CANCER: AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

FILE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Types of Cancer
3. Causes of Cancer
4. Symptoms of Cancer
5. Diagnosis of Cancer
6. Staging and Grading of Cancer
7. Treatment Options for Cancer
8. Prevention of Cancer
9. Impact of Cancer on Society
10. Conclusion
11. Bibliography

INTRODUCTION
Cancer is a broad term for a complex group of diseases characterized
primarily by uncontrolled and abnormal cell growth. Normally, cells grow,
divide, and die in a regulated manner; however, cancer cells defy these
controls, continuing to proliferate without restraint. This unchecked growth
can form masses called tumors, invade nearby tissues, and spread to distant
parts of the body through a process called metastasis.

Biologically, cancer arises from genetic mutations and alterations in cellular

mechanisms that disrupt normal cell cycle regulation, apoptosis
(programmed cell death), and DNA repair. These changes enable cancer cells
to evade the body's defense systems, leading to disease progression. Cancer
is not a single disease but encompasses more than 100 distinct types, each
with unique characteristics and behaviors depending on the tissue or organ
of origin.

The significance of cancer as a global health issue cannot be overstated. It is

one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, affecting
millions of people annually. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), cancer accounts for nearly 10 million deaths each year. Its burden
spans across all age groups, socioeconomic classes, and geographic regions,
though some populations bear a disproportionate share due to
environmental factors, genetics, lifestyle, and access to healthcare.

Beyond the physical health impact, cancer influences psychological well-

being, family dynamics, and societal resources. The complexity and diversity
of cancer demand extensive research to understand its causes, develop
effective diagnostics, and create targeted treatments. Ongoing advancements
in molecular biology, genetics, and immunotherapy are continually improving
patient outcomes and survival rates.

In sum, understanding cancer in its biological and clinical dimensions is

essential for prevention, early detection, and effective management. This
project aims to provide a comprehensive overview of cancer's fundamental
aspects to deepen awareness and promote informed action against this
formidable disease.

TYPES OF CANCER
Cancer is classified into several types based on the origin of the malignant
cells. Understanding the type of cancer is crucial because it determines the
treatment approach and prognosis. The major categories include carcinoma,
sarcoma, leukemia, lymphoma, and melanoma.

CARCINOMA

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer and arise from epithelial
cells, which line the inner and outer surfaces of the body. These cancers often
develop in organs such as the lungs, breasts, prostate, and colon. Examples
include lung carcinoma, breast carcinoma, and colorectal carcinoma.
Treatment often involves surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation, with
prognosis depending on the stage and location.

SARCOMA

Sarcomas originate from connective tissues such as bone, cartilage, fat,

muscle, or blood vessels. Although rarer than carcinomas, they tend to be
aggressive. Common examples are osteosarcoma (bone cancer) and
liposarcoma (fat tissue cancer). Due to their origin in supportive tissues,
sarcomas may require specialized surgical techniques along with
chemotherapy or radiation.
LEUKEMIA

Leukemia is a cancer of the blood-forming tissues, primarily affecting the

bone marrow and resulting in abnormal white blood cells. It does not form
solid tumors but is characterized by excessive proliferation of blood cells.
Types include acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) and chronic myeloid leukemia
(CML). Treatment generally involves chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and
sometimes bone marrow transplantation.

LYMPHOMA

Lymphomas develop in lymphatic system cells, particularly lymphocytes,

which are vital for immune defense. There are two main types: Hodgkin
lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. These cancers can arise in lymph
nodes or other lymphoid tissues and are typically treated with chemotherapy,
radiation, or immunotherapy.

MELANOMA

Melanoma originates from melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the

skin. It is less common but more dangerous due to its high tendency to
metastasize. Early detection and surgical removal are critical, often
supplemented by immunotherapy or targeted treatments in advanced stages.

Each cancer type’s unique cellular origin influences its biological behavior,
response to treatment, and patient outcomes. Hence, accurate identification
is essential for personalized therapeutic strategies.

CAUSES OF CANCER
Cancer develops when normal cells undergo genetic changes that disrupt
their regulated growth and division. These genetic mutations can be
triggered by various factors, including inherited genetic predispositions,
lifestyle choices, infections, and environmental exposures. Understanding
these causes is pivotal for prevention, early detection, and treatment.

GENETIC FACTORS

Some cancers arise from inherited mutations passed down within families.
These hereditary mutations affect genes involved in cell growth regulation,
DNA repair, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). For instance, mutations
in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes significantly increase the risk of breast and
ovarian cancers. However, most cancers result from acquired mutations that
occur during a person’s lifetime rather than inherited ones.

LIFESTYLE INFLUENCES

Several lifestyle factors contribute substantially to cancer risk. Tobacco use is

the single greatest preventable cause, responsible for cancers of the lung,
mouth, throat, esophagus, and more. Similarly, excessive alcohol
consumption increases the risk of liver, breast, and upper digestive tract
cancers. Poor diet, physical inactivity, and obesity also play critical roles by
promoting inflammation and hormonal imbalances linked to cancer
development.

INFECTIONS

Certain viral and bacterial infections can cause or promote cancer by inducing
chronic inflammation or integrating viral DNA into host cells. Notable
examples include human papillomavirus (HPV), which causes cervical and
other cancers, hepatitis B and C viruses linked to liver cancer, and
Helicobacter pylori infection associated with stomach cancer.

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES AND CARCINOGENS

Exposure to carcinogenic substances in the environment can lead to DNA

damage and mutations. These include chemical carcinogens such as
asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde, and aflatoxins found in certain molds.
Pollution and occupational hazards increase cancer risk in industrial settings.

RADIATION

Ionizing radiation from sources like X-rays, radioactive materials, and

ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight can cause direct DNA damage.
Prolonged sun exposure is a major cause of skin cancer, including melanoma.
Medical and environmental radiation exposure must be carefully controlled to
minimize cancer risk.

Overall, these diverse causes initiate genetic mutations and epigenetic

changes, leading to abnormal cell growth, evasion of apoptosis, and the
formation of malignant tumors. The interplay of multiple factors often
influences an individual’s overall cancer risk.
SYMPTOMS OF CANCER
Cancer symptoms vary widely depending on the type, location, and stage of
the disease. However, there are some general symptoms that often indicate
the presence of cancer and should not be ignored. Early recognition of these
signs can lead to timely diagnosis and improved treatment outcomes.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS

• Unexplained Weight Loss: Significant weight loss without trying is a

common early sign, especially in cancers of the pancreas, stomach,
lungs, and esophagus.
• Fatigue: Persistent tiredness that does not improve with rest may result
from cancer’s effect on the body or its impact on blood cell production.
• Pain: Chronic or unexplained pain can occur in cancers affecting bones,
nerves, or organs. This might be localized or more widespread
depending on tumor spread.
• Fever: A persistent or recurring fever, not caused by infection, can
sometimes signal blood cancers such as leukemia or lymphoma.
• Skin Changes: Noticeable alterations such as yellowing, darkening, or
redness of the skin, sores that do not heal, or unusual hair growth can
be warning signs.

SPECIFIC SYMPTOMS BY CANCER TYPE

• Breast Cancer: A lump in the breast or underarm, changes in breast

shape or size, nipple discharge or inversion.
• Lung Cancer: Persistent cough, coughing up blood, shortness of breath,
chest pain.
• Colorectal Cancer: Changes in bowel habits, blood in stool, abdominal
discomfort.
• Prostate Cancer: Difficulty urinating, frequent urination especially at
night, blood in urine or semen.
• Skin Cancer (Melanoma): New or changing moles, asymmetrical or
irregular borders, variation in color.

Being aware of these symptoms and reporting any unusual or persistent

changes to a healthcare provider is essential for early cancer detection. Early
diagnosis not only increases the chances of successful treatment but can also
reduce the need for aggressive therapies. Routine check-ups and screening
tests complement symptom awareness by catching cancers before notable
symptoms appear.

DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER
Diagnosing cancer accurately and promptly is critical for effective treatment
and improved patient outcomes. The diagnostic process combines various
clinical evaluations and laboratory tests to confirm the presence of cancer,
determine its type, and guide therapeutic decisions.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

The initial step usually involves a detailed physical examination by a

healthcare professional. This exam focuses on identifying signs such as
lumps, skin changes, or organ enlargement. Although not definitive, physical
findings help determine the need for further specific investigations.

IMAGING TESTS

Imaging techniques are essential tools in cancer diagnosis and staging.

Common modalities include:

• X-ray: Useful for detecting abnormalities in bones and lungs; often an

initial screening tool.
• Computed Tomography (CT) Scan: Produces detailed cross-sectional
images of the body to locate tumors and assess spread.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Offers high-resolution images of
soft tissues, helpful for brain, spinal cord, and musculoskeletal cancers.
• Ultrasound: Uses sound waves to visualize organs and guide biopsies.

These imaging modalities assist not only in detecting tumors but also in
evaluating their size, location, and potential invasion into adjacent tissues.

BIOPSY

The definitive diagnosis of cancer generally requires a biopsy, which involves

obtaining a tissue sample from the suspected tumor. Types of biopsy include:

• Needle biopsy: A thin needle extracts cells or tissue; minimally invasive

and commonly used.
• Incisional or excisional biopsy: Surgical removal of part or all of a
suspicious lesion.
 • Endoscopic biopsy: Tissue sampling using a scope inserted into body
cavities (e.g., bronchoscopic biopsy).

The harvested tissue is examined microscopically by a pathologist to identify

malignant cells and tumor type, which is crucial for treatment planning.

BLOOD TESTS

Blood tests are useful for detecting abnormalities related to cancer,

monitoring the patient’s overall health, and sometimes identifying tumor
markers—substances produced by cancer cells or the body in response to
cancer. Examples include:

• Complete Blood Count (CBC): Helps identify blood cancers like leukemia
through abnormal blood cell counts.
• Tumor markers: Such as PSA (prostate-specific antigen), CA-125 (ovarian
cancer), and CEA (colorectal and other cancers).

MOLECULAR AND GENETIC DIAGNOSTICS

Advances in molecular biology have enabled analysis of genetic mutations,

gene expression, and protein markers in cancer cells. Techniques such as PCR
(polymerase chain reaction), fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and
next-generation sequencing help:

• Confirm cancer subtype

• Identify actionable genetic mutations
• Guide precision medicine and targeted therapies

Overall, a combination of these diagnostic methods provides a

comprehensive understanding of a cancer patient’s condition, enabling
personalized and effective treatment strategies.

STAGING AND GRADING OF CANCER

Staging and grading are critical steps in understanding cancer’s progression
and behavior, guiding prognosis and treatment decisions. Both provide
complementary information about the tumor but focus on different aspects.
CANCER STAGING

Staging refers to the determination of the extent of cancer spread within the
body. It helps doctors assess how far the cancer has grown from its original
site and whether it has spread to lymph nodes or distant organs. Accurate
staging is essential to plan appropriate treatment and predict patient
outcomes.

The most widely used staging system is the TNM system, developed by the
American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC). It evaluates three parameters:

• T (Tumor): Size and extent of the primary tumor.

• N (Nodes): Involvement of regional lymph nodes.
• M (Metastasis): Presence or absence of distant metastasis.

Each parameter is assigned a number to indicate severity, and these are

combined to classify cancer into stages I through IV. Generally, lower stages
represent localized cancer with better prognosis, while higher stages indicate
advanced spread requiring more aggressive management.

CANCER GRADING

Grading assesses the microscopic appearance of cancer cells compared to

normal cells of the same tissue. It measures how much the tumor cells differ
in size, shape, and organization, reflecting their aggressiveness and growth
rate.

Grades typically range from low (well-differentiated) to high (poorly-

differentiated or undifferentiated):

• Low-grade tumors: Cells resemble normal tissue and tend to grow

slowly.
• High-grade tumors: Cells appear abnormal and tend to grow and
spread rapidly.

Grading is done by pathologists through microscopic examination of biopsy

samples. It helps determine how likely a tumor is to behave aggressively and
influences treatment intensity.

IMPORTANCE IN PROGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

Together, staging and grading form the cornerstone of cancer

characterization. Staging informs the treatment scope—local surgery or
radiation for early stages, systemic therapies for advanced disease—while
grading indicates tumor biology and potential responsiveness to treatments.

Accurate staging and grading enable personalized medicine approaches,

allowing clinicians to optimize therapy and improve patient survival and
quality of life.

TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR CANCER

Cancer treatment involves multiple modalities aimed at eradicating cancer
cells, controlling tumor growth, or alleviating symptoms. The choice of
treatment depends largely on the cancer type, stage, location, patient’s
overall health, and specific molecular characteristics of the tumor. Modern
oncology often combines different therapies to maximize effectiveness and
minimize adverse effects.

SURGERY

Surgery is often the first-line treatment for many solid tumors, especially if
cancer is detected at an early stage and remains localized. The goal is to
physically remove the tumor along with some surrounding healthy tissue to
ensure clear margins and reduce the chance of recurrence. In some cases,
lymph nodes near the tumor are also removed to check for spread. Surgical
techniques have advanced, enabling minimally invasive approaches such as
laparoscopic or robotic surgery, which reduce recovery time and
complications.

CHEMOTHERAPY

Chemotherapy uses cytotoxic drugs to kill rapidly dividing cancer cells or stop
their proliferation. These drugs may be administered orally, intravenously, or
through other routes based on the regimen. Chemotherapy is systemic,
meaning it can target cancer cells throughout the body, making it valuable for
metastatic or blood cancers like leukemia. However, it also affects normal
dividing cells, causing side effects such as hair loss, nausea, and
immunosuppression. Chemotherapy can be used before surgery
(neoadjuvant) to shrink tumors or after surgery (adjuvant) to eliminate
residual microscopic disease.
RADIATION THERAPY

Radiation therapy employs high-energy rays or particles to damage the DNA

of cancer cells, thereby preventing their replication and inducing cell death. It
can be delivered externally (external beam radiation) or internally via
radioactive implants (brachytherapy). Radiation is often used for localized
tumors or as an adjunct to surgery and chemotherapy. Advances like
intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) and stereotactic radiosurgery
allow precise targeting of tumors while sparing healthy tissues, reducing side
effects.

IMMUNOTHERAPY

Immunotherapy harnesses the body’s immune system to recognize and

destroy cancer cells. This approach includes immune checkpoint inhibitors,
which block proteins cancer cells use to evade immune attacks; cancer
vaccines; and adoptive cell therapies such as CAR-T cell therapy.
Immunotherapy has shown remarkable success in treating melanoma, lung
cancer, and certain blood cancers. It often provides long-lasting responses but
may cause autoimmune-related side effects.

TARGETED THERAPY

Targeted therapy uses drugs designed to specifically inhibit molecular

pathways critical for cancer cell survival and growth. These therapies act on
mutated proteins, growth factor receptors, or signaling molecules unique to
cancer cells, sparing normal cells and reducing toxicity compared to
chemotherapy. Examples include tyrosine kinase inhibitors for chronic
myeloid leukemia and HER2 inhibitors for breast cancer. Molecular profiling of
tumors is essential to identify patients who would benefit from targeted
agents.

HORMONE THERAPY

Hormone therapy is used primarily for cancers that depend on hormones to

grow, such as breast and prostate cancers. It works by blocking hormone
production or interfering with hormone receptors. For instance, tamoxifen
blocks estrogen receptors in breast cancer, and androgen deprivation therapy
reduces testosterone levels in prostate cancer. Hormone therapy can slow
down or stop cancer progression and may be used alone or in combination
with other treatments.
PERSONALIZED AND COMBINATION TREATMENTS

Treatment plans are increasingly personalized using genetic and molecular

profiling of tumors to select the most effective therapies. Often, a
combination of treatments—such as surgery followed by chemotherapy and
radiation—is employed to target cancer on multiple fronts. Clinical trials
continue to explore novel agents and combinations, including targeted drugs
with immunotherapy, to improve outcomes.

PREVENTION OF CANCER
Preventing cancer involves a combination of primary and secondary
strategies aimed at reducing risk factors and detecting the disease early for
timely intervention. Primary prevention focuses on minimizing exposure to
carcinogens and promoting healthy lifestyle choices to prevent cancer
development, while secondary prevention involves screening and early
detection to catch cancer in its initial stages.

PRIMARY PREVENTION STRATEGIES

• Lifestyle Modifications: Adopting a balanced diet rich in fruits,

vegetables, and whole grains, along with regular physical exercise, helps
maintain a healthy body weight and hormonal balance, reducing cancer
risk. Avoiding tobacco in all forms is crucial since smoking is linked to
multiple cancers, especially lung, mouth, and throat cancers. Limiting
alcohol consumption also decreases the likelihood of developing liver,
breast, and gastrointestinal cancers.
• Vaccination: Immunization programs, such as the human
papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine, play a vital role in preventing cervical and
other HPV-related cancers. Similarly, hepatitis B vaccination reduces the
risk of liver cancer caused by viral infections.
• Reducing Exposure to Carcinogens: Avoiding environmental and
occupational carcinogens such as asbestos, benzene, and excessive
ultraviolet (UV) radiation protects against various cancers. Using sun
protection measures like sunscreen, wearing protective clothing, and
avoiding tanning beds significantly decreases skin cancer risk.

SECONDARY PREVENTION STRATEGIES

• Screening Programs: Regular cancer screening for common types such

as breast, cervical, colorectal, and lung cancer allows early detection
 before symptoms appear. Methods include mammography, Pap smear
tests, colonoscopy, and low-dose CT scans. Early diagnosis often leads to
more effective treatment and better survival rates.
• Health Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can
educate people about cancer risk factors, symptoms, and the
importance of screenings. Empowering individuals with knowledge
encourages proactive health behavior and timely medical consultation.

IMPACT OF CANCER ON SOCIETY

Cancer exerts profound social, economic, and emotional impacts on patients,
families, and communities. Beyond the physical toll on individuals, the
disease affects multiple dimensions of life, often leading to significant
challenges that extend well beyond medical treatment.

ECONOMIC IMPACT

The economic burden of cancer is immense, involving direct healthcare costs

such as hospital stays, diagnostic tests, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation
therapy. These expenses can be particularly overwhelming in low- and
middle-income settings where access to insurance or government aid is
limited. In addition, cancer often leads to loss of productivity due to patients’
inability to work during treatment and recovery. Family members may also
reduce work hours or leave jobs to provide care, resulting in further financial
strain. National economies suffer from reduced workforce participation and
increased healthcare spending.

EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

A cancer diagnosis frequently triggers anxiety, depression, and psychological

distress both in patients and their loved ones. The uncertainty of prognosis,
side effects of treatment, and social isolation contribute to emotional strain.
Families face emotional burdens as they cope with caregiving responsibilities
and fear of loss, which may disrupt family dynamics and mental well-being.

IMPORTANCE OF SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Support networks, including counseling, patient support groups, and

community resources, play a vital role in enhancing quality of life for cancer
patients and their families. Emotional support helps reduce feelings of
isolation, while practical assistance can alleviate daily challenges. Healthcare
providers and social workers often facilitate access to such services to
improve coping mechanisms and treatment adherence.

ROLE OF CANCER AWARENESS CAMPAIGNS

Public health initiatives aimed at increasing cancer awareness, promoting

preventive behaviors, and encouraging screening are crucial in reducing
cancer incidence and mortality. Educational campaigns help dispel myths,
reduce stigma, and empower individuals to seek timely medical care.
Community-based programs often mobilize resources to support affected
families, fostering social solidarity.

CONCLUSION
This project has highlighted the complexity of cancer as a multifaceted
disease involving diverse types, causes, symptoms, diagnostic approaches,
staging systems, and treatment options. Understanding cancer is essential
for early detection, which significantly improves the chances of successful
treatment and survival. Prevention strategies, including lifestyle modifications
and vaccinations, play a crucial role in reducing cancer incidence, while
advances in diagnosis and personalized therapies continue to enhance
patient outcomes.

Despite significant progress, cancer remains a major global health challenge

due to its variable behavior and the constant emergence of new subtypes and
drug resistance. Ongoing research is vital to uncover novel molecular targets,
improve early detection methods, and develop more effective and less toxic
treatments. Public health efforts must also emphasize education, awareness,
and equitable access to care to lessen the burden of cancer worldwide.

In summary, a comprehensive understanding of cancer drives innovation in

medicine and empowers individuals and communities to combat this disease
through prevention, early diagnosis, and optimal treatment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following sources were referenced to compile this comprehensive
investigatory project on cancer:

• DeVita, V.T., Lawrence, T.S., & Rosenberg, S.A. DeVita, Hellman, and
Rosenberg's Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology, 11th Edition,
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2019.
• World Health Organization (WHO). “Cancer Fact Sheet.” WHO, 2023,
[Link]
• National Cancer Institute. “Cancer Types.” National Institutes of Health,
2024, [Link]
• Miller, K.D., et al. “Cancer Treatment and Survivorship Statistics, 2023.”
CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, vol. 73, no. 1, 2023, pp. 17–48.
• American Cancer Society. “Cancer Prevention & Early Detection.” 2023,
[Link]