ARSI UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCE

Effect of Intra Row Spacing on Growth Yield and Yield component of Garlic
(Allium sativum L.) in Arsi University

ADVISOR FIKADU L

A submitted to Arsi University College of Agriculture and Environmental

Science Department of Plant Science in Partial Fulfillments of the Requirement
for the Course Senior Research project (Plsc 471).

PREPARDE BY: Group of Members

Name...................................................................... [Link]

1. CHAL JEMAL.........................................11442/14
2. ERKO CHALA.......................................11200/13
3. TSION TEKA.........................................13001/14

May, 2025

Asella , ETHIOPIA
Acknowledgement

First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty Allah for granting me the strength, health, and
determination to complete this research project successfully. I am highly indebted to my
academic advisor, [Advisor's Full Name], for their constant support, valuable guidance,
constructive feedback, and encouragement throughout the period of this study. Their expertise
and mentorship have been instrumental in contributing to the quality of this research.

I also thank the faculties and staff of Arsi University, College of Agriculture and Environmental
Sciences, for permitting the facilities, materials, and technical services that enabled the field
experiment to be carried out successfully. My special thanks are extended to my family members
and friends for their moral support and encouragement throughout my study period.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all individuals directly or indirectly who assisted me in
this research. Your support is highly valued and will never be ignored.
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CVR Crop variety register
CSA Central statistical agency
FAO Food Agricultural organization
CACC Central Agricultural Census Commission
RCBD Random complete block design
CV Coefficient of variation
LSD List significance difference
ANOVA Analysis of variance
SAS Statistical analysis software
Abstract

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a highly valued spice and medicinal crop widely cultivated in
Ethiopia, particularly by smallholder farmers in the highlands. Despite its economic and
nutritional value, garlic productivity in Ethiopia remains low, mainly attributed to inefficient
agronomic practices, including inappropriate plant spacing. The study was conducted to evaluate
the effect of different intra-row spacing levels on growth performance and yield components of
garlic under the agro-ecological conditions of Asella District, Oromia Regional State, Arsi
University.

The field test was carried out during the 2017 E.C. dry season under irrigation. There were four
intra-row spacings of 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm, and 12 cm imposed in Randomized Complete Block
Design (RCBD) with three replications. The local variety 'Gojame' of garlic was used, and the
standard agronomic practices were applied uniformly to all the treatments. Measurements were
recorded on key growth traits such as plant height, leaves per plant, leaf length, and leaf area and
yield traits such as bulb diameter, bulb weight, and number of bulbs per hectare. Statistical
analysis was carried out using SAS program and mean separation was performed using Least
Significant Difference (LSD) test at 5% level.

The results showed that spacing within a row had a profound effect on vegetative and yield-
related traits. The greater spacing (10 cm and 12 cm) increased vegetative traits such as leaf
number, leaf area, and bulb diameter due to the reduced competition. However, maximum total
yield was obtained with the 10 cm spacing treatment (7.21 t/ha), thereby representing the best
compromise between plant density and effectiveness of resource utilization. The nearest spacing
(6 cm) produced higher number of plants per unit area but smaller bulbs and lower marketable
yield.

Lastly, the study recommends a 10 cm intra-row spacing as the optimal level of spacing that will
result in maximum optimization of garlic growth and production under Arsi University
environmental conditions. The farmers cultivating garlic in the same agro-ecological zones can
adopt this as a means of maximizing productivity and generating more income. Further research
is suggested to examine spacing interaction with clove size and fertilizer application.

Keywords: Garlic, Intra-row spacing, Bulb yield, Vegetative growth, Plant density, Ethiopia
1.1 Background

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is one of the most worldwide cultivated and utilized spice crops,
belonging to Alliaceae. Garlic is utilized not only for its characteristic flavor and smell in
cooking but also for its well-documented medicinal merits such as antibacterial, antifungal,
antiviral, and cardiovascular actions. The bioactive constituents allicin present in garlic are
accountable for its medicinal effects. Around the world, nations such as China, India, and Egypt
are major producers, with garlic making a greater contribution to home food security and
income.

Garlic in Ethiopia occupies a special place in the traditional diet where it is utilized to flavor
sauces, stews, and other traditional foods. It is also utilized in local medicine to treat numerous
diseases such as colds, high blood pressure, and gastrointestinal diseases. The crop is
predominantly produced by small-scale farmers in mid- to high-altitude areas, particularly under
the irrigation and rain-fed systems during the cool season.

Despite its significance and nutritional value, garlic production in Ethiopia is not close to its
potential. The average production in the country is low due to several factors of production that
incorporate the use of low-yielding local varieties, inefficient management of pests and diseases,
low fertilizer application, and wrong agronomic practices. Of these factors, the most vital
limiting factor impacting garlic growth, development, and production is improper spacing.

Intra-row spacing, or the distance between plants in a row, has a significant effect on competition
among basic growth needs such as light, water, and nutrients. Overcrowding, particularly under
intense planting, results in reduced growth and inhibited bulb formation due to increased
competition. Conversely, over-allotment of space would lead to inefficient use of land as well as
lower overall yield per unit area. Therefore, the identification of optimal intra-row spacing is
important to maintain a balance between plant density and resource utilization to boost yield and
productivity in the long run.

To this end, there is a need to evaluate the effect of different intra-row spacings on garlic growth
and yield performance. This research was designed to be conducted under the particular agro-
ecological conditions of Arsi University, Asella District, where garlic is continuously produced.
The outcomes of this research are expected to provide useful suggestions for farmers and
agriculture extension staff who aim to improve the production of garlic through improved
spacing management.
1.2 Problem Statement

Garlic is a crop of great economic, nutritional, and medicinal value in Ethiopia and globally. It
has ever-increasing demand due to its wide application in food preparation, traditional medicine,
and industrial processing. Its productivity in Ethiopia, however, is low in relation to its capacity,
and the yields are far less than what is achieved elsewhere globally. For instance, despite the size
of land allocated for garlic cultivation on the rise, national output lags behind in terms of meeting
local demands.

Some of the factors behind this yield gap include adoption of unrevised local varieties, limited
access to agricultural inputs, poor management of pests and diseases, and not adopting
appropriate agronomic practices. Intra-row spacing and plant spacing are some of them and are
crucial in determining the growth and productivity of garlic. Poor intra-row spacing can result in
either too intense competition among plants for water, light, and nutrients with close spacing or
waste of land and resources with excessive spacing.

Due to its importance, limited research-based information is provided to farmers and extension
agents on the optimum intra-row spacing of garlic in the context of agro-ecological zones of the
Arsi region. This lack of information continues to encourage farmers to use arbitrary or
traditional spacing, which could be ineffective for maximum yields.

Therefore, in the current research, an attempt is made to determine the effect of different intra-
row spacing’s on growth and yield characteristics of garlic. The results will be utilized to suggest
the most suitable spacing that is able to enhance the productivity of garlic in Asella district and
other similar environments.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General Objective

 To evaluate the effect of different intra-row spacings on the growth performance and
yield components of garlic (Allium sativum L.) under the agro-ecological conditions of
Arsi University, Asella District.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives

  To determine the influence of intra-row spacing on the vegetative growth parameters of
garlic, such as plant height, number of leaves, and leaf length.
 To assess the effect of intra-row spacing on yield components of garlic, including bulb
diameter, bulb weight, and total yield.
 To identify the optimum intra-row spacing that maximizes garlic yield under local
environmental conditions.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Garlic as a Crop

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a perennial, bulbiferous herbaceous perennial of the Alliaceae
family. It is one of the oldest and most important vegetable and spice crops grown globally,
characterized by its culinary, medicinal, and economic importance. Garlic is believed to have
originated in Central Asia and has subsequently become widespread throughout the world due to
its adaptability, nutritional value, and market value. It vegetatively propagates through cloves
each having the potential to form a new plant.

The garlic plant grows naturally t” a height of 30–60 cm and depends on the variety and growing
conditions. The leaves are flat, linear, and compact in shape, while the false stem (pseudostem)
arises from leaf sheaths. A bulbous growth underground consists of several cloves enveloped in a
papery layer and is the primary edibility and propagating unit.

Garlic is commonly used in cooking for seasoning various foods, sauces, and condiments. In
addition to its food use, garlic possesses tremendous medicinal value. Garlic contains bioactive
compounds like allicin, diallyl disulfide, and sulfur antioxidants that confer antibacterial,
antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties. Garlic has been used traditionally to
manage hypertension, cardiovascular disease, pulmonary infections, and gastrointestinal diseases
(Keusgen, 2002; Rabinowitch & Brewster, 1990).

The crop is grown under different climates—temperate, subtropical, and tropical highlands—and
is moderately frost tolerant, and hence well suited to a wide agro-ecological zone. Its wide
adaptability, low input requirements, and relatively short duration (4–6 months) make it an ideal
crop for smallholder farmers, especially in countries like Ethiopia where it is both a household
food staple and source of cash income.
Although garlic is economically important, the yields are generally below potential due to
inefficient agronomic practice, absence of improved varieties, and insufficiency of research
support. Therefore, maximizing garlic production through better practices like optimal spacing,
fertilization, and pest control is necessary in order to achieve its maximum yield and economic
value.

2.2 Garlic Propagation

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is vegetatively propagated primarily with cloves, which are the single
units of the bulb. A clove can develop into a new plant with foliage and a fresh bulb. Due to
garlic barely producing viable seeds due to sterility in the overwhelming majority of cultivated
varieties, propagation by cloves is the foremost and most reliable means of multiplication
worldwide (Rubatzky & Yamaguchi, 1997). High-quality planting material is essential for
successful propagation. Large, healthy outercloves are preferable to small innercloves since they
tend to produce more vigorous plants, quicker emergence, and higher bulb yield. Largecloves
will give a better uniformity of crop stand as well as assist in improved marketable bulb size
(Kamenetsky et al., 2004).

Adequate clove preparation before planting also enables establishment and growth. In some
regions around the globe, cloves are treated with fungicides or insecticides to restrain seed-borne
diseases as well as pest infestation. Soaking planting materials in appropriate protective solutions
also enhances germination as well as reduces early mortality.

Storage conditions of cloves affect sprouting and subsequent plant growth. Storage of garlic
cloves at 5°C–10°C for 15–30 days prior to planting has been reported to initiate earlier
sprouting and accelerate bulb initiation and growth (Rahim & Fordham, 2001). Storage of cloves
under high temperature may, however, suppress germination or reduce vigor. Crop rotation is
also important in disease management. Garlic should never be planted sequentially after other
Allium crops like onion or shallot, as they share similar diseases and pests. Rotating with
legumes or cereals breaks the cycle of soil-borne disease and maintains soil fertility.

Overall, proper clove selection, pre-plant treatment, storage, and careful crop rotation are crucial
aspects of garlic propagation and directly impacting crop establishment, growth performance,
and yield.
2.3 Agronomy of Garlic

Agronomic cultivation of garlic is one of the most important considerations in determining its
productivity and quality. It entails such agronomic practices as selection of suitable site, land
preparation, planting, fertilizing, irrigating, weed control, and harvesting. Correct agronomic
management not only improves bulb size and yield but also reduces susceptibility to pests and
diseases.

2.3.1 Climatic Requirement

Garlic is a cool-season crop and develops well in temperate and subtropical climates. It likes to
develop at altitudes of 500 to 2,000 m a.s.l. and under the temperature of 12°C to 24°C. It is
more resistant to cold than onion and also tolerates light frosts, especially during its early
vegetative phase (Purseglove, 1975; Brewster, 1994). Excessive rain and high humidity,
however, are detrimental to it, resulting in poor bulb development and heavy disease incidence.

Garlic responds favorably to longer day lengths and intermediate temperatures during bulb
formation. Prolonged hot and humid weather can result in yield reduction and quality of storage.
Garlic is well adapted to areas with 600–700 mm of rainfall or irrigated to avoid stress from
moisture. Stress from moisture, especially during growth and initiation of bulbs, can drastically
reduce yields (Libner, 1989; [Link]).

2.3.2 Soil and Nutrient Requirement

Garlic requires loose, friable well-drained soils of high organic matter content. Sandy loam and
silt loam soils with a pH range of 6.0–7.2 are most suitable for optimal growth. Heavy clay soils
are not suitable because they may cause poor drainage, restrict bulb growth, and produce
deformed bulbs. Deep ploughing followed by harrowing has to be employed in soil preparation
to deliver fine tilth and kill weed seeds and trash.

Nutrient management is important in garlic production. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and
potassium (K) are essential macronutrients required for healthy vegetative growth and bulb
development. Nitrogen promotes leaf growth and bulb size increase, while phosphorus favors
root growth as well as bulb quality. Potassium is implicated in improvement in resistance to
infection and in general plant health (Marschner, 1995; Naruka et al., 2005). However, excessive
nitrogen may decelerate bulb formation and increase the vulnerability of the bulb to disease.

2.3.3 Cultural Practices

Cultural practices are a critical factor in the successful cultivation of garlic and influence plant
establishment, growth, yield, and bulb quality. These practices include proper land preparation,
planting, weeding, irrigation, and harvesting.

Land Preparation and Planting

Garlic thrives in well-prepared soil. Land should be deeply ploughed and harrowed to achieve a
good fine tilth that improves aeration, drainage, and root penetration. Beds or ridges are usually
prepared based on soil type and water management. Planting is usually done by hand, inserting
the cloves 3–5 cm deep with the pointed end facing upwards. Spacing varies depending on plant
population and size of cloves desired but usually 6 to 12 cm within rows and 20 to 30 cm
between rows (Brewster, 1994; Rice et al., 1990).

Weeding’s

Weed control is required, particularly at the initial growth phases of the crop when garlic is less
competitive. Weeds not only reduce yield by competing for water, nutrients, and light but could
also transmit diseases and pests. Weeding in smallholder systems is mechanically accomplished,
but large-scale producers employ herbicides. However, care should be taken not to damage the
garlic leaves or stems through weeding operations (Bachmann, 2001).

Irrigation

Garlic is sensitive to drought and waterlogging. Uniform moisture during the vegetative stage,
especially during bulb development, is required. Irrigation rate depends on soil type, climate, and
vegetative stage. Over-irrigation can cause bulb rot disease, while lower irrigation can lead to
stunted, small bulbs. Irrigation needs to be reduced and eventually stopped two weeks before
harvest for better bulb quality and storage life (FAO, 2007; Goldy, 2000).

Harvesting
Garlic is ready to harvest when the tops of the plants are yellow and flop over, typically within
4–6 months after planting. Delayed harvest causes bulb splitting or loss of quality. Harvesting is
normally done manually loosening the soil and gently picking up bulbs to reduce mechanical
damage. After harvesting, the bulbs are cured in well-ventilated areas to dry and improve storage
quality (Dickerson, 1999).

2.3.4 Planting Material of Garlic

The choice and preparation of planting material significantly influence garlic crop establishment,
growth, and final yield. Garlic is propagated vegetatively using individual cloves, as it does not
produce true seeds under normal field conditions due to its sterility.

Selection of Cloves

Healthy, disease-free, and large-sized outer cloves from mature bulbs should be selected for
planting. Larger cloves have more stored nutrients, which contribute to faster germination,
vigorous early growth, and higher yield potential compared to smaller inner cloves. Using small
or damaged cloves may lead to poor emergence, weak plants, and uneven crop stands (Rubatzky
& Yamaguchi, 1997; Fikreyohanes, 2005).

Treatment Before Planting

To reduce the risk of soil- and seed-borne diseases and insect pests, selected cloves are often
treated with fungicides or insecticides. Soaking the cloves in recommended protective solutions
for a few hours can help minimize the incidence of fungal infections and pest damage during
early growth stages (Kilgori et al., 2007).

Storage Conditions

Storage conditions before planting are crucial, as temperature influences sprouting and
dormancy. Cloves stored at lower temperatures (5°C–10°C) for 15–30 days prior to planting
have shown accelerated and more uniform sprouting. Exposure to cooler temperatures before
planting also stimulates earlier bulb initiation and development. In contrast, storing cloves at
higher temperatures may delay sprouting and lead to uneven emergence (Takagi, 1990; Rahim &
Fordham, 2001).

Crop Rotation Considerations

Garlic should not be planted repeatedly on the same field or after other Allium crops like onion
or shallot to avoid the buildup of pests and diseases specific to this crop family. A rotation cycle
of 3–4 years with cereals, legumes, or non-Allium vegetables is recommended to maintain soil
health and reduce disease incidence.

2.4 Growth and Development

Garlic is a cool-season crop and its growth and development are closely linked to environmental
parameters such as temperature, day length, and soil water status. Understanding the growth
phases of the crop is important to optimize agronomic management and improve yield. Garlic
growth begins with vegetative growth, followed by bulb initiation, bulb growth, and finally
maturity. The plant, when in the initial vegetative stage, forms leaves and a strong root system. It
is a critical period in determining the capacity of the plant to carry out photosynthesis, and hence
influence bulb development.

The bulbing process is highly sensitive to temperature and photoperiod. Temperate temperatures
(0°C–10°C) during early growth, followed by long days and temperate temperatures, favor
bulbing and bulb initiation. Vernalization of cloves or seedlings at low temperatures before
planting induces growth and promotes uniform bulbing (Takagi, 1990; Moore & Gough, 2010).
With increasing temperature and decreasing day length, garlic changes from vegetative to
reproductive growth, when the plant focuses energy towards bulb production. Bulbing generally
begins within 60–90 days after sowing, though this depends upon the cultivar and the growing
conditions. At this stage, the lower leaves begin to yellow and the bulb swells and matures within
the soil.

Water and nutrient availability at bulb growth is critical. Nutritional or drought stress during this
phase can lead to defective bulb formation, reduced size, and lower market quality. Proper
irrigation and fertilization are therefore essential at this stage. Maturity is reached when most of
the leaves are yellow and fall, signaling the termination of vegetative growth as well as bulb
development. Delayed harvest following this stage may result in over-mature bulbs which crack,
improve in quality, and are of low storability.

2.5 Garlic Production and Productivity in Ethiopia

Garlic is the country’s most productive and economically valuable vegetable crop, both for local
consumption and foreign exchange. It is a key contributor to the nutrition of most Ethiopian
societies, especially as a principal component of ethnic foods like wot (stew), and for the
management of colds, hypertension, and gastrointestinal diseases in traditional medicine.

Despite its tremendous demand and socio-economic value, garlic in Ethiopia remains low both in
area and yield. The Central Statistical Agency (CSA, 2012) approximated the garlic cultivation
area as being around 10,690 hectares and production as 1.28 million quintals with an average
yield of around 12 quintals per hectare. This yield is much below the world average, which often
varies from 15–20 tons per hectare in China and India.

There are a number of reasons for low garlic productivity in Ethiopia such as Levelling of low-
productive local varieties that are poorly adapted to changing climatic and market conditions.
Limited access to improved farm technologies, including quality seed cloves, fertilizers, and
irrigation systems. Poor agronomic management, especially in spacing of crops, plant protection
against pests and diseases, and post-harvest management. Inadequate extension services and
research-farmer linkages that limit the adoption of new technologies.

But garlic holds tremendous prospects for development and productivity enhancement in
Ethiopia. The country’s highland and mid-altitude regions, where there are favorable
temperatures and soils, are well suited to the cultivation of garlic under agro-ecological
conditions. For example, in Oromia Region’s Arsi and Bale zones, garlic is cultivated under rain-
fed and irrigation, often as part of other high-value crops.

2.6 Nutritional Content of Garlic

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is not just prized for its culinary value and medicinal properties but
also for its high nutritional content. It has a wide variety of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
proteins, and bioactive molecules that are responsible for its health benefits. A garlic clove on
average carries around 63% water, 28% carbohydrates, 7% protein, 0.2% fat, 0.8% fiber. Garlic
is particularly rich in sulfur-containing compounds, including allicin, diallyl disulfide, and
ajoene, that are most responsible for its pungent odor and much of its therapeutic activity.
Allicin, created when garlic is crushed or minced, has been discovered to include antibacterial,
antifungal, antiviral, and antioxidant activities (Rabinowitch & Currah, 2002).
When it comes to micronutrients, garlic includes Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium,
Zinc, Selenium, Vitamin C, Vitamin B6. The USDA reports that an average raw garlic clove
(which is 3 grams in weight) contains 12 mg potassium, 5 mg calcium, 0.94 mg vitamin C, 1 kcal
of energy. Garlic also contains trace amounts of some other vitamins and bioactive plant
nutrients such as flavonoids and saponins, which are liable for its immune-boosting and anti-
inflammatory activities. Apart from this, garlic has also been associated with a host of health
benefits, which includes Lowering blood pressure and cholesterol levels, Boosting immune
system function, Reducing risk of cardiovascular diseases, Possible anticancer action

Garlic’s wealth of natural antioxidants helps combat oxidative stress while ensuring cellular
health. Other than its dietary and health properties, the bioactive compounds in garlic are being
researched for their possible application in managing long-term diseases such as diabetes,
atherosclerosis, and even infection.

Because of its nutritional value and health importance, garlic is increasingly presented as a
functional food in local and global health and nutrition programs.

2.7 Spacing of Plant on Garlic

Plant spacing is likely to be the most critical agronomic attribute affecting garlic growth,
development, and bulb yield. Plant spacing has a direct effect on plant population per unit area,
competition for resources (for nutrients, light, and water), and ultimately on the quantity and
quality of bulb yields.

Intra-row and Inter-row Spacing

Plant spacing in garlic cultivation usually includes Inter-row spacing (row-to-row distance),
Intra-row spacing (plant-to-plant distance within a row) . The way in which these spacing
dimensions are added together determines the plant density. A narrow spacing will result in high
densities, whereas wider spacing lowers the plant population. In Ethiopia, standard planting
practices for garlic will involve a spacing of 30 cm per row and 10 cm intra-row spacing, though
these are not necessarily based on scientific principle (Lemma, 2001).

Effect of Spacing on Growth Parameters

Spacing has been demonstrated by studies to be of dominant influence in vegetative
development. Increased intra-row spacing has been shown to improve Increased plant height,
Increased leaf number, Increased leaf area. This is due to each plant receiving more light and
nutrients, reducing intra-specific competition. For instance, Singh and Sachan (1999) found that
garlic cloves with increased intra-row spacing registered maximum number of leaves per plant
and increased leaf width due to maximum canopy formation and light penetration.

Effect on Bulb Growth and Yield

Both individual plant performance and plant population influence bulb yield. While close
spacing maximizes plant number per unit area and thus potentially raises total yield per hectare,
it generally produces smaller bulbs due to competition. Wider spacing will, however, improve
individual bulb size and weight but reduce total yield if plant population is low (Brewster, 1994;
Kilgori et al., 1989).

Kilgori et al. (1989) observed that the best garlic spacing of 10 cm produced the best yield and
bulb quality equilibrium, giving the highest fresh bulb weight. Aminu (2012) also found that
increased intra-row spacing led to higher bulb weight and diameter, due to decreased competition
and better use of resources by the individual plants.

Economic and Practical Implications

For production of garlic for the commercial market, ideal spacing is a balance between
maximum available yield and availability of preferred bulb sizes in the marketplace. Customers
might refuse small bulbs that crowd together, while very large bulbs formed at low plant
densities might not be worth reduced overall yield.

2.7.1 Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Garlic Crop Yield

Intra-row spacing—the distance between individual garlic plants per row—is one critical factor
that determines plant competition, use of resources, and consequently, the plant growth and yield
performance of the crop. Intra-row spacing is especially critical when it comes to the production
of garlic, where bulb size and density per plant are desirable economic characteristics.

Impact on Growth Parameters

Literature shows that intra-row spacing affects vegetative growth characteristics such as plant
height, leaf count, leaf width, and leaf area. Increased spacing is likely to result in the Increased
plant height, Longer and broader leaves, Increased leaf area per plant. These increases are
credited to decreased competition for light, nutrient, and water, which provide more space for
each plant to grow (Seid et al., 2013; Singh & Sachan, 1999). For instance, Seid et al. observed
significantly higher leaf number and width at 12 cm spacing compared to more compact
spacing’s.

Effect on Bulb Yield and Components

Bulb weight and bulb diameter components of marketable yield are positively influenced by
increased intra-row spacing. Wide spacing provides less competition between plants for light and
nutrients, supporting the larger growth of individual bulbs. Studies by Aminu (2012) and Khan et
al. (2003) demonstrated that shifting spacing from 5 cm to 15–20 cm significantly increased bulb
size and weight. Overall yield per hectare may decrease, however, if spacing becomes incredibly
large with less compact plant stands.

Conversely, closer spacing tends to cause higher total yield due to greater plant density but also
gives rise to smaller bulbs and poorer quality. This is a compromise between plant density and
bulb size. Kilgori et al. (1989) arrived at the best compromise with a 10 cm intra-row spacing
that met both acceptable bulb size as well as high hectare yield.

Effects on Other Parameters

Intra-row spacing has effects on Spacing more widely may yield more or larger cloves per bulb.
Fresh biomass Lower plant density causes increased biomass per plant. Uniformity of the bulb
Spacing more widely typically yields more uniform bulbs, and this is simpler to market.

Disease and Quality Considerations

High-density planting under irrigation can increase humidity around the plants and promote
disease development such as fungal disease. Spacing increases air movement, which reduces
disease pressure and improves bulb quality (Abubakar, 2001; Brewster, 1994).
3.1 Description of the Study Area

Field data were collected in the experimental site of ASU, College of Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, ASella District, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. The site is situated
geographically at approximately 8°11′60″ N latitude and 37°47′60″ E longitude at an altitude
range of approximately 1900 to 3000 meters above sea level. The region has a mean annual
rainfall of about 1294 mm and a mean temperature of 20.5°C, with the maximum and minimum
temperatures being 24°C and 14°C, respectively. The soil is well-drained and fertile at the site
and suitable for off-season irrigation-grown garlic production.

3.2 Experimental Materials

The experiment employed a local garlic variety known as 'Gojame' that is widely cultivated by
smallholder farmers in the highland region of central Ethiopia. The variety was selected because
it is tolerant of agro-ecological conditions in the local environment, has a medium bulb size, and
is well accepted in local markets.

Materials to be planted were selected with extreme care from healthy, disease-free bulbs. Only
medium and large-sized outer cloves were used for planting as a measure to ensure uniform plant
establishment and reduce growth performance variation. The cloves were manually separated
from the bulbs before planting and afterward visually examined to exclude diseased or damaged
cloves.

For optimal crop nutrition, two types of fertilizers were employed NPSB (intermixed fertilizer
with Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, and Boron), applied at planting to promote early shoot and
root development. UREA, as nitrogen source, was applied in top dressing at the vegetative
growth stage to promote leaf growth and overall plant vigor.

The trial also employed common field equipment and land preparation, maintenance, and data
collection tools and instruments. These were Hand tools such as spades, hoes, and rakes for
leveling, plowing, and bed preparation, Measurement tools such as calipers, measuring tapes,
and rulers for accurate data collection, Water pipes and cans to enable regulated irrigation during
the growth stage, A digital scale for accurate weighing of bulbs and biomass, Protective gear
(gloves and boots) for safety while working in the field. All materials and inputs utilized were
procured from reliable suppliers and utilized uniformly across all treatments for validity and
reliability purposes.

3.3 Experimental Design and Treatments

Experiment was performed in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 3 replications
in order to minimize the effect of variability across the experimental field. Four levels of
treatment for intra-row spacing were used to study their impact on garlic growth and components
of yield. The levels of treatment were established as follows T1: intra-row spacing = 6 cm, T2:
intra-row spacing = 8 cm, T3: intra-row spacing = 10 cm, T4: 12 cm intra-row spacing.

Within each block, treatment was allocated at random to reduce bias, and blocks were arranged
to accommodate possible soil or microclimatic variation across the field. Each plot was 2 m wide
and 3 m in length (6 m²) and consisted of four rows of garlic plants. Neighboring plots were kept
at 0.5 m apart, and 1 m between blocks to facilitate easy movement and handling during the
experiment. 384 garlic plants were sown in a total in the field, and a guarantee of equal
representation of each spacing treatment for each replication was ensured. Uniformity of
agronomic practices and field layout uniformity for all plots ensured that changes in garlic
performance could be attributed largely to the influence of intra-row spacing.

3.4 Land Preparation and Planting

Prior to planting, the experimental site was thoroughly prepared to ensure favorable soil
conditions for garlic growth. The land was ploughed using hand tools to a depth of
approximately 20 cm and then harrowed to break down soil clods and improve tilth. All plant
residues, stones, and weeds were removed from the field to ensure a clean seedbed.

The field was leveled manually to facilitate uniform irrigation and even plant growth.
Experimental plots and blocks were marked according to the layout of the Randomized
Complete Block Design (RCBD), maintaining the planned plot dimensions and spacing between
treatments. Planting was carried out manually. Uniform, healthy garlic cloves were placed at a
depth of 3 cm with the pointed end facing upward. Intra-row spacing was applied according to
the assigned treatments:

6 cm (T1)
8 cm (T2)

10 cm (T3)

12 cm (T4)

Each planting hole accommodated two cloves to ensure germination, with thinning applied later
to maintain one vigorous plant per stand. The planting was done in early January during the dry
season, with the crop grown under irrigated conditions to ensure adequate soil moisture
throughout the growing period. Immediately after planting, the field was irrigated, and
subsequent agronomic practices such as weeding, cultivation, and pest control were performed
uniformly across all plots as needed.

3.5 Method of Data Collection

Appropriate agronomic methods were followed to record correct and consistent data at every
moment throughout the experiment. All measurements were taken at appropriate growth stages
in well-calibrated instruments and with the same set of methods for all treatments. Each
parameter's methods are explained briefly here under:

Days to 50% Emergence: These were recorded daily after planting through noting every plot.
The number of days it took for 50% of cloves planted in a plot to come to the surface of the
ground was noted.

Plant Height: Five representative plants per plot were randomly selected from the two middle
rows of each plot. Each plant's height was measured from the ground level up to the tip of the
longest leaf with a ruler or measuring tape. The mean value for each plot was determined.

Number of Leaves per Plant: The number of fully developed leaves was manually counted in
each of the five sampled plants for each of the plots. Mean number of leaves per plant was
subjected to analysis.

Leaf Length and Leaf Area: Leaf length, from base to tip, and also the maximum width, were
recorded. Subsequently, leaf area was estimated with the formula:

Leaf Area = Leaf Length × Leaf Width × 0.75,

where 0.75 is a correction factor for leaf shape.

Bulb Diameter: Five bulbs from each plot were recorded at their widest horizontal circumference
at harvest time with a digital caliper. Treatment comparison was made using average bulb
diameter.

Bulb Weight: Fresh weights of the same five bulbs per plot were recorded directly after harvest
using a digital weighing scale. The weight for each treatment was determined by calculating the
mean weight.

Total Bulb Yield per Hectare: The total yield was weighed following the harvest of the bulbs
from each net plot area, and the resulting value was computed to tons per hectare using the
formula:

Yield (t/ha) = (Net plot total weight in kg × 10,000) / Net plot area in m² × 1000

Adherence to these standardized procedures ensured the reliability and accuracy of the data
gathered in assessing the impact of intra-row spacing on garlic yield and growth.

3.7 Data Analysis

To evaluate the effect of intra-row spacing on garlic growth and yield components, the data
collected on all agronomic parameters were subjected to statistical analysis using Statistical
Analysis Software (SAS) version 9.2.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether there were significant
differences among the four intra-row spacing treatments (6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm, and 12 cm) for each
measured parameter. Vegetative growth traits such as plant height, leaf number, leaf length, and
leaf area were analyzed to determine how intra-row spacing influenced garlic plant development.
Yield-related traits including bulb diameter, bulb weight, and total yield (t/ha) were analyzed to
assess how spacing affected garlic productivity. The statistical comparison of treatment means
allowed for the identification of the optimal intra-row spacing that maximized both growth and
yield, fulfilling the third specific objective. Treatment means were separated using the Least
Significant Difference (LSD) test at a 5% significance level (p < 0.05). Results were summarized
in tables and figures for clarity and interpretation.

4.1 Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Vegetative Growth Parameters of Garlic

The intra-row spacing treatments had significant effects on the vegetative growth performance of
garlic in the study. Vegetative parameters such as plant height, number of leaves per plant, leaf
length, and leaf area responded differently to spacing variations, highlighting the importance of
plant population density for garlic development. The observations indicated that tighter spacing
(6 cm) led to increased height, perhaps due to increased competition for light, resulting in greater
vertical growth. In contrast, wider spacings (10 cm and 12 cm) led to improved canopy
development, with plants producing more leaves, longer leaves, and greater total leaf area. This
is likely due to greater availability of growth resources in terms of nutrients, water, and light in
less crowded environments. The variability in vegetative traits between spacing treatments
suggests that intra-row spacing does not only affect individual plant structure but also their
photosynthetic capacity, important for subsequent bulb development. The results agree with the
findings by Seid et al. (2013) and Singh and Sachan (1999), who suggested that greater spacing
in garlic promotes leaf growth due to less intra-specific competition.

4.1.1 Plant Height

Plant height was significantly affected by the different intra-row spacing treatments. The tallest
plants were the ones in those plots that had the shortest spacing of 6 cm, whereas the shortest
ones were in the 12 cm spacing. Specifically, the average plant height at 6 cm was 61.4 cm,
whereas at the 12 cm spacing was 54.8 cm. This trend might be due to competition between the
plants for light in the narrowly spaced treatments. In denser populations, the plants get taller to
find light, a phenomenon known as shade avoidance. Conversely, where the spacings are wider
and light interception is improved for each plant, there is less height growth and more side
growth. Observed results agree with Kilgori et al. (1989), who found that plants from close
spacing were higher than those from wider spacing. Increased height for close spacing is not
always a measure of increased yield as it may also be associated with retarded leaf and bulb
growth due to excessive competition for soil moisture and nutrients.

Table 1. Effect of intra-row spacing on plant height of garlic.

Treatment (Spacing) Mean Plant Height (cm)

T1 (6 cm) 61.4 a
T2 (8 cm) 58.7 ab
 T3 (10 cm) 56.2 b
T4 (12 cm) 54.8 b
LSD (5%) 3.21
CV (%) 6.12
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

4.1.2 Number of Leaves per Plant

Intra-row spacing greatly influenced the number of leaves per plant. The highest average number
was realized at the broadest spacing of 12 cm, and 10 cm and 8 cm gave lower values, while the
minimum number was realized at the smallest spacing of 6 cm. More widely planted plants had
easier access to required growth requirements such as light, water, and nutrients. This best
growing condition would have provided for more leaf initiation and development because intra-
specific competition was lower. In contrast, there was greater competition for the close-planted
plants, and this could have limited their ability to create more leaves. The leaf per plant is also an
important parameter since it directly influences the photosynthetic surface area of the plant,
which in turn has a direct influence on the amount of carbohydrates that can be used for bulb
development. Therefore, treatment with greater leaf numbers is expected to exhibit superior yield
performance, under adequate nutrient and water supply. These findings are in agreement with
those of Seid et al. (2013) and Singh and Sachan (1999), whose research identified a positive
correlation between larger intra-row spacing and leaf numbers for garlic and other Allium
members.

4.2 Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Yield and Yield Components of Garlic

Intra-row spacing significantly affected the yield and its components, including bulb diameter,
bulb weight, and total bulb yield per hectare. These parameters are essential indicators of
marketable output and overall productivity of garlic. Wider spacing treatments (10 cm and 12
cm) generally resulted in larger bulb size and weight, due to reduced competition for nutrients,
water, and light. However, the total yield per hectare was higher at intermediate spacing
(particularly 10 cm), which provided a favorable balance between plant density and individual
plant performance. The findings suggest that extremely narrow spacing (6 cm), while producing
more plants per unit area, led to smaller bulbs and lower market quality. On the other hand, very
wide spacing (12 cm) produced the largest bulbs but resulted in lower overall yield per hectare
due to fewer plants. These results align with earlier studies (e.g., Kilgori et al., 1989; Seid et al.,
2013), which emphasized the need for an optimal spacing that maximizes both individual plant
performance and plant population efficiency.

The results in brief are presented in the following table:

Table 2. Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Yield and Yield Components of Garlic

Treatment (Spacing) Bulb Diameter (cm) Bulb Weight (g) Total Yield (t/ha)
T1 (6 cm) 3.92 28.4 7.02
T2 (8 cm) 4.25 32.7 6.78
T3 (10 cm) 4.57 35.6 7.21
T4 (12 cm) 4.63 36.1 6.40
LSD (5%) 0.21 1.58 0.49
CV (%) 5.6 4.2 6.9
Means followed by the same letter in each column are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Interpretation:

Bulb Weight and Bulb Diameter: The greatest spacing (12 cm) had the largest bulbs (4.63 cm)
and largest bulbs (36.1 g). This is due to negligible plant competition, providing each plant more
light and nutrient access.

Total Yield (t/ha): As bulb size increased with spacing, the overall yield per hectare was
optimized at 10 cm spacing (7.21 t/ha). The optimum compromise between bulb size and plant
population density was obtained at this spacing.

Narrow Spacing (6 cm): Provided the highest plant density but, due to the extreme competition
among the plants, bulb size and weight were severely reduced, limiting market value despite high
overall yield.

4.2.1 Bulb Diameter

Intra-row spacing significantly impacted bulb diameter. As shown by Table 2, the largest mean
bulb diameter (4.63 cm) was recorded at the widest spacing (12 cm), whereas the smallest
diameter (3.92 cm) was recorded at the narrowest spacing (6 cm). Bulb diameter rose step-wise
with increasing spacing from 6 cm to 12 cm. This is because there is less competition between
broader spacings for water, nutrient, and sunlight. There was ample room space for each plant of
garlic to utilize in bulb development as resources were better used. The 6 cm close spacing,
however, restricted access of plants to resources, thereby restricting bulb growth.

These findings support Seid et al. (2013) and Kilgori et al. (1989), who also reported that at
wider intra-row spacing, garlic plants grown produced significantly bigger bulbs due to
improved growing conditions. Although 12 cm spacing yielded the biggest bulbs, this treatment
did not yield the maximum top yield per hectare. This highlights the significance of balancing
bulb size and plant density when looking to maximize productivity.

The effect of intra-row spacing on bulb diameter of garlic is presented below:

Table 3. Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Bulb Diameter of Garlic

Treatment (Spacing) Mean Bulb Diameter (cm) Ranking

T1 (6 cm) 3.92 Smallest
T2 (8 cm) 4.25 Medium
T3 (10 cm) 4.57 Large
T4 (12 cm) 4.63 Largest
LSD (5%) 0.21
CV (%) 5.6
Means with the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Interpretation:

The widest spacing (12 cm) produced the largest bulbs with a mean diameter of 4.63 cm,
followed closely by 10 cm.

The narrowest spacing (6 cm) resulted in significantly smaller bulbs due to higher competition
for resources.
Statistically, there was no significant difference between 10 cm and 12 cm treatments, suggesting
both can support optimal bulb development.

4.2.2 Bulb Weight

The average fresh bulb weight of garlic was significantly affected by intra-row spacing. The
results are shown in the table below:

Table 4. Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Bulb Weight of Garlic

Treatment (Spacing) Mean Bulb Weight (g) Ranking

T1 (6 cm) 28.4 Lowest
T2 (8 cm) 32.7 Medium
T3 (10 cm) 35.6 High
T4 (12 cm) 36.1 Highest
LSD (5%) 1.58
CV (%) 4.2
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p < [Link] followed by
the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Interpretation:

The highest bulb weights were recorded at 12 cm (36.1 g) and 10 cm (35.6 g) spacings, with no
significant difference between them. 6 cm spacing produced significantly lighter bulbs (28.4 g),
likely due to strong intra-plant competition. This indicates that wider spacing improves
individual bulb development by allowing more access to nutrients, light, and moisture.

4.2.3 Total Bulb Yield per Hectare

Total bulb yield was calculated from the net harvested area of each plot and converted to tons per
hectare (t/ha). The results are summarized in the table below:

Table 5. Effect of Intra-Row Spacing on Total Bulb Yield of Garlic

Treatment (Spacing) Total Yield (t/ha) Ranking

T1 (6 cm) 7.02 High
T2 (8 cm) 6.78 Moderate
 T3 (10 cm) 7.21 Highest
T4 (12 cm) 6.40 Lowest
LSD (5%) 0.49
CV (%) 6.9
Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at p < 0.05.

Interpretation:

The highest total yield was obtained at 10 cm spacing (7.21 t/ha), followed closely by 6 cm
spacing (7.02 t/ha).Although 12 cm spacing produced the largest and heaviest bulbs, its total
yield was lowest (6.40 t/ha) due to the reduced number of plants per area.

This confirms that 10 cm intra-row spacing strikes the best balance between bulb size and plant
density, making it optimal for both yield and quality.

5.1. Conclusion

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different intra-row spacing levels on the
growth, yield, and yield components of garlic (Allium sativum L.) under the environmental
conditions of Arsi University, Asella District. The results revealed that intra-row spacing had a
significant impact on all measured parameters, including plant height, number of leaves, leaf
length and area, bulb diameter, bulb weight, and total yield per hectare.

Vegetative growth parameters such as number of leaves, leaf length, and leaf area increased with
wider spacing (10 cm and 12 cm), likely due to reduced competition for growth resources like
light, nutrients, and moisture. On the other hand, plant height was higher in narrower spacing (6
cm), which could be attributed to plant competition and a natural tendency for vertical growth in
crowded conditions.

With respect to yield components, wider spacing favored the development of larger and heavier
bulbs. However, when considering total yield per hectare, the 10 cm intra-row spacing treatment
outperformed all others. It provided an optimal balance between plant population density and
individual plant performance, resulting in the highest yield (7.21 t/ha) without compromising
bulb size and market quality.
In contrast, the 6 cm spacing, while producing a higher number of plants, led to reduced bulb
size and weight due to intense intra-specific competition. The 12 cm spacing, although
supporting superior bulb size and vegetative traits, had fewer plants per plot, which led to lower
overall yield

The findings indicate that 10 cm intra-row spacing is optimal for garlic production under the
conditions of this study. It maximizes yield while maintaining desirable bulb size and quality,
making it a suitable recommendation for garlic growers in similar agro-ecological zones.

5.2. Recommendation

The findings of this study demonstrate that intra-row spacing plays a vital role in the growth
performance and yield of garlic. Based on the results obtained, the following recommendations
are made for different users of the research:

Farmers in Asella District and similar agro-ecological zones are strongly encouraged to use 10
cm intra-row spacing for garlic production.

This spacing level provided the most balanced outcome, yielding both high total productivity
(7.21 t/ha) and good bulb quality.

Unlike very narrow spacing, which led to smaller bulbs, or very wide spacing, which reduced
yield due to low plant density, the 10 cm treatment was shown to optimize both plant
performance and land-use efficiency.

By adopting this spacing, farmers can improve both the marketability and profitability of their
garlic crops, meeting the growing demand for large, uniform bulbs in local markets.

The results of this study should be integrated into local extension programs and shared with
farmers through training, field days, and demonstration plots. Many farmers still rely on
traditional or inconsistent spacing practices, which often result in suboptimal yields. Therefore,
promoting the scientifically validated 10 cm spacing recommendation can bridge the gap
between research and practice, ultimately enhancing agricultural productivity and rural incomes.

Efforts should be made to ensure the availability of quality planting material, especially
improved or locally adapted garlic varieties, and to support farmer training in modern agronomic
techniques, including optimal spacing. This will require coordination between research
institutions, agricultural offices, and local cooperatives to scale up adoption.

While this study provided valuable insights into intra-row spacing, further research is necessary
to Investigate the interaction of spacing with other management factors such as irrigation
frequency, fertilizer rates, and clove size. Conduct multi-season and multi-location trials to
confirm the robustness of the 10 cm spacing recommendation across different environmental
conditions.

Evaluate the economic analysis and cost-benefit ratio of each spacing level to determine the most
profitable practice for resource-limited farmers. Explore varietal responses to spacing, as
different garlic genotypes may perform differently under the same spacing conditions.

Adopting scientifically recommended intra-row spacing such as 10 cm can significantly improve

garlic production, contributing to enhanced food security, increased farmer income, and better
use of agricultural land in Ethiopia.
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