1) Oersted’s

Experiment
2) Biot savart’s Law and
its applications
3) Ampere circuital law
4) Force on a moving

MOVING CHARGES AND charge

5) Force on a current

MAGNETIC EFFECTS carrying conductor

6) Torque experienced
by a current loop
7) Magnectic dipole
moment
8) Moving coil
galvanometer
 1|Page

>>Oersted's experiment
Hans Christian Oersted performed a simple experiment to demonstrate
the magnetic effects of electric current. His observations were as follows:
When sufficient current was allowed to pass through a wire AB placed
along the axis of a magnetic needle kept directly below and close to the
wire, the needle was found to deflect from its normal position as shown
in figure

The deflection of the needle was found to be in the opposite direction on

reversing the direction of the current by reversing the polarity of the
battery as shown in figure.
Deflection of the magnetic needle changed with the strength of electric
current. The deflection of the needle increased with the increase in
current and vice versa.
 2|Page

These observations led Oersted to interpret that there must be some

magnetic effect around the wire carrying electric current which deflected
the magnetic needle. He concluded that an electric current (i.e. flow of
electric charges) in a conductor produces magnetic effect in the space
around the conductor. In other words, flow of electric charges is the
source of magnetic field.

>>Magnetic Field
Space or region around the current carrying conductor within which its
influence can be felt by the magnetic needle is called magnetic field of a
current carrying conductor.
Unit: Tesla or Webor/m2 or gauss
Example. When iron fillings are sprinkled around the current carrying
conductor, they arrange themselves in concentric circles with the wire as
the centre.
 3|Page

In this chapter, we adopt the following conventions

 A current or field emerging out of the plane of paper is depicted by
⨀.
 A current or field going into the plane of a paper is depicted by ⊗.

>>Electromagnetism
Magnetism due to electric current in a conductor is called
electromagnetism.

>>Biot Savart’s Law

This law is used to determine the strength of the magnetic field at any
point due to a current carrying conductor.
Consider a very small element AB of length dl of conductor carrying
current I.
 4|Page

The strength of the magnetic field dB due to the small current carrying
element dl at point P at a distance r from the element depends upon
 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝑙
 𝑑𝐵 ∝𝐼
 𝑑𝐵 ∝ sin 𝜃
 𝑑𝐵 ∝

i.e.
𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 ∝
𝑟
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟
Where, 𝜇 is called absolute permeability of free space i.e. vacuum
𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 𝑇𝑚𝐴
𝜇
= 10 𝑇𝑚𝐴
4𝜋
Note
Permeability indicates the degree or extent to which magnetic field lines
can enter a substance.
𝜇=𝜇 𝜇
Where, 𝜇 is relative permeability
Biot Savart’s law in vector form
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐵⃗ = 𝑛
4𝜋 𝑟
 5|Page

𝜇 𝐼 (𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟⃗)
𝑑𝐵⃗ =
4𝜋 𝑟
Direction of 𝑑𝐵⃗ is same as the direction of(𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟⃗) which can be
determined by right handed screw rule or right hand thumb rule.
Note: 𝑛 is the unit vector denoting the direction which is perpendicular to
the plane containing 𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝑟⃗.

>To find the direction of 𝑩⃗ in Biot Savart’s law

Step-1
Point the thumb towards the direction of the current.
Step 2
Point the finger towards the point P where we need to find the direction
of the magnetic field.
Step 3
Curling of the finger will give the direction of the magnetic field.
Biot Savart’s law for magnetic field as certain similarities as well as
difference with the coulomb’s law of electrostatics.

>Similarities
 Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the distance
from the source to the point of interest.

𝑑𝐵 = and 𝐸 =

 The principle of superposition applies to both the fields

 6|Page

Note
Magnetic field is linear in the source (𝐵 ∝ 𝐼𝑑𝑙) just as the electrostatic
field is linear in its source (𝐸 ∝ 𝑞).

>Differences
 The electrostatic field is produced by scalar source i.e. electric
charge.
The magnetic field is produced by vector source, that is 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ .
 The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining
source charge and the field point, whereas magnetic field is
perpendicular to the plane containing displacement vector and
current carrying element.
 There is an angle dependence in Biot Savart law which is not
present in electric field’s case.

>>Relation between permittivity and permeability

1
∈ 𝜇 = × 10
9 × 10
1 1
∈ 𝜇 = =
9 × 10 (3 × 10 )
1
∈ 𝜇 =
𝑐
1
𝑐=
∈ 𝜇
 7|Page

>>Applications of Biot Savart’s law

>Magnetic field due to infinitely long straight wire
Consider a long straight wire AB carrying current I. Let P be the point at a
distance 𝑥 from the wire, where magnetic field is to be calculated
Consider a small current element of length 𝑑𝑙 at a distance 𝑙 from the
centre of the wire. Let 𝑟 be the distance of point P from the current
element.

According to Biot-Savart's law, magnetic field at point P due to small dl

element of the wire is given by
𝜇 I𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙
𝑑B = (𝑖)
4𝜋 𝑟
 8|Page

In right angled triangle POC,

𝑥
sin 𝜙 = = cos 𝜃 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟
or
𝑥
𝑟= (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
cos 𝜃

𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 tan 𝜃 = or 𝑙 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃

𝑑𝑙 = 𝑥sec 𝜃𝑑𝜃 (𝑖𝑣)

Substituting the values of eqns. (ii), (iii) and (iv) in eqn. (i), we get
𝜇 𝐼 (𝑥 sec θ 𝑑𝜃)cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 (𝑥 /cos 𝜃)
𝜇 𝐼 (𝑥sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 (𝑥 sec 𝜃)
𝜇 𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥

Magnetic field due to the whole conductor AB can be calculated by

integrating eqn. within the limits −𝜃 and 𝜃 [By convention 𝜃 being
anticlockwise is taken as negative]
 9|Page

𝜇 I
∴ B= 𝑑B = cos 𝜃𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝑥
𝜇 I 𝜇 I
or B= [sin 𝜃] = [sin 𝜃 − sin (−𝜃 )]
4𝜋𝑥 4𝜋𝑥
𝜇 𝐼
or B= [sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ]
4𝜋𝑥
𝐴𝑠 (∵ sin (−𝜃 ) = −sin 𝜃 )
When, the straight wire is infinitely long, then 𝜃 and 𝜃 are equal to ,
then eqn. becomes
𝜇 𝐼 𝜋 𝜋 𝜇 𝐼
=> 𝐵= sin + sin = (1 + 1)
4𝜋𝑥 2 2 4𝜋𝑥
𝜇 2𝐼 𝜇 𝐼
∴ 𝐵= => 𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑥 2𝜋𝑥
This expression indicates that the magnetic field due to infinitely long
current carrying conductor is cylindrical symmetric. That is, the magnetic
field is same at all points on a cylinder of radius 𝑥 around the wire
The variation of magnetic field (B) due to infinitely long current carrying
conductor
 10 | P a g e

>To find the direction of the magnetic field

If a current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right hand

such that the thumb points in the direction of the current. Then, the tips
of the curled fingers encircling the conductor will give the direction of the
magnetic field lines.
Here the line of magnetic field is a curve, the tangent at any point gives
the direction of the magnetic field.

>Magnetic field due to a finite current carrying conductor

Let L be the length of the conductor carrying current I. Let P be the point
at a distance x and lies on the right bisector of conductor.
 11 | P a g e

For infinite long current carrying conductor, magnetic field at a point is

given by
𝜇 𝐼
B= [sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 ]
4𝜋𝑥
For a finite conductor, 𝜃 = 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝐿/2 𝐿
sin 𝜃 = =
𝑥 + 𝐿 /4 √4𝑥 + 𝐿
Now eqn. becomes
𝜇 𝐼 2𝐿
B=
4𝜋𝑥 √4𝑥 + 𝐿
 12 | P a g e

>Magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop carrying current

Let P be a point on the axis of a circular loop or coil of radius R carrying

current I. The distance of P from the centre of loop be x.
Let XY be a small element of the length dl at a distance r from point P.
Every current element is perpendicular to 𝑟̂ .
According to Biot-Savart's law, magnetic field due to a small element 𝑋𝑌
at point 𝑃 is given by,
𝜇 I𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜙
𝑑B =
4𝜋 𝑟
Since, 𝜙 = 90∘ , therefore, equation can be written as
𝜇 I𝑑𝑙 sin 90∘ 𝜇 I𝑑𝑙
𝑑B = = (∵ sin 90∘ = 1)
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
The direction of 𝑑B⃗ is perpendicular to the plane formed by 𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝑟⃗ and
is along PL which is perpendicular to PC.
 13 | P a g e

Resolving 𝑑 B into two components :

(i) 𝑑B cos 𝜃, which is perpendicular to the axis of the coil and
(ii) 𝑑B sin 𝜃, which is along the axis of the coil and away from the centre
of the coil.
As the coil is symmetrical about its axis, so every element of length 𝑑𝑙 has
another equal and opposite element on the circular loop. For example,
element XY has equal and opposite element 𝑋 𝑌 . The perpendicular
components of the magnetic field due to these elements being equal and
opposite cancel each other. Hence the total contribution of perpendicular
components of the magnetic fields (i.e. 𝑑B cos 𝜃 ) to the net magnetic
field is zero.
On the other hand, 𝑑B sin 𝜃 component of magnetic field due to each
element of the coil or loop is directed in the same direction.
i.e.
𝜇 I𝑑𝑙
B= 𝑑B sin 𝜃 or B = sin 𝜃
4𝜋𝑟
Here we integrate with respect to 𝑑B sin 𝜃 not 2 𝑑B sin 𝜃 because only
one element can cover the whole wire.
𝜇 Isin 𝜃
B= 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋𝑟
Here I, 𝜃 and r are constant and ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = length of the circular coil =
circumference of the coil = 2𝜋R
𝜇 𝐼sin 𝜃 × 2𝜋𝑅
𝐵=
4𝜋𝑟
R 𝜇 I R2𝜋R 𝜇 2𝜋IR
sin 𝜃 = ∴ B= ⋅ = But 𝑟 = R +𝑥
𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 2𝜋IR
B=
4𝜋 (R + 𝑥 ) /
 14 | P a g e

Magnetic Field at the centre of coil can be determined by putting 𝑥 = 0 in

the eqn.
𝜇 2𝜋I 𝜇 𝐼
B= =
4𝜋 R 2R
Special Case
If point of observation (i.e. point 𝑃 ) is far away from the loop or coil (i.e.,
𝑥 >> 𝑅 ), then 𝑅 can be neglected as compared to 𝑥 , hence
(R + 𝑥 ) / = 𝑥
Then equation becomes
𝜇 2𝜋IR
B= ⋅
4𝜋 𝑥

Since area of coil or loop, 𝐴 = 𝜋R ,

𝜇 2IA
B =
4𝜋 𝑥
>Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying loop
Consider a circular coil or a circular loop of radius R, carrying current I as
shown in the figure. The circular coil consists of large number of current
elements each of length 𝑑𝑙.

Consider one such current element (AB) 𝐼𝑑𝑙⃗ .

 15 | P a g e

As per Biot-Savart's law, the magnetic field at point 𝐶 due to current

element 𝐴𝐵 is given by,

𝜇 I𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟ˆ
𝑑B⃗ =
4𝜋 R
Since angle between 𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝑟ˆ is 90∘, so 𝑑𝑙⃗ × 𝑟ˆ = 𝑑𝑙sin 90∘ = 𝑑𝑙
Then,
𝜇 I𝑑𝑙
𝑑B=
4𝜋 R
Therefore, magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying loop can be
calculated i.e., by integrating eqn. over closed the loop.
𝜇 1 𝜇 𝐼 𝜇 2𝜋𝐼
𝐵= ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = ⋅ 2𝜋𝑅 = … (∵ ∮ 𝑑𝑙 == 2𝜋𝑅)
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
 16 | P a g e

>To find the direction of magnetic field

If we curl the fingers of our right hand around the circular wire with
fingers pointing in the direction of the current, then the extended thumb
will give the direction of the magnetic field.
If coil consists of 𝑁 turns, then magnetic field due to the current carrying
coil at its centre is given by
𝜇 N × 2𝜋I 𝜇 NI
𝐵= =
4𝜋 R 2R
>Sketch the magnetic field lines for a circular loop

The magnetic lines of force are almost concentric circles. As we move

radially towards the centre of the loop, the concentric circles become
 17 | P a g e

larger and larger. At the centre of the loop, the lines are almost packed
straight and parallel. And perpendicular to the plane of the loop. This
magnetic field is uniform at the centre of the loop.

>Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying semi-

circular loop

𝜇 𝜋I 𝜇 I
B= =
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝑅
 18 | P a g e

>Magnetic field at the centre of a circular arc carrying current 𝐼

Here, the angle subtended by an arc of radius 𝑅 is 𝜃. Hence, magnetic

field due to current carrying circular arc at its centre is given by
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵= ×𝜃
4𝜋 𝑅
E.g. magnetic field due to a circular coil of radius 𝑅, carrying current 𝐼 at
the centre of the coil is given by i.e. 𝜃 = 2𝜋
𝜇 2𝜋𝐼 𝜇 𝐼
𝐵= = × (2𝜋)
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
 19 | P a g e

>Magnetic field due to two concentric circular coils carrying

same currents in the same direction

In this case, both the magnetic field (𝐵 ) due to the coil of radius 𝑅 and
the magnetic field (𝐵 ) due to the coil of radius 𝑅 at the centre 𝑂 are
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and directed upward.
Therefore, net magnetic field at 0 is the sum of both 𝐵 and 𝐵
𝜇 2𝜋𝐼 𝜇 2𝜋𝐼 𝜇 1 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵net = 𝐵 + 𝐵 = + = 2𝜋𝐼 +
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅 𝑅
The direction of net magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and in the upward direction.
 20 | P a g e

>Magnetic field due to two concentric circular coils carrying

same current but opposite in direction

Let current I flows through the circular coil of radius 𝑅 in anticlock wise
direction. Let current I flows through the circular coll of radius 𝑅 in
clockwise direction. The magnetic field 𝐵 due to the smaller coll directed
upward and perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Magnetic field B
due to bigger coll is perpendicular to the plane and directed downward.
Therefore, the net magnetic fleld at the centre (O) of the coils is given by
𝜇 2𝜋I 𝜇 2𝜋I
𝐵 =𝐵 −𝐵 = −
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
The direction of the net magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of
the paper and in the upward direction as (𝐵 > 𝐵 ).
 21 | P a g e

>Magnetic field at the centre of two mutually perpendicular

identical circular coils carrying currents

Magnetic fields at 𝑂 due to each coil

𝜇 2𝜋
𝐵 =𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑅
Direction of B⃗ is perpendicular to the plane of paper and upward.
Direction of B⃗ is perpendicular to B⃗ . Therefore, net magnetic field at 𝑂
is given by
𝜇 2𝜋𝐼
∴𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐵 = √2 ×
4𝜋 𝑅
 22 | P a g e

>Magnetic field at a point on the axes of two displaced

circular coils carrying current

𝜇 2𝜋𝐼𝑅 𝜇 2𝜋𝐼𝑅
=> 𝐵 =( ) /
, 𝐵 = ( ) /
4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑥 ) 4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑥 )
𝜇 2𝜋𝐼𝑅
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵net = 𝐵 + 𝐵 + √2( )
4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑥 ) /

>>Ampere circuital law

Just as Gauss law is an alternative form of Coulomb’s law. Similarly, we
have ampere circuital law as an alternative form of Biot savart’s law.
 23 | P a g e

It states that the line integral of the magnetic field around any closed
path in free space is equal to the absolute permeability times the net
current passing through any surface enclosed by the closed path.
Mathematically, ∮ 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 𝐼
Where, 𝑑𝑙 is length of small element of amperian loop
𝐼 is current due to the current carrying conductor passing through the
amperian loop.
Amperian Loop: It is an imaginary loop with definite length. (Like we take
imaginary gaussian surface in gauss’s law)
Current does not flow through the amperian loop, it is just an imaginary
loop.

Here, 𝐼 is not considered as it does not lie in the loop.

𝐼 = 𝐼 +𝐼
 24 | P a g e

𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 (𝐼 + 𝐼 )

Here, both currents are taken positive as the are in the direction of
amperian loop.
We can take the direction of amperian loop according to our convenience.
Choose the amperian loop in such a way that either
 B is tangential to the loop, 𝜃 = 0
 B is normal to the loop, 𝜃 = 90
 B vanishes, 𝐵 ~ 0
>To find the sign convention of current in Ampere circuital law
Curl the fingers along the direction of amperian loop. Then the current is
considered to be positive if it has the same direction as that of the thumb
and if it has opposite direction then it is considered as negative.

Example

In this case, we have taken the direction of loop is clockwise direction.

Since the thumbs directed downwards, 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 are considered as
positive.
𝐼 = −𝐼 + 𝐼 − 𝐼 + 𝐼
 25 | P a g e

Proof
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current I. The
magnetic field lines are produced around the conductor as concentric
circles.
The magnetic field due to this current carrying conductor is given by
𝜇 2I
𝐵=
4𝜋 𝑎
Consider a circle of radius a. Let XY be a small element of length dl.

𝑑𝑙⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are in the same direction because direction of 𝐵⃗ is along the
tangent of the circle.

𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐵𝑑𝑙 cos 0 = 𝐵𝑑𝑙

𝜇 2I
𝐵 𝑑𝑙 => × 2𝜋𝑎 = 𝜇 𝐼
4𝜋 𝑎

𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 𝐼

Hence proved

Limitations
 Ampere circuital law is not a universal law.
 Ampere circuital law deals with steady current only

>>Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight wire

carrying current I using ampere circuital law
Consider a portion of a circular wire of infinite length. Let 𝑎 be the radius
of the wire and a steady current I be flowing through it. The flow of
 26 | P a g e

current in the wire gives rise to a magnetic field around it. The magnetic
field lines are concentric circles with their centres on the axis of the wire.
Case I
Magnetic field intensity at a point outside the wire

Let P be the point outside the wire at a distance 𝑟 from the axis of the
wire
According to Ampere's circuital law,

∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 I

∮ B𝑑𝑙cos 0∘ = 𝜇 I or B∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇 I
 27 | P a g e

=>𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇 I
( ∵ ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟)
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇 2𝐼
=>𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟

Thus, the magnetic field intensity at a point outside the wire varies
inversely as the distance of the point from the axis of the wire.

That is,
1
B∝
𝑟

Case II
Magnetic field intensity on the surface of the wire
In this case, 𝑟 = 𝑎 (radius of the wire)
Hence, eqn. can be written as
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑎

Case III
Magnetic field intensity at a point inside the wire
Consider a point P inside the wire at a distance 𝑟 from the axis of the
wire, such that 𝑟 < 𝑎 (Figure 31).
If the current flows only along the surface of the wire, then according to
Ampere's circuital law,

∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
B= 0
 28 | P a g e

(∵ I = 0 inside the circle of radius 𝑟 < 𝑎)

If the current is uniformly distributed throughout the cross - section of the

wire, then current through the circle of radius 𝑟 < 𝑎 is given by,
𝐼 = current per unit area of the wire × area of the circle of radius 𝑟

I I𝑟
= × 𝜋𝑟 =
𝜋𝑎 𝑎
According to Ampere's circuital law,
or

∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 I

or

I𝑟
∮ B𝑑𝑙cos 0∘ = 𝜇
𝑎
I𝑟
B ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇
𝑎
𝜇 I𝑟
B × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑎
𝜇 I𝑟
𝐁=
2𝜋 𝑎

i. e. B ∝ 𝑟
 29 | P a g e

>The variation of magnetic field (B) with distance (𝑟)

The variation of magnetic field (B) with distance (𝑟) from the axis of the
wire is shown in the figure.

Some observations

 Magnetic field at every point on a circle of radius a is same in

magnitude not in direction.
 Magnetic field processes cylindrical symmetry.
 The field direction at any point on the circle is tangential to it.
 Even though wire is infinite the magnetic field due to it at a non-
zero distance is not infinite.
 Magnetic field becomes very strong when we come closer to the
wire.
 30 | P a g e

>>Straight Solenoid
A cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire whose
diameter is smaller than its length is called solenoid.

 It consists of a long wire wound in form of helix whose neighbouring

turns are closely spaced.
 Each turn can be regarded as circular loop.
 The net magnetic field is vector sum of all the fields due to all turns.
 Enamelled wire used in solenoid is copper or aluminium wire coated
with a very thin layer of insulation.

>Magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid

Let P be a point well within the solenoid. Consider any rectangular loop
ABCD (known as Amperian Loop) passing through P as shown in figure.
 31 | P a g e

Then ∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = Line integral of magnetic field across the loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷,

= B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ + B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ + B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ + B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗

𝐵⃗ is perpendicular to paths 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷 i.e. angle between 𝐵⃗ and 𝑑𝑙⃗ is 90∘

for these paths.
∴ ∫ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ B𝑑𝑙cos 90∘ = 0
Since path CD is outside the solenoid, where B⃗ is taken as zero, so ∫ B⃗ ⋅
𝑑⃗ = 0.
For path AB , the direction of 𝑑𝑙⃗ and B⃗ is same i.e. 𝜃 = 0
 32 | P a g e

Hence equation becomes

∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = B⃗ ⋅ 𝑙⃗ = B𝑑𝑙cos 0 = B𝑑𝑙

or

=>∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = B ⋅ 𝑑𝑙

=>∮ B⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = B𝑙 ∵ 𝑑𝑙 = total length of path AB = 𝑙

According to Ampere's circuital law,

∮ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝜇 × net current enclosed by loop 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.

= 𝜇 × number of turns in the loop ABCD × I = 𝜇 𝑛𝐼

Comparing equations (ii) and (iii), we get

𝐵𝑙 = 𝜇 𝑛𝐼𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇 𝑛𝐼

Thus, magnetic field well within an infinitely long solenoid is given by

B = 𝜇 𝑛I

Since
𝑛 = , where N = total number of turms of solenoid

𝜇 NI
B=
𝑙
 33 | P a g e

 The television uses solenoid to generate magnetic field needed.

 Magnetic field inside a solenoid can be increased by inserting a soft
iron core.
 Magnetic field at each end long solenoid is
𝜇 nI
𝐵 =
2
 The variation of magnetic field of the solenoid with distance from
the centre of solenoid along the axis of solenoid of length 𝑙.

>>Electric force
Charged particle having charge q placed in an electric field 𝐸⃗ experience a
force given by

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗
 34 | P a g e

>>Magnetic Lorentz Force

Magnetic force and charge q moving with velocity 𝑣⃗ at a certain angle 𝜃
with magnetic field 𝐵⃗ is given by

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
Special Cases for magnetic force 𝐅
 If charge 𝑞 moves parallel or anti-parallel to the direction of magnetic
field 𝐵⃗, i.e., 𝜃 = 0∘ or 𝜃 = 180∘
then
F = 0 (∵ sin 0∘ = sin 180∘ = 0)
Thus, no force is experienced by a charged particle moving parallel or
anti-parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

 If charge 𝑞 moves at right angles to the magnetic field B⃗, i.e., 𝜃 = 90∘ ,
then
=>F = 𝑞𝑣B sin 90∘
=>F = 𝑞𝑣B
Thus, the charge experiences maximum force.
 If charged particle is at rest in the magnetic field i.e., 𝑣⃗ = 0 then no
magnetic force is experienced by it.
Definition of Magnetic Field B
We know that,
F = 𝑞𝑣B sin 𝜃
i.e.,
 35 | P a g e

F
B=
𝑞𝑣sin 𝜃
where 𝑞 is the charge on a particle, 𝑣 is the velocity of the particle in
magnetic field B.
If
𝑞 = 1, 𝑣 = 1 and 𝜃 = 90∘ , then B = F
Magnetic field (B) at a point may be defined as the magnetic force
experienced by a unit charge moving with unit velocity at right angle to
the magnetic field.
Dimensional formula of magne c field,
[ Force ] [MLT ]
[B] = =
[ Charge ] × [ Velocity ] [AT] × [LT ]
= [ML T A ]
In SI, unit of magnetic field strength is tesla (T)
1N 1N
1 tesla (𝑇) = = =1Nm A
1C × 1 ms 1Am
Relation between c.g.s. unit gauss and S.I. unit tesla.
1 gauss (G) = 10 tesla (T)
Magnetic field has many properties like that of electric field 𝐸⃗ .
(i) Magnetic field 𝐵⃗ is a vector quantity like electric field 𝐸⃗ .
(ii) It has a three-dimensional (i.e., space) relevance like electric field E⃗.
(iii) It can be time dependent like electric field 𝐸⃗ .
(iv) Magnetic field 𝐵⃗ depends upon permeability 𝜇, whereas electric field
𝐸⃗ depends upon permittivity ∈ of a material. Both ∈ and 𝜇 are the
measure of the extent to which electric field or magnetic field
respectively can penetrate the materiai.
 36 | P a g e

(v) More than one magnetic fields can be added vectorially to give
resultant field. Thus, magnetic field also obeys superposition principle.
Net magnetic field strength B⃗ of many sources at a point is the vector sum
of magnetic fields due to each source say B1, B2, B3 … at that point.

𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗ + ⋯
Earth's magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10 T.

>>Lorentz force
When a charged particle having charge q moves in a region, where both
electric field E and magnetic field B exist, it experiences a net force called
Lorentz force.
Lorentz force = Force charge due to electric field + Force on charge due to
magnetic field.

𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗ + 𝐹 ⃗
Hence, Lorentz Force becomes

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞 𝐸⃗ + 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗

>>Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

placed in uniform magnetic field
Consider a current carrying conductor of length 𝑙 carrying current 𝐼 placed
in uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗.
 37 | P a g e

Let n be the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor
(electron density) and A the area of cross section of the conductor.
Then total no of free electrons in the conductor is 𝑛𝐴𝑙
Let each free electron has an average drift velocity 𝑣 ⃗ in the presence of
𝐵⃗.
Magnetic Lorentz force acting on the electron is given by

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞( 𝑣 ⃗ × 𝐵⃗)
Here, total charge on the conductor (q) = 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒

=> 𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒( 𝑣 ⃗ × 𝐵⃗)

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑒 𝑣 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛
 38 | P a g e

As we know, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑒𝑣

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝐼𝑙𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑛

Where, 𝜃 is the angle b/w 𝑙⃗ and 𝐵⃗

Direction of 𝑙⃗ is along the direction of current

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝐼 (𝑙⃗ × 𝐵⃗)

Note
 This equation holds good for a straight rod only.
 B is the external magnetic field. It is not the field produced by the
current carrying rod.

>To find the direction of the force (Fleming’s left hand rule)

Stretch the left hand such that the fore finger, central finger and the
thumb are mutually perpendicular to each other. When fore finger points
in the direction of magnetic field and central finger points in the direction
of the current then the thumb gives the direction of the force acting on
the conductor.
 39 | P a g e

For eqn. 𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞( 𝑣 ⃗ × 𝐵⃗)

 If charge particle is positive, direction of motion of charge is along
the direction of the current.
i.e. If +q moves towards right, then the current is directed towards
right.
 If charge particle is negative, direction of motion of charge is
opposite to the direction of the current.
i.e. If -q moves towards right, then the current is directed towards
left
 40 | P a g e

>>Motion of charged particle in a magnetic field

Case-1
>When motion of charged particle is parallel or anti parallel
to the magnetic field

When the particle is released from rest, it starts to move along the fields
due to application of electric field.
The magnetic force acting on a moving charged particle is given by

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞( 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗)
𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 180 = 0
If the charged particle is moving anti-parallel to the magnetic field ( 𝑣 is
anti-parallel to 𝐵⃗), then the cross product ( 𝑣 × 𝐵⃗) becomes zero. This is
because the cross product of two anti-parallel vectors is zero. Therefore,
when a charged particle moves anti-parallel to a magnetic field, the
magnetic force on the particle is zero.
 41 | P a g e

In summary, a charged particle moving parallel / anti-parallel to a

magnetic field does not feel any force because the angle between the
velocity of the particle and the magnetic field is zero or 180. When no
magnetic force acts on the particle, it continues to move in a straight line
along with constant acceleration.

Case-2
>When charge particle enters at the right angle to the
magnetic field
According to Fleming’s left hand rule, magnetic force acts perpendicular
to motion of particle (velocity). So, no work is done and no change in the
magnitude of velocity.

Force acting on the particle is given by

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
 42 | P a g e

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 90
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
This perpendicular force act as a centripetal force and produce a circular
motion perpendicular to magnetic field.
Radius of circular path
We know, Magnetic force is equal to centripetal force
𝐹=𝐹
𝑚𝑣
𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
 Radius of the circular path is directly proportional to the speed of
the particle and mass of the particle.
 It is clear that slow moving charged particle moves in a circular orbit
of small radius and a fast moving charged particle moves in a
circular orbit of a large radius.
Time period of the charged particle to complete a circle is given by
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
𝑇= = =
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣
2𝜋 𝑚𝑣 2𝜋𝑚
× =
𝑣 𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
Frequency of the charged particle,
1
𝜈=
𝑇
𝑞𝐵
𝜈=
2𝜋𝑚
 43 | P a g e

Angular frequency of the charged particle,

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
𝜔 = 2𝜋 × =
2𝜋𝑚 𝑚
Case – 3
>When they charged particle moves at an angle to the
magnetic field. (Other than 0, 90 and 180)
Consider a charged particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity 𝑣⃗ at an angle
𝜃 with the direction of magnetic field 𝐵⃗. (Along x axis)

Now 𝑣 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 is the component of the velocity 𝑣⃗ along the direction

of 𝐵⃗ and 𝑣 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃 is the component of 𝑣 is perpendicular to the
direction of 𝐵⃗.

Along x-axis (parallel to 𝐵⃗),

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 cos 𝜃 𝐵 sin 0 = 0
 44 | P a g e

As we already know that, no force acts on the change when it moves

parallel to magnetic field.
i.e. the charged particle moves with constant velocity 𝑣 cos 𝜃 along the
magnetic field.

Along y-axis (perpendicular to the 𝐵⃗)

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐹 = 𝑞 𝑣 sin 𝜃 𝐵 sin 90
𝐹 = 𝑞 (𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝐵
Since, 𝑣 sin 𝜃 is perpendicular to the 𝐵⃗,so the particle experiences a force.
Under this force charged particle tends to move in circular path in a plane
perpendicular to magnetic field.
Radius of the curvature
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑚(𝑣 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑞(𝑣 sin 𝜃)𝐵
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
Time period of particle
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣 sin 𝜃
2𝜋 𝑚𝑣 sin 𝜃 2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= × =
𝑣 sin 𝜃 𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
 45 | P a g e

Frequency of the particle,

1 𝑞𝐵
𝜈= =
𝑇 2𝜋𝑚
In fact, charge particle is under the combined effect of two components
of velocity. It moves along the direction of magnetic field due to
horizontal component (𝑣 cos 𝜃) of velocity and at the same time it moves
in circular path due to the vertical component (𝑣 sin 𝜃) of velocity. That’s
the resultant path of the particle is a helical path.
Time period is independent of velocity of the charge particle
Pitch of the helix

It is the linear/horizontal distance travelled by the charge in one rotation.

𝑝 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 × 𝑇
2𝜋𝑚
𝑝 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 ×
𝑞𝐵
 46 | P a g e

>>Velocity selector
The velocity selector is an arrangement of electric and magnetic fields. In
other words, a region where the Electric force acting a charged particle
will be equal to the magnetic field force. The arrangement of the electric
and magnetic fields is used to select a charged particle of a certain
velocity out of a beam containing charges moving with different velocities
irrespective of their mass and charges.
Let charge particle having charge 𝑞 enter region with velocity 𝑣 where
mutually perpendicular electric field and magnetic field are present.

The force acting on the charge particle due to the electric field is given by

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸
The forces acting on the particle due to 𝐸 is in the downward direction.
The force acting on the charged particle due to magnetic field is given by

𝐹 ⃗ = 𝑞( 𝑣⃗ × 𝐵⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 90 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
 47 | P a g e

This force deflects the particle in the upward direction.

Values of E and B are so selected that the electric force and magnetic
force becomes equal and opposite.
𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹 =𝐹
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵
Only those particles of the beam which move with velocity given in the
equation will pass through the slit.

>>Force b/w two infinitely long straight parallel

conductors carrying currents in same direction
Consider two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying currents 𝐼 and 𝐼
in the same direction.
Let 𝑑 be the distance of separation between these two conductors. The
current 𝐼 in the conductor (1) produces a magnetic field around it.
 48 | P a g e

The magnetic field at any point on the conductor (2) due to current 𝐼 in
conductor (1) is given by
𝜇 2I
B =
4𝜋 𝑑
The direction of B with reference to conductor (2) is perpendicular to the
plane of the conductor and is directed vertically downward (i.e. into the
paper).
We know, a current carrying conductor of length 𝑙 placed at right angle to
the magnetic field (B) experiences a force, which is given by
F = BI𝑙 sin 90
Therefore, force experienced per unit length of conductor (2) in the
magnetic field 𝐵 is given by
F
=B I
𝑙
Using equation,
F 𝜇 2I 𝜇 2I I
= I =
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑑 4𝜋 𝑑

Applying Fleming's left-hand rule to conductor (2), the direction of F is in

the plane of the conductors directed towards left (i.e. conductor (1)).
Similarly, the force experienced per unit length of conductor (1) in the
magnetic field ( 𝐵 ) due to the current carrying conductor (2) is given by
F 𝜇 2I I
=
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑑
 49 | P a g e

Applying Fleming's left-hand rule to conductor (1), the direction of F lies

in the plane of the conductors and is directed towards right (conductor
(2)).
Since 𝐹 and 𝐹 are equal and opposite, so these forces pull the two
conductors towards each other.
Hence, we conclude that two long parallel conductors carrying currents in
the same direction attract each other.

>>Force b/w two infinitely long straight parallel

conductors carrying currents in opposite direction
Similarly, consider two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying currents
𝐼 and 𝐼 in the opposite direction.
Let 𝑑 be the distance of separation between these two conductors. The
current 𝐼 in the conductor (1) produces a magnetic field around it.

The magnetic field at any point on the conductor (2) due to current 𝐼 in
conductor (1) is given by
𝜇 2I
B =
4𝜋 𝑑
 50 | P a g e

The direction of B with reference to conductor (2) is perpendicular to the

plane of the conductor and is directed into the paper.
We know, a current carrying conductor of length 𝑙 placed at right angle to
the magnetic field (B) experiences a force, which is given by
F = BI𝑙 sin 90
Therefore, force experienced per unit length of conductor (2) in the
magnetic field 𝐵 is given by
F
=B I
𝑙
Using equation,
F 𝜇 2I 𝜇 2I I
= I =
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑑 4𝜋 𝑑

Applying Fleming's left-hand rule to conductor (2), the direction of F is in

the plane of the conductors directed away from conductor (1) (towards
right).
Similarly, the force experienced per unit length of conductor (1) in the
magnetic field ( 𝐵 ) due to the current carrying conductor (2) is given by
F 𝜇 2I I
=
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑑
Applying Fleming's left-hand rule to conductor (1), the direction of F lies
in the plane of the conductors and is directed away from conductor (2).
(towards left)
Since 𝐹 and 𝐹 are equal and opposite, so these forces pull the two
conductors away each other.
Similarly, two long parallel conductors carrying current in the opposite
direction repel each other.
 51 | P a g e

Definition of ampere from force experienced by current carrying parallel

conductors.
Force experienced per meter length of conductor by two parallel infinitely
long straight conductors carrying currents I and I is given by
F 𝜇 2I I
= Nm
𝑙 4𝜋 𝑑
where 𝑑 is distance of separation between two conductors
If
𝐼𝑓 I = I = 1 ampere and 𝑑 = 1 m, then
4𝜋 × 10 2×1×1
=>F = × = 2 × 10 N m .
4𝜋 1
Thus, ampere is that value of steady current which on flowing in each
infinitely long parallel conductors of negligible cross-sectional area
separated by 1 m in vacuum causes a force of 2 × 10 N of their length.
 If both conductors carry current in the same direction, then the
magnetic field due to left conductor at a distance 𝑑/2(𝑑 = distance
between two conductor's) is equal and in opposite direction to the
magnetic field at the same distance due to right conductor.
Hence, the net magnetic field at a point exactly half-way between
two conductors is zero.
 If currents in both conductors flow in opposite direction, then the
magnetic field due to both the conductors at a point equidistant
from the conductors is equal and in the same direction.
 52 | P a g e

Hence, the net magnetic field at a point exactly half-way between

two conductors is given by
𝜇 2I 𝜇 2I
=>B = B + B = +
4𝜋 𝑑/2 4𝜋 𝑑/2
𝜇 2𝐼
=4 × .
4𝜋 𝑑
𝜇 2𝐼
=
𝜋 𝑑
>>Torque on current carrying rectangular loop placed
in uniform magnetic field
Consider a rectangular conducting loop (ABCD) of length 𝑙 and breadth 𝑏
placed in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵⃗. Let I be the current flowing in the
loop in clockwise direction. Let 𝜃 be the angle between the normal of
plane of the loop and the magnetic field 𝐵⃗.

We know, force acting on a conductor of length 𝑙 carrying current 𝐼 in the

magnetic field is given by
 53 | P a g e

F⃗ = I(𝑙⃗ × B⃗)

∴ Force acting on the arm AB of the loop, F⃗ = I(𝑙⃗ × B⃗) or F = B𝐼𝑙

Direction of 𝐹⃗ is perpendicular to the length of arm AB and directed

inside of the sheet of paper (Fleming's left-hand rule).
Similarly, force acting on the arm 𝐶𝐷 of the loop,

F ⃗ = I(𝑙⃗ × B⃗) or F = BI𝑙

𝐹⃗ is perpendicular to the length of arm CD and is directed outside the
sheet of the paper (Fleming's left-hand rule)

Force ( 𝐹⃗ ) acting on the arm BC and force 𝐹⃗ acting on the arm DA of

the loop are equal, opposite and act along the same line, hence they
cancel each other.

Therefore, only two forces 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ act on the loop. 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ form a
couple and try to rotate the loop clockwise.
 54 | P a g e

The magnitude of the torque ( 𝜏 ) due to forces 𝐹⃗ and 𝐹⃗ is given by

𝜏 = Magnitude of the either force × perpendicular distance = 𝐹 × 𝐷𝑁

= |I(𝑙⃗ × B⃗)| × DN = I(𝑙Bsin 90∘ ) × 𝑏 sin 𝜃

or
𝜏 = I(𝑙b)Bsin 𝜃
Since
(𝑙b) = A, area of the loop
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵sin 𝜃
In vector form, eqn. can be written as

𝜏⃗ = I(A⃗ × B⃗)
If the loop has 𝑁 turns, then net torque acting on the loop is
𝜏 = N𝜏 = BINA sin 𝜃
If the plane of the loop an angle 𝛼 with the magnetic field 𝐵⃗, then 𝜃 +
𝛼 = 90 or 𝜃 = 90 − 𝛼
𝜏 = BINA sin(90 − 𝛼)
𝜏 = BINA cos 𝛼
Expression for torque holds good for planar loop of any shape. It is
independent of the shape of the loop.

>>Magnetic moment of the current loop

We know,
𝑀 = 𝐼𝐴
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𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑁(𝑀⃗ × 𝐵⃗)
Direction of 𝑀⃗ is same as the direction of 𝐴⃗

>To find the direction of magnetic moment/area vector

Curl the finger along the direction of the current, thumb denotes the
direction of the magnetic moment/area vector.
Unit of magnetic moment
𝑀 = 𝐼𝐴
=> 𝐴 𝑚

>>Circular loop as a magnetic dipole

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𝜇 2𝜋IR
B=
4𝜋 (R
+𝑥 )
𝜇 IR
B=
2 (R + 𝑥 )
For 𝑥 >>> 𝑅,
𝜇 IR
𝐵=
2x
𝜇 IπR
𝐵=
2𝜋x
𝜇 𝐼𝐴
𝐵=
2𝜋x
𝜇 𝑀
𝐵=
2𝜋x
𝜇 2𝑀
𝐵= ×
4𝜋 x
Which is similar in case of electric dipole
1 2𝑝
𝐸=
4𝜋 ∈ 𝑥
 Circular current loop act as a magnetic dipole like electric dipole
behaves for short dipole or point dipole large distance.
 We can also conclude that any planar loop is equivalent to magnetic
dipole of magnetic dipole moments.
 Electric dipoles made up of 2 elementary units, i.e. electric charges
are known as electric monopoles.
 Magnetic dipole is made of 2 magnetic poles, North Pole and South
Pole, i.e. magnetic monopoles are not known to exist.
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When current flows in circular loop, magnetic field is set up around the
current loop. The circular current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. One
of the face of the loop behaves as North Pole and the other face behaves
as South Pole. The polarity of a face of circular loop is determined by
clock rule. If the current flows in the loop in anticlockwise direction, then
the face of the loop behaves as North Pole. If the current flows in the loop
in clockwise direction, then the face of the loop behaves as South Pole.

>>Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron

In an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits. The
movement of the electron in circular orbit around the nucleus in
anticlockwise is equivalent to the flow of current in the orbit in clockwise
direction. Thus, the orbit of electrons is considered as tiny current loop.
If an electron revolves in anti-clockwise direction as shown in figure, the
angular momentum vector L⃗(= 𝑟⃗ × 𝑚 𝑣⃗) acts along the normal to the
plane of orbit in upward direction and its magnitude is given by
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L
L = 𝑚 𝑣𝑟 or 𝑣𝑟 =
𝑚

where, 𝑚 is the mass of electron, 𝑣 is the velocity and 𝑟 is the radius of

orbit.
Orbital motion of electron in anticlockwise direction, is equivalent to
the flow of conventional current in clockwise direction.
𝑒
𝐼=
𝑇
where, 𝑒 is the charge on an electron and T is the period of orbital
motion.
But
2𝜋𝑟
=>T =
𝑣
𝑒 𝑒𝑣
=>I = =
2𝜋𝑟/𝑣 2𝜋𝑟
Circumference
As 𝑣 =
Time period
∴
Orbital magnetic moment of a current loop,
𝑒𝑣 𝑒𝑣𝑟
𝜇 =I×A= × 𝜋𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒
𝜇 = L (orbital mo on)
2𝑚
𝑒
𝜇⃗ = − L⃗
2𝑚
From eqn.,
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𝜇 𝑒 1.6 × 10
= = = 8.8 × 10 C kg
L 2𝑚 2 × 9.11 × 10
This constant is experimentally verified and is known as gyromagnetic
constant.
According to Bohr's quantization law, angular momentum of electrons
is given by
L=𝑛 , where 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … and ℎ is Planck's constant.

Then equation (ii) becomes 𝜇 = =𝑛

If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝜇 ( minimum ) = , which is Bohr magneton. It is also
denoted by 𝜇 . It serves as natural wuit of magnetic moment.
Bohr Magneton can be defined as the orbital magnetic moment of an
electron circulating in the innermost orbit of the atom.
𝑒ℎ 1 ⋅ 6 × 10 × 6 ⋅ 6 × 10
𝜇 = = = 9.27 × 10 Am
4𝜋𝑚 4 × 3 ⋅ 14 × 9 ⋅ 1 × 10
>>Moving coil galvanometer (MCG)
Moving coil galvanometer is a device used to detect or measure small
electric current flowing in the electric circuit.

>Principle
Moving coil galvanometer is based on the fact that when a current
carrying loop or coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a
torque, which tends to rotate the coil and produces an angular deflection.

>Construction
A moving coil galvanometer consist of a coil wound on a non-metallic
frame, usually brass. The coil is suspended between 2 poles of permanent
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magnet which are cylindrical in shape. Soft iron core is placed within the
frame of the coil. Soft iron core is very important as it makes magnetic
field radial (i.e. Plane of the coil rotating in such a field remains parallel to
the field in all positions). It also increases the strength of the magnetic
field and hence increases the sensitivity of galvanometer. Plane circular
mirror is attached to the wire to note the deflection of the coil using scale
arrangement.
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We know, Magnetic torque =

𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴
As the coil gets deflected, the spring is twisted and a restoring torque
developed in it. If k is the restoring torque per unit twist, then restoring
force for the deflection 𝜙 is given by
𝜏 = 𝑘𝜙
For equilibrium of the coil,
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 = 𝑘𝜙
𝑘𝜙
𝐼=
𝐵𝑁𝐴
𝜙∝𝐼
>Use of radial magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer
Radial magnetic field produced by the cylindrical poles of permanent
magnet of galvanometer is always parallel to the plane of the coil. Torque
produced in the coil of galvanometer is given by 𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 sin 𝜃
throughout the rotation of the coil.
For radial magnetic field, the angle between the normal to the plane of
the loop and the magnetic field is 90. Thus, when radial magnetic field is
used, the deflection of the coil is proportional to the current flowing
through it. Hence, linear scale can be used to determine the deflection of
the coil.
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>>Sensitivity of a galvanometer
A galvanometer is set to be sensitive if a small current flowing through the
coil of galvanometer produces a large deflection in it.

>>Current sensitivity
It is defined as the deflection produced in galvanometer per unit current
flowing through it.
𝜙
𝐶. 𝑆. =
𝐼
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 𝐵𝑁𝐴
𝐶. 𝑆. = =
𝑘𝐼 𝑘
A convenient way for manufacture to increase the sensitivity is to increase
the number of turns.

>>Voltage sensitivity
It is defined as the deflection produced in galvanometer per unit. Voltage
applied to it.
𝜙 𝜙
𝑉. 𝑆. = =
𝑉 𝐼𝑅
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 𝐵𝑁𝐴
𝑉. 𝑆. = =
𝑘𝐼𝑅 𝑘𝑅
>Relation between current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity
𝐶. 𝑆. = 𝑉. 𝑆.× 𝑅
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>>Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

Why galvanometer cannot be used as an ammeter directly?
 Galvanometer is very sensitive device; it gives full scale deflection for a
current in order of microamperes.
 For measuring current, the galvanometer has to be connected in series
and it has a large resistance, this will change the value of current in the
circuit.
To overcome the above difficulties, we attach a small resistance 𝑆 called
shunt resistance in parallel with the galvanometer coil so that most of the
current passes through the shunt resistance.
Let G and S be the resistance of galvanometer and shunt respectively.
Let I be the total current to be measured by ammeter in the circuit.
Let Ig be the current flowing through the galvanometer corresponding to
which galvanometer gives the full-scale deflection.
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Since G and S are in parallel, the potential difference across them is same.
𝑉 =𝑉
𝐼 𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼 )𝑆
𝐼 𝐺
𝑆=
(𝐼 − 𝐼 )
This is the required value of the shunt resistance to convert a
galvanometer into ammeter of range 0 − 𝐼 ampere.

Effective resistance of ammeter

1 1 1 𝐺+𝑆
= + =
𝑅 𝐺 𝑆 𝐺𝑆
𝐺𝑆
𝑅 =
𝐺+𝑆
If 𝐺 >>> 𝑆,
𝐺𝑆
𝑅 = =𝑆
𝐺
Thus, ammeter is a low resistance device. Resistance of an ideal ammeter
is zero

>>Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

Why galvanometer cannot be directly used to measure voltage?
 To measure the potential difference between 2 points, the
measuring device is to be connected in parallel to the circuit.
 If we connect galvanometer in parallel to the circuit, it will also draw
some current and hence the potential difference of the circuit will
change and the measurement will not be accurate.
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Let G and R be the resistance of galvanometer and a resistor connected in

series, respectively.
Let V be the potential difference to be measured by the voltmeter.
Let Ig be the current flowing in the circuit corresponding to which
galvanometer gives the full-scale deflection.

𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝐺 = 𝐼 (𝐺 + 𝑅)
𝑉
𝑅+𝐺 =
𝐼
𝑉
𝑅= −𝐺
𝐼
This is the required value of resistance which must be connected in series
to the galvanometer to convert it into voltmeter of range 0 − 𝑉 volt.
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Effective resistance of the voltmeter

𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝐺, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ
Thus, voltmeter is a high resistance device. Resistance of an ideal
voltmeter is infinity.
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