine, ecology, etc., and the inevitable “dumbing
down” of content in such cases. Lastly, a key issue is that of assessment. Will
learners be assessed according to content knowledge, language use, or both?

Task-Based Instruction
Task-based instruction, or TBI (also known as task-based teaching), is another
methodology that can be regarded as developing from a focus on classroom
processes. In the case of TBI, the claim is that language learning will result from
creating the right kinds of interactional processes in the classroom, and the best
way to create these is to use specially designed instructional tasks. Rather than
employ a conventional syllabus, particularly a grammar-based one, advocates of
TBI argue that grammar and other dimensions of communicative competence
can be developed as a by-product of engaging learners in interactive tasks. Of
course, most teachers make use of different kinds of tasks as part of their regular
teaching. Task-based instruction, however, makes strong claims for the use of
tasks and sees them as the primary unit to be used, both in planning teaching
(i.e., in developing a syllabus) and also in classroom teaching. But what exactly
is a task? And what is not a task?

30 Communicative Language Teaching Today

 The notion of task is a somewhat fuzzy one, though various attempts
have been made to define it. Some of the key characteristics of a task are the
following:
J It is something that learners do or carry out using their existing
language resources.
J It has an outcome which is not simply linked to learning language,
though language acquisition may occur as the learner carries out
the task.
J It involves a focus on meaning.
J In the case of tasks involving two or more learners, it calls upon
the learners’ use of communication strategies and interactional
skills.

Task 16
Do you make use of classroom activities that can be
described as tasks in the sense described above? What do
you think are the characteristics of a good task?

Many of the activities proposed in the early days of CLT can be

described as tasks according to the definition above, i.e., information-gap and
information-sharing activities that we find in many course books and ELT
materials. From the point of view of TBI, two kinds of tasks can usefully be
distinguished:
Pedagogical tasks are specially designed classroom tasks that are intended to
require the use of specific intreractional strategies and may also require the
use of specific types of language (skills, grammar, vocabulary). A task in which
two learners have to try to find the number of differences between two similar
pictures is an example of a pedagogical task. The task itself is not something
one would normally encounter in the real world. However the interactional
processes it requires provides useful input to language development.
Real-world tasks are tasks that reflect real-world uses of language and which
might be considered a rehearsal for real-world tasks. A role play in which stu-
dents practice a job interview would be a task of this kind.
Willis (1996) proposes six types of tasks as the basis for TBI:
1. Listing tasks: For example, students might have to make up a list
of things they would pack if they were going on a beach vacation.
2. Sorting and ordering: Students work in pairs and make up a list
of the most important characteristics of an ideal vacation.
3. Comparing: Students compare ads for two different
supermarkets.

Communicative Language Teaching Today 31

 4. Problem-solving: Students read a letter to an advice columnist
and suggest a solution to the writer’s problems.
5. Sharing personal experience: Students discuss their reactions to
an ethical or moral dilemma.
6. Creative tasks: Students prepare plans for redecorating a house.

Task 17
Can you give other examples of each of the six types of
tasks above?

There are many other taxonomies of tasks based on particular features

of tasks, such as whether they are one way, two way, simple, or complex. Many
classroom activities do not share the characteristics of tasks as illustrated above
and are therefore not tasks and are not recommended teaching activities in TBI.
These include drills, cloze activities, controlled writing activities, etc., and many
of the traditional techniques that are familiar to many teachers. Despite the
extensive recent literature on tasks, however, there are virtually no published
teacher resources containing tasks that meet the criteria proposed in TBI.
How does TBI in practice differ from more traditional teaching
approaches? Recall our earlier discussion above of the principles of a P-P-P les-
son or teaching format:
Presentation: The new grammar structure is presented, often by means of a
conversation or short text. The teacher explains the new structure and checks
students’ comprehension of it.
Practice: Students practice using the new structure in a controlled context,
through drills or substitution exercises.
Production: Students practice using the new structure in different contexts
often using their own content or information, in order to develop fluency with
the new pattern.
Advocates of TBI reject this model on the basis that (a) it doesn’t
work; and (b) it doesn’t reflect current understanding of second language
acquisition. They claim that students do not develop fluency or progress in
their grammatical development through a P-P-P methodology. They also argue
that second language learning research has shown that language learning results
from meaningful interaction using the language and not from controlled prac-
tice. With TBI the focus shifts to using tasks to create interaction and then
building language awareness and language development around task perfor-
mance. How does this work in practice?

32 Communicative Language Teaching Today

 Willis proposes the following sequence of activities:
Pretask Activities
Introduction to Topic and Task
J T helps Ss to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for
example, brainstorming ideas with the class, using pictures, mime,
or personal experience to introduce the topic.
J Ss may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based, odd-word-out
games. T may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not
pre-teach new structures.
J Ss can be given preparation time to think about how to do the
task.
J Ss can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as
this does not give away the solution to the problem).
J If the task is based on a text, Ss read a part of it.
Task Cycle
Task
J The task is done by Ss (in pairs or groups) and gives Ss a chance to
use whatever language they already have to express themselves and
say whatever they want to say. This may be in response to reading a
text or hearing a recording.
J T walks around and monitors, encouraging in a supportive way
everyone’s attempt at communication in the target language.
J T helps Ss to formulate what they want to say, but will not
intervene to correct errors of form.
J The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence
building, within the privacy of the small group.
J Success in achieving the goals of the tasks helps Ss’ motivation.
Planning
J Planning prepares for the next stage where Ss are asked to report
briefly to the whole class how they did the task and what the
outcome was.
J Ss draft and rehearse what they want to say or write.
J T goes around to advise students on language, suggesting phrases
and helping Ss to polish and correct their language.
J If the reports are in writing, T can encourage peer-editing and use
of dictionaries.
J The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as
appropriate for a public presentation.

Communicative Language Teaching Today 33

 J Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about
specific language items.
Report
J T asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone
can compare findings, or begin a survey. (N.B: There must be a
purpose for others to listen). Sometimes only one or two groups
report in full; others comment and add extra points. The class may
take notes.
J T chairs, comments on the content of their reports, rephrases
perhaps, but gives no overt public correction.
Language Focus
Analysis
J T sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts students
read or on the transcripts of the recordings they hear. Examples
include the following:
J Find words and phrases related to the topic or text.
J Read the transcript, find words ending in “s” and say what
the “s” means.
J Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer
to past time and which do not.
J Underline and classify the questions in the transcript.
J T starts Ss off, then students continue, often in pairs.
J T goes around to help. Ss can ask individual questions.
J In plenary, T then reviews the analysis, possibly writing relevant
language up on the board in list form; Ss may make notes.
Practice
J T conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language
analysis already on the board, or using examples from the text or
transcript.
J Practice activities can include:
J Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified
J Memory challenge games based on partially erased
examples or using lists already on blackboard for
progressive deletion
J Sentence completion (set by one team for another)
J Matching the past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject
or objects they had in the text
J Dictionary reference with words from text or transcript

34 Communicative Language Teaching Today

 Task 18
How practical do you think Willis’s proposal is? What issues
does it raise for teachers?

Task-based instruction can, in theory, be applied in a number of dif-

ferent ways in language teaching:
As the sole framework for course planning and delivery: This appears to be the
strategy proposed by Willis. Such an approach was used in a program described
by Prabhu (1987) in which a grammar-based curriculum was replaced by a task-
based one in a state school system, albeit only for a short period.
As one component of a course: A task strand can also serve as one component of
a course, where it would seek to develop general communication skills. This is
the approach described by Beglar and Hunt (2002) in their study of a 12-week
course for second-year Japanese university students. The task strand was based
on a survey. Students designed a survey form, then collected data, analyzed it,
and presented the results. In this case “task” is being used in ways others would
use the term “project.” At the same time, students were also involved in class-
room work related to a direct approach to teaching speaking skills, receiving
explicit instruction in some of the specific strategies and microskills required for
conversation.
As a technique: Teachers who find the procedures outlined by Willis unrealistic
and unmanageable over a long period could still use task work from time to
time as one technique from their teaching repertoire.

Issues in Implementing a Task-Based Approach

Many issues arise in implementing a task-based approach. To begin with, there
is little evidence that it works any more effectively than the P-P-P approach it
seeks to replace. Criteria for selecting and sequencing tasks are also problematic,
as is the problem of language accuracy. Task work may well serve to develop
fluency at the expense of accuracy, as with some of the other activities suggested
within a CLT framework. Content issues are also of secondary importance
in TBI, making it of little relevance to those concerned with CBI or main-
streaming. The fact that TBI addresses classroom processes rather than learning
outcomes is also an issue. In courses that have specific instructional outcomes to
attain (e.g., examination targets) and where specific language needs have to be
addressed rather than the general communication skills targeted in task work,
TBI may seem too vague as a methodology to be widely adopted.

Communicative Language Teaching Today 35