Resources, Environment and Sustainability 11 (2023) 100094

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Resources, Environment and Sustainability

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Perspective

Towards a sustainable bioeconomy in a post-oil era Nigeria

Oluwadurotimi Samuel Aworunse a,b , Honey Aanu Olorunsola a , Eze Frank Ahuekwe a ,
Olawole Odun Obembe a,b,c ,∗
a
Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
b
Plant Science Research Cluster, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
c
UNESCO Chair on Plant Biotechnology, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The bioeconomy comprises all primary arms of production, including industrial and economic sectors that
Bioeconomy employ biological resources and techniques to generate bio-based products and services, while creating
Sustainability new industries and employment. Advocates of the bioeconomy anticipate that biotechnology will play a
Post-oil era
key role in its development via scientific advances that will spur innovations in deriving products and
Nigeria
energy from renewable biomass. About 50 countries have adopted bioeconomy policies, with a view to
SDGs
unlocking new vistas for economic development and innovation, while pushing towards the attainment of
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Nigeria has an estimated annual biomass potential
of about 200 billion kilogrammes, which could be harnessed to generate biofuels via integrated bio-refineries
and microbial conversion. In addition, alternative food sources from microorganisms, aquaponics and other
products from wood, especially as a plastic alternative and medicines provide endless opportunities for a
sustainable bioeconomy in Nigeria.

1. Introduction the need for European research and innovation to concentrate on the
major challenges facing the global community, and pursue sustainable
The prehistoric era saw humans’ reliance on primary forms of solutions in priority areas related to public health, pandemics, ageing
energy resources (Ritchie et al., 2020). However, population explosion societies, climate change, security and the increasingly difficult access
and the quest to sustain the same led to significant shifts in the to cleaner energy, water and food sources (Circle, 2020). One major
magnitude and type of energy required to perform work and meet highlight of the declaration was to develop an eco-efficient European
man’s needs (Wrigley, 2013). The industrial revolution of the mid-19th economy built around renewable, biodegradable, and sustainable plant
century ushered in the use of fossil fuels. In addition to driving socio- organic matter (Lund Declaration, 2009; Bjelland, 2020). In alignment
economic and technological advancement in Europe and the United with Lund’s declaration, the idea of a bioeconomy was advanced by
States following its discovery, fossil fuels have continued to occupy prominent corporations with the backing of the EU and G7 nations.
a dominant position in the global energy market. Its large-scale uti- Bioeconomy, according to the Global Bioeconomy Summit (2020), is
lization since the mid-20th century has nevertheless brought along the conservation, production, utilization, and regeneration of biore-
with it negative consequences (Ritchie et al., 2020). The combustion sources, in addition to allied technologies, science, knowledge, and
of fossil fuels to generate energy contributes up to 80% of greenhouse innovation to proffer lasting solutions across and within all economic
gas emissions (GHG), and elevates global warming which is disrupting sectors, and facilitate a transformation to a sustainable economy. Ad-
crucial plant nutrient cycles, steering biodiversity loss, and causing vocates of the bioeconomy concept anticipate that biotechnology will
ruins to agricultural crop productivity (Perea-Moreno et al., 2020). The make major contributions to its development via innovations in deriv-
situation is projected to worsen with the rising human population that ing products and energy from renewable biomass (Bracco et al., 2018;
is predicted to reach 9 billion by the year 2050 (Roe et al., 2019), Befort, 2020).
hence the need to replace fossil fuels with more efficient, renewable, In line with their respective political pursuits, the US, the EU, and
and safer energy sources. For instance, the transformation of land several international bodies have individually designed comprehen-
use for bioenergy, forestry, agriculture, and wetlands could contribute sive blueprints and adopted the bioeconomy as a viable approach for
approximately 30% of the greenhouse gas mitigation required by 2050 unlocking new prospects for economic development and innovation,
(Roe et al., 2019). The Lund declaration of July 8, 2009, spotlighted as well as achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) (FAO,

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (O.O. Obembe).

[Link]
Received 8 June 2022; Received in revised form 29 September 2022; Accepted 1 October 2022
Available online 15 November 2022
2666-9161/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Lishui Institute of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing University. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
O.S. Aworunse, H.A. Olorunsola, E.F. Ahuekwe et al. Resources, Environment and Sustainability 11 (2023) 100094

unavoidable, viable and sustainable alternative of bioeconomy becomes

desirable (Sariatli, 2017). The term bioeconomy in the 1980’s, was
used to depict a solar energy-driven sustainable economy, which fits
within the confines of ecology without the permanent contriant to grow
(Gawel et al., 2019). In the 1990s, a redefintion of the bioeconomy
was advanced. It was described as an ‘‘economic sector that makes use
of new biological knowledge for industrial and commercial purposes’’
(Gawel et al., 2019). This definition, alongside the corresponding es-
tablishment of the 2002 Strategy on Biotechnology sets the stage for
the ‘‘Knowledge-based Bioeconomy’’ (KBBE) in 2005 (Gawel et al.,
2019). A conference report of the European Commission (EC) defined
the KBBE as a sustainable economy built around renewable resources,
which would not only contribute to developing more ecologically safe
production systems and expanding the frontiers of science (Birner,
2018), but also assure the availability of resources during periods of
shrinking oil supplies (Gawel et al., 2019). More recently, the European
Commission (2018) defined the bioeconomy as an economy that uses
renewable biological resources from the land and sea (e.g., animals,
crops, fish, forests and microorganisms) to produce energy, food and
Fig. 1. Bioeconomy sectors (Woźniak and Twardowski, 2018). materials (D’Adamo et al., 2022). Modern bioeconomy should not focus
only on biomass and substitution of fossil fuels with sustainable and
renewable alternatives, but should be targeted towards ‘‘biologisation’’
of the economy via disruptive innovations that convert bioresources
2018; Heimann, 2019; Pandey, 2021). While South Africa boasts of a into food, feed, products, and services that integrate sustainability
clearly defined bioeconomy plan, Nigeria is still lagging behind, despite (Global Bioeconomy Summit, 2020). Globally, over 50 countries now
an abundance of biomass resources. have bioeconomy-related initiatives (Aguilar et al., 2019). In 2014,
This perspective article discusses the bioeconomy as an emerg- about USD 2 trillion worth of bio-based foods, fuels, and products
ing paradigm, with biotechnology contributing a major role. It also were shipped, accounting for 13% of global commerce, up from 10%
highlights the contributions of the bioeconomy to the economies of in 2007 (El-Chichakli et al., 2016). Many poor and middle-income
developed and developing nations. Furthermore, the paper looks at the nations are beginning to adopt the bioeconomy as an approach to
current state of Africa’s bioeconomy, with special focus on Nigeria, and unlock new prospects for economic growth and for achieving the
then highlights how Nigeria can leverage technological innovations and United Nations’ SDGs (FAO, 2018). A sustainable bioeconomy therefore
its abundant biomass resources to foster a transition to bioeconomy in must emphasize the use of resources as long and as efficiently as
a post-oil era. possible, with minimal or reused waste, leading to the concept of a
‘‘circular bioeconomy’’ (CE) (Stratan, 2017; Ranjbari et al., 2022). The
2. Biotechnology as the foundation of the bioeconomy recognition that the bioeconomy is to a great degree coupled to cir-
cularity was reinforced by the concept of ‘‘circular bioeconomy’’(CBE).
The bioeconomy entails the large-scale application of biotechnol- This laid the foundation for the European Commission’s vision of the
ogy (Aguilar et al., 2019). Breakthroughs including DNA sequencing, bioeconomy, which incoporates the idea of renewability, sustainability,
high-throughput molecular operations, the capacity to read genetic and circularity, with a view to cut back on waste, while advancing
codes, modify genomes and metabolic pathways to develop organisms towards a closed-loop economy (Ranjbari et al., 2022). Policy makers
with wholly synthetic genomes, and nanotechnology have significantly
in the European Union (EU) have tipped the concept of sustainable
increased the possibility of biotechnology to drive the bioeconomy
development and CBE as high priority models that can expedite the
(Frisvold et al., 2021). Biotechnology, which in terms of revenue is
attainment of the United Nations sustainable development goals (SDGs)
worth more than USD 300 billion, has become one of the core tech-
(Kardung et al., 2021; D’Adamo and Sassanelli, 2022). The CBE or bio-
nologies for supporting a new green and sustainable bioeconomy,
based CE is built around the efficient and sustainable valorization of
with solutions for a wide range of sectors, including energy, envi-
biomass (Ranjbari et al., 2022) via integrated and multiple product
ronment, agri-food, and circular economy. As a result, biotechnology
production chains, while utilizing waste and optimizing biomass value
offers potential for long-term economic growth through job creation,
over time through cascades (Rodríguez, 2022). Being a carbon neutral
maintaining living standards, energy generation, and new bio-products
renewable energy source of plant or animal origin, biomass has been
development (Aguilar et al., 2009). The bioeconomy also encompasses
widely investigated by scholars within the context of the establishment
the traditional sectors of the economy which produce services and
bio-products using biotechnologies (Woźniak and Twardowski, 2018) of a CE and CBE. Consequently, a broad knowledge by key players of
(Fig. 1). the benefits of biomass utility and its implications along the entire value
chain is a prerequisite for a successful transition towards a CBE (Ran-
3. Recent trends in bioeconomy jbari et al., 2022). Biorefineries, which are facilities for transforming
different biomass feedstocks to a sundry of high premium bio-based
It is now recognized that the traditional linear economy model, products are pivotal to the establishment of the bioeconomy (Ranjbari
which relies on the unsustainable utilization of non-renewable fossil- et al., 2022). The generation of biofuels and other materials from food
fuel resources and allied products poses a risk to the environment and waste-based biorefineries has been touted as an avenue to combat
societies due to adverse consequences such as ecosystems degradation the problems of resource scarcity, climate change, price volatility and
and climate change (Bracco et al., 2018). Established on the take- increasing demand (Ranjbari et al., 2022). By incorporating waste en-
make-dispose model, the linear economy is less efficient at resource gineering processes into city designing, Europe’s HOOP project (https:
exploitation, and generates high levels of waste. Current economic //[Link]/) is converting urban bio-waste and wastewater into
and environmental trends have evidently displayed that the blueprint bio-based products, and transforming cities into urban CBE centers
of the linear economy has reached its tipping point. Therefore, an (Global Bioeconomy Summit, 2020).

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O.S. Aworunse, H.A. Olorunsola, E.F. Ahuekwe et al. Resources, Environment and Sustainability 11 (2023) 100094

Table 1
Outcomes of the bioeconomy on the SDGs.
SDG Description Effect of bioeconomic activities on SDGs References
1 No poverty Socio-economic outcomes. The agricultural product market and agricultural output Heimann (2019);
are generally affected by the bioeconomy through advances in the areas of plant and El-Chichakli et al. (2016)
animal breeding, farming and cultivation techniques, food shelf-life extension and
2 No hunger revival of indigenous crops.
3 Good health and wellbeing Socio-economic outcomes. Good health and wellbeing are affected by investments into Heimann (2019)
biotechnology research driven by bioeconomic concepts. In 2009, about 80% of the
biotechnology research investments by public and private sectors were recorded in medical
and pharmaceutical applications.
6 Sanitation and clean water Ecological outcomes related to SDGs 13,14 and 15 Heimann (2019)
7 Clean and affordable Industrial and economic outcomes related to SDGs 9 and 12. Heimann (2019)
energy
8 Economic growth and Socio-economic outcomes. The job market is affected by the bioeconomy through Heimann (2019)
decent work innovations that lead to value addition, commercialization and industrialization
9 Infrastructure and Industry
Industrial and economic outcomes. SDGs 7, 9, and 12 consider the production of energy
innovation
goods from biological sources, which consequently, relates to the sustainable utilization of Heimann (2019)
12 Responsible production
global bio-based resources.
and consumption
13 Climate action Ecological outcomes. SDGs 6, 13, 14, 15 are affected by the bioeconomy, as they
14 Life below water incorporate the effects of agricultural and industrial activities on water, oceans, land and Heimann (2019)
15 Life on land the atmosphere.

Only few industries have adopted a manufacturing model that ef- 5. Economic impacts of the bioeconomy in the EU, US and Asia
ficiently and effectively utilize materials and energy. It therefore be-
comes crucial to assess and measure the circularity performances of In alignment with the SDGs, the bioeconomy is being adopted as
manufacturing systems. By assessing resource flows, it is possible to a viable approach to unlock new opportunities for economic growth,
devise solutions to attenuate environmental impact and while simul- employment, promotion of value addition to bioresources, food and
taneously boosting economic savings. The CE does not connote only energy security, sustainability and climate change mitigation (FAO,
system optimization and industrial symbiosis, but also life cycle opti- 2018), with well over 50 countries now having bioeconomy-related
mization. With respect to a ‘‘self-sustaining economy’’, it is imperative blueprints (Aguilar et al., 2019). The Finnish government published a
to work at single product- and system level at the same time, with the success story of its bioeconomy in 2014 and showed that it exceeded
objective of analysing in detail, the single resource flow and single EUR 60 billion, contributed more than 16% to the country’s gross
production phase. This way, it will be possible to identify where domestic product (GDP), and created more than 300,000 jobs. The
improvements are. For this reason, a quantitative analysis model must objective of Finland’s Bioeconomy Strategy is to increase the output
be proposed with the aim of keeping the product as the main subject of its bioeconomy to EUR 100 billion and create 100,000 new jobs by
of the analysis with regards to the CE, and to determine the degree of 2025 ([Link]
circularity (Sassanelli et al., 2019). In their work, Acerbi et al. (2022) Bioeconomy_Strategy_110620141.pdf). Likewise, Germany’s overall
conceptualized a reference data model to aid the process of decision- bioeconomy sector revenue was EUR 386 billion in 2015, ranking first
making by manufacturers while adopting circular manufacturing (CM). among EU member states, with 1.96 million people employed. A report
According to the authors, the model creates and increases the con- by the United States’ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,
sciousness of manufacturers about data needed to adopt CM, and at the and Medicine (NASEM), examined data and methods to evaluate the
same time prompts responsiveness regarding the need to deploy both contributions of the bioeconomy to the US economy in general. The
external and internal data to achieve sucesss. Armed with this broad direct contribution to GDP was estimated (based on 2016 data) to
perspective, manufacturers are acquainted with the kind of data needed be USD 402.5 billion. However, including indirect contribution and
in CM, how the unavailability of specific data can negatively affect the induced multiplier effects, the total contribution of the bioeconomy
circularity of resources, and how resources from external systems can to US GDP was estimated to be nearly a trillion dollars (USD 952.2
be utilized where information are available. billion) (NASEM, 2020). Argentina’s bioeconomy accounted for 15.4%
of its GDP in 2012, with a total value-added revenue of about USD
4. Bioeconomy and the SDGs 72.6 million (FAO, 2018). As of December 2015, the bioeconomy trans-
formation project initiated by the Malaysian government contributed
The bioeconomy is a crucial component for connecting and em- RM 5.97 billion (USD 1.4) to the gross national income, and created
powering people towards achieving the SDGs. Sustainable development RM18.21 billion (USD 4.1) worth of investments, in addition to 23,355
is the development that fulfils the needs of the present generation jobs (Arujanan and Singaram, 2018).
without endangering the capacity of future generations to meet their
own needs (Brundtland Report, 1987, [Link] 6. Current state of bioeconomy in Africa
[Link]). The three primary aspects to sustainable de-
velopment: environment, society and economy are well articulated An analysis by Oguntuase and Adu (2021) on the state of bioe-
in the SDGs global framework, launched by the United Nations in conomy development in Africa revealed that Kenya is ahead of other
2015, and have become important indicators in the strive towards African countries in terms of people in research and development (R&D).
sustainable development (Kardung et al., 2021). The work of Heimann Tunisia is next to Kenya in this category and performed better than
(2019) identified SDGs 1 to 3, 6 to 9, and 12 to 15 to be affected South Africa. Mauritania, Lesotho, Liberia, Chad, and Congo are the
by bioeconomy activities. The author summarized the outcomes of the least performers in this group. With respect to biomass production,
bioeconomy on the SDGs into three categories of: ecological, industrial Gambia occupies the top spot. Other countries in the top ten are
and economic, and socio-economic dimensions (Table 1). Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo, and

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Tanzania. The least performers in this categorization are Algeria, the world, except for Malaysia, Indonesia, Columbia and Thailand
Mauritania, Egypt and Chad. South Africa leads Kenya, Mauritius, (Anyaoha and Zhang, 2022). According to Sadhukhan et al. (2018), one
Rwanda and Morocco in investments in research and technology. Chad, tonne of crude palm oil (CPO) can generate nine tonnes of biomass.
Lesotho, Liberia, and Congo followed Mauritania in terms of least Therefore, Nigeria could leverage its oil palm industry as a major
investment in R&D. African countries performed poorly under the supplier of bio-based products to support a sustainable bioeconomy.
institutional arrangements category. Mauritania, Chad, Lesotho, and The blending of palm oil into petroleum-derived diesel could open new
Liberia occupied the bottom position in institutional arrangements, opportunities for socio-economic growth in the rural areas. The use
production determinants, people in R&D and investment in R&D. In of this mid-term option, together with pyrolysis, upgrading to drop-in
terms of preparedness to adopt the bioeconomy, South Africa, Kenya, biofuel and purification of biogas to serve as compressed natural gas,
Mauritius, Rwanda, and Morocco occupy the top spot. A number of could improve the livelihood of poor populations (Sadhukhan et al.,
African countries possess abundant biomass resources, but are poorly 2018). The estimated worth of Nigeria’s food industry was about NGN
equipped to adopt the bioeconomy, when compared with countries 1 trillion in 2016 (Ezeudu and Ezeudu, 2019). Given the country’s
from Asia, Europe and America. This is primarily attributed to poor weak power infrastructure, huge amounts of food prepared by these
government funding of R&D, shortage of technicians and researchers industries cannot be preserved for a long time and as such, must be
in R&D, inadequate or absence of cutting-edge technologies, lethargic consumed almost immediately. This suggests that an enormous quantity
industrial production processes, poor industry-university partnership, of food is possibly wasted within this industry, thus generating gigantic
and weak institutional arrangements, particularly in the quality of organic waste materials that are predominantly disposed of alongside
infrastructure and rule of law. Strategies for promoting Africa’s bioe- municipal solid waste in many cities (Ezeudu and Ezeudu, 2019).
conomy must focus on targeted spending to assist R&D initiatives, Food waste, lignocellulosic waste, among other organic substrates, have
establishment of an effective innovation system, improved education, been widely exploited as feedstock for anaerobic digestion as it allows
and developing markets to boost competitiveness. Increasing foreign the recovery of value-added products such as new foods, nutrient-
investment in the bioeconomy sector will also enhance general gov- rich fertilizer products, in addition to ethanol, methane, hydrogen,
ernance, infrastructure quality, and the rule of law (Oguntuase and and biodiesel production (Banks et al., 2011; Aghbashlo et al., 2019;
Adu, 2021). Incomplete datasets and nonavailability of comparable Tabatabaei et al., 2020; Tsegaye et al., 2021; Ranjbari et al., 2022;
data remain major limitations in Africa. In the absence of quality data, Adebowale et al., 2022). Each of the bioprocesses like acidogenesis,
it is difficult to formulate good strategies and scale up innovations for methanogenesis and fermentation involved in the biorefinery approach
sustainable bioeconomy on the continent (Oguntuase and Adu, 2021). for food waste requires optimization to produce a number of bio-based
products in order to expedite transition from a linear economy to
7. Outlook on Nigeria’s bioeconomy a CBE (Ranjbari et al., 2022). However, the challenges of bio-waste
valorization centres on the technique, formulating government policies
According to a recent analysis, Nigeria earned more revenue from and support for R&D, adoption of high-end technologies to produce
non-oil sources in 2016, which amounted to NGN 602.19 billion (53% products with competitive edge, and the deployment of industrial-scale
of total revenue) than it did from oil earnings of NGN 433 billion facilities (Ranjbari et al., 2022).
(47% of total revenue) for the first time since 1971 (Burns and Owen, Whereas, biomass offers enormous opportunities to deliver energy
2019). Many studies have already identified Nigeria’s emerging shift and multiple products (Awasthi et al., 2020), experts have identified
away from oil as its political and economic base, pointing to a swiftly problematic issues such as emissions, costs, deforestation and season-
approaching post-oil future. Few recognize, however, that this future ality to be associated with its usage. Biomass fuels from plants, wood
has already occurred; Nigeria is and has been in a post-oil era for some and waste contain a substantial proportion of bound nitrogen (Nevena
years (Burns and Owen, 2019). The implication of this is that, as Nige- et al., 2021). High amounts of potassium, inorganic sulphides and other
ria attempts to diversify its economy, it would witness a much lesser inorganic elements have also been reported in some biomass (Wang
dependence on the oil sector and create more employment (Obembe, et al., 2012; Nevena et al., 2021). The transformation and emission
2021). As such, a knowledge-driven, and sustainable bioeconomy has of oxides of these constituents, particulate matter and volatile organic
a major role to play in this regard. compounds lead to various operational problems during biomass con-
Considered as a major emerging alternative to fossil fuel resources, version processes, thus hindering further deployment as combustion
biomass can deliver multiple products and energy. As a result, biore- fuels (Sadhukhan et al., 2018; Bamwesigye et al., 2020; Ubando et al.,
fineries are vital to supporting a knowledge-driven and environmen- 2021). The operational problems are particularly exacerbated during
tally safe sustainable bioeconomy, which mitigates global warming the combustion of biomass fuels derived from the agricultural sector,
and climate change (Awasthi et al., 2020). Moreover, biomass carbon contaminated wastes materials and residues from bio-refinery and food
sequestration is an imperative net zero-carbon energy resource whose processing plants. Furthermore, emissions from biomass combustion
efficient use is crucial to accomplishing many of the SDGs. Biomass have been shown to have deleterious impacts on both the respiratory
could generate an estimated 3000-terawatt hour (TWh) of electricity and cardiovascular systems, as well as cause urban smog and acidifi-
by the year 2050 and save 1.3 billion tons of CO2 equivalent emission cation (Sadhukhan et al., 2018; Bamwesigye et al., 2020). A variety of
annually (Antar et al., 2021). With an annual biomass potential of procedures including application of additives, utilization of autotrophic
about 200 billion kilogrammes, Nigeria could harness agricultural and microbes, fuel mixing and leaching out of unwanted components prior
forest resources, crop residues, and municipal wastes as a possible to combustion have been demonstrated to be efficient at mitigating
feedstock for the sustainable production of bioethanol and biodiesel the different emission related issues during biomass combustion (Wang
through integrated biorefineries and microbial conversion for the CBE et al., 2012; Nevena et al., 2021). The low density of biomass raises
(Ben-Iwo et al., 2016; Verla et al., 2021; Adeyemi-Kayode et al., 2022). the cost of collection, handling, transport and storage along its supply
The pyrolysis of wood biomass to produce biochar could create more chain (Rentizelas et al., 2009; Nunes et al., 2020). To overcome this
employment, and serve as a source of income for rural dwellers, owing problem, processing can be executed at any phase of the supply chain,
to high demand as an energy source. The biochar market was worth but prior to transportation, thereby reducing total cost and improving
USD 1.3 billion in 2018 and is expected to reach USD 3.5 billion by output. More so, densification increases biomass density and eases
2025. Additionally, the global wood pellet market is anticipated to logistic operations while reducing transport cost and risk of biomass
grow from USD 10.5 billion in 2019 to USD 24 billion in 2025 (Oni deterioration. Storage is another key stage of the biomass logistic
et al., 2019). In 2018, Nigeria’s palm oil production reached one million chain. The main risks during this stage remains quality degradation
tonnes, an amount that was higher than those of other countries around and dry matter losses. An appropriate choice of the storage system,

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O.S. Aworunse, H.A. Olorunsola, E.F. Ahuekwe et al. Resources, Environment and Sustainability 11 (2023) 100094

proximity to field/forest and biomass storage period can minimize and develop new crops, or new varieties of existing crops that can
problems that may arise during this stage. Public storage facilities cope on marginal lands or even wastelands, while optimizing biomass
offer the advantages of reduced cost, financial flexibility and superior yield (Bosch and Hazen, 2013). Attempts should be made, under field
expertise in operational and management capabilities (Nunes et al., conditions, to select crops that generate maximum quantity of biomass
2020). The frequent use of biomass in the form of wood fuel, such as for biofuel commercialization (Antar et al., 2021). To improve biomass
firewood or biochar by industries and households could plunge forests yield in the residues of food crops or in biomass crops at the level
into degradation due to felling of trees. While wood and charcoal may needed to sustain a bioeconomy, gene or gene clusters that mediate spe-
drive socio-economic activities, they are also major contributors to cific metabolic pathways involved in the production of biomass could
deforestation and biodiversity loss (Bamwesigye et al., 2020). Besides, be modulated to allow efficient allocation of soil resources, enhanced
research on the gains of biochar remains significantly arguable, despite level of photosynthetic activity and alteration of plant canopy struc-
its promising potential uses (Ranjbari et al., 2022). Therefore, it be- ture to improve fluence interception. In this regard, the CRISPR-Cas9
comes crucial to explore alternative sources of energy to dampen the (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR-
pressure on biodiversity and deforestation, while meeting increasing associated protein 9) gene editing technology has gained tremendous
energy demands due to population growth and urbanization. (Bamwe- popularity due its ease of deployment and economic consideration as
sigye et al., 2020). Agriculture and forest biomass are typified by their a low-cost technique (Prasetya and Nugroho, 2021). Through the over-
seasonality due to weather condition, time of harvest, the need for expression of the TaEDR1 gene, the CRISPR-Cas9 technology was used
replanting on the field and afforestation. These lead to considerable sea- produce rice resistant to powdery mildew, thus leading to improved
sonal requirement for resources, equipment and workforce, alongside yield and quality (Zhang et al., 2017). The successful application of
increased cost of obtaining resources. The difficulties introduced by the system to improve genetic traits in several food crops including
biomass seasonality can be minimized by utilizing multiple feedstocks rice, Brassica species, sorghum, maize and wheat, shows promise for
with different periods of harvest. The application of two different cross-application to improve biomass production (Zhang et al., 2017;
biomass sources, instead of one, can reduce cost by 15% to 20% (Nunes Prasetya and Nugroho, 2021) in energy crops like Jatropha, which
et al., 2020). is abundant in Nigeria. Modifying the expression of target gene(s)
The Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt.) cotton and Bt. cowpea recently re- that control the uptake, assimilation and transport of phosphorus and
leased for commercialization in Nigeria could contribute excellently nitrogen is a feasible approach to enhance their use efficiency for
to the development of the bioeconomy. Other opportunities include sustainable food production and biomass (Cao et al., 2017; Jaganathan
innovation in future foods (such as insects, cultured meat, myco- et al., 2018). The CRISPR-Cas9 system could also be coupled with tissue
proteins, chlorella and spirulina) with high dry-matter protein and culture techniques via transformation and regeneration. The abundant
microbial community associated with plants known as the plant mi-
essential nutrients compared to plant- and animal-based foods. Protein-
crobiome can significantly boost plant growth and enhance biomass
dense biomass can also be manufactured through direct capture of
accumulation (Arif et al., 2020). Most plant-microbiome research has
CO2 from the air using hydrogen oxidizing microbes and renew-
been directed towards enhancing yield and disease resistance in food
able electricity in a closed system, independent of local climate. This
crops, with rare consideration for energy crops (Antar et al., 2021).
technology can achieve a protein yield per unit area that is several
Exploitation of the phtyomicrobiome represents a promising strategy
orders higher than that of soybean, with about one-tenth of water use.
to stimulate plant growth and development through direct and in-
Being a major contributor to Africa’s aquaculture production, Nigeria
direct mechanisms that leads to biomass accumulation, particularly
can leverage technological innovations in aquaponics to transform its
under unfavourable conditions. For instance, microbiome modulation
horticultural sector, enhance sustainable food production and diversify
via inoculation with a consortium of plant growth-promoting rhizobac-
exports using the CBE concepts. Aquaponics is already contributing
teria (PGPR) can enhance plant biomass yield, plant development and
to the production of fresh, high-quality vegetables and fish protein in
mitigate abiotic stresses. Manipulating the plant holobiont (symbiotic
Egypt and Kenya (Obirikorang et al., 2021). In Nigeria, indigenous
microbial communities that cooperatively exist internally in plants
vegetables such as fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) is primarily
(endosphere), on leaves (phyllosphere) and externally on roots (rhi-
exploited for medicine, food, animal fodder and as a potential export
zosphere)) via microbiome engineering is a potential biotechnological
commodity. The work of Oladimeji et al. (2020) demonstrated that
approach to improve yield and resilience in energy crops. Microbes
fluted pumpkin yield in aquaponics system was about five times and
and microbial enzymes better suited for biomass conversion can be
eleven times higher than in irrigated and non-irrigated lands, respec- developed and applied to genetically modify biomass crops to reduce
tively. Additionally, fish production in the aquaponics system was energy and economic costs associated with processing and production
75% and 29% more efficient than static aquaculture and recircula- (Antar et al., 2021). With the promotion of resource recovery, more
tory systems, respectively. Nigeria’s abundant wood (lignocellulosic) attention should be directed towards improving the economic viability,
biomass offers new prospects for the sustainable production of next- cost effectiveness, control process stability, foaming control and buffer
generation of high-performance bioplastics (Xia et al., 2021; Chen capacity of biorefinery technologies for the production of energy from
et al., 2022), wood-plastic composites ([Link] biomass and organic waste (Ranjbari et al., 2022).
we-do/expertises/wood-based-materials-and-products), wood-derived
polyphenols and hydrogels for targeted and controlled drug-delivery Conclusion and recommendations
platforms (Stevanovic et al., 2009; Culebras et al., 2021).
Considering that biotechnology plays a key role in contributing to
8. Direction for future research the modern bioeconomy, the recommendations highlighted by Obe-
mbe (2010) in our opinion are still relevant to the establishment of
It is crucial to develop and deploy sustainable biomass production a Nigerian bioeconomy. These include: (i) aggressive and deliberate
methods to allow the establishment of a flourishing bioeconomy (Antar awareness strategies concerning biotechnology vis-à-vis the potential
et al., 2021). An in-depth investigation of a wide range of crop plants benefits in the context of a bioeconomy; (ii) revisiting policy frame-
to unravel metabolic pathways that underpins biomass accumulation work for education in Nigeria to trigger young people’s interest in
using diverse ‘omics’ technologies could enhance our current vis-à-vis science and technology at the primary secondary levels. More so,
regarding their production and utilization within the context of the there is need to redesign curricula at the tertiary level to incorporate
bioeconomy (Antar et al., 2021). Energy generation in the foreseeable biotechnology courses as an essential component. This aligns with other
future, will require enormous amounts of biomass (Antar et al., 2021). perspectives that the manpower development for the nation’s bioecon-
Consequently, modern genetic techniques would be required to select omy sector should not be through workshop and seminars, but long

5
O.S. Aworunse, H.A. Olorunsola, E.F. Ahuekwe et al. Resources, Environment and Sustainability 11 (2023) 100094

term trainings (iii) establishment of infrastructures for low- and high- renewable products (Issa et al., 2019). The time has come for Nigeria
end techniques such as genome editing, tissue culture, and genome to develop its own indigenous technologies for biomass conversion
sequencing, as well as analyses for the Universities, while increas- and biofuel production from its abundant lignocellulosic resources.
ing funding for bioeconomy research, development, and innovation Huge investments into biomass storage and logistics facilities are also
(R&D/I); (iv) basic and applied research on key enabling technologies, needed. It may be required to raise awareness about the relevance of
as well as strengthening links between science and business through biofuels, and promote an appropriate business climate for domestic
interdisciplinary co-operation between universities, research institutes, and foreign investors (Adewuyi, 2020). Nigeria must establish her own
and industries should be encouraged; (v) making available, motivation bioeconomic agenda to suit its unique circumstances, capacities and
and incentives, with a view to retaining highly skilled manpower and requirements, while recognizing possibilities and involving key players
to make overseas-trained human resources return home. Transition to in her many sectors (Obembe, 2021).
a bioeconomy requires well-trained workers with specific knowledge,
skills and competencies needed for the sustainable utilization of bio- Declaration of competing interest
based resources in consumer production and manufacturing. This will
require establishing centres of excellence, multidisciplinary approaches The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
that highlights systems thinking, tactical planning and assessing socio- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
economic, environmental performance, and a knowledge of current influence the work reported in this paper.
technologies and local specifics (El-Chichakli et al., 2016); (vi) mas-
sive investment in broadband information technology infrastructure, Acknowledgement
which is critical to enhancing knowledge transfer and applications;
(vii) establishment of specialized biotechnology centres of excellence in The authors wish to acknowledge Covenant University Centre for
order to ensure capacity building in priority areas; (viii) establishment Research, Innovation, and Discovery (CUCRID), Nigeria for covering
of collaborative technology park/ventures/incubators with the private the cost of publishing this article.
sector to ensure that biotech products reach the market; (ix) fostering
of international linkages and partnership, and attraction of foreign References
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