Department of Electrical Engineering

Technical Challenges and Solutions of a three-phase bidirectional two stage Electric Vehicle
charger

Name: Babur Zaman Khan Mughal

Candidate No. 14

Master’s thesis in Electrical Engineering…ELE-3900 May 2022

Title: Technical Challenges and Solutions of a three-phase Date: May 15,2022
bidirectional two stage Electric Vehicle charger

Subject Name: M-EL-3900 Master’s Thesis, 2022 Classification: Open

Faculty: Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology Subject Code: ELE- 3900

Master Program: Electrical Engineering

Supervisor: Chittaranjan Pradhan

Key Words: Electric Vehicle ( EV), Two step three phase bidirectional charger, Microgrid,
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)

i
 Preface
As the world is revolutionizing and getting into the digital age with the help of Electronics and
Artificial Intelligence, engineers and researchers are leading towards a far better technological
and sustainable world, especially with the advancement in the electric vehicle systems and their
integration with the microgrids. Thus, this thesis presents a step forward towards the solution
of load management between EVs and Microgrids.

First of all, I thank Allah Almighty who gave me strength and knowledge to complete this
thesis. The truth is, I could not have achieved this success without my mentor's guidance. But
before that, I would like to thank my parents, who are always there to support me,
unconditionally love me, and undoubtfully understand me. Along with them, I would like to
thank my supervisor, Chittaranjan Pradhan who have helped me in every step where I needed
guidance and have been there to support me in the challenges throughout this period. I thank
all my guiders who put all the hard work and efforts into achieving the results.

Narvik, 15 May 2022

Babur Zaman Khan Mughal

ii
 Abstract
The sustainability of the power grid owing to the building strain of the ever-growing demand
for electrical energy urges innovative and more practical solutions that enable active
participation of end-users in stable and reliable management of power systems. One of the
emerging projections of such a two-way exchange of electrical power between the grid and
consumers is the developing field of bidirectional energy trade between power providers and
electric vehicle owners. A bidirectional, three-phase, two-stage off-board electric vehicle EV
charger design is proposed in this research. The first stage acts as alternating current AC to
direct current DC converter during charging operation and behaves as three phase inverter and
power factor corrector when energy exchange is from vehicle to grid. The second stage is a
bidirectional DC-DC level converter linked to the first stage by a DC bus. The grid side filter
is designed to enable the grid interfacing without any significant power quality problems. The
proposed design, topology and the devised control infrastructure are tested through simulations
on MATLAB/Simulink platform by interfacing the charger to a three-phase AC microgrid and
the results approve the performance of the proposed charging topology.

iii
Abbreviations
EV Electric Vehicle
VPP Virtual Power Plants
V2G Vehicle to Grid
G2V Grid to Vehicle
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current
DG Distributed Generator
DS Distribution System
SOC State of Charge
VAR Volt Ampere Reactive
PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
EVSE EV supply equipment
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
PFC Power Factor Correction
SPWM Switching Pulse Width Modulation
SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
SOP Soft Open Point
SVR Static Voltage Regulator
VPP Virtual Power Plant
ZVS Zero Voltage Solution

iv
Nomenclature

ig Single-phase grid current

Vs Convertor side voltage

L1 Convertor side inductor

L2 Grid side inductor

sw Switching frequency

res Resonance frequency

f res Switching frequency

f sw Resonance frequency

VL Voltage across inductor

t Phase angel

I abc three-phase non-filtered current outputs of the LCL filter

Id Current used for error calculation with respect to I dref

Iq Current used for error calculation with respect to I qref

KP PI controller incorporates proportional

Ki PI controller integral coefficients

I ref Reference current that indicates the behavior of the converter

Vabc three-phase non-filtered voltage outputs of the LCL filter

I ch Battery
BatteryCharging
chargingcurrent
current

I dis Battery discharging current

v
Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................ ii

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iii

Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ iv

Nomenclature ............................................................................................................................. v

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... ix

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background and Motivations ..................................................................................... 1

1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Thesis Structure .......................................................................................................... 4

2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 5

3 Modeling and Methodology of Proposed Work ............................................................... 11

3.1 Designing of a Micro Grid ....................................................................................... 12

3.2 Grid side LCL filter .................................................................................................. 13

3.2.1 Parameter Selection for Inductors .................................................................... 14

3.2.2 Parameter selection for Capacitor .................................................................... 14

3.3 Three-phase Power Factor Correction Stage ............................................................ 15

3.4 Bidirectional Voltage level converter stage ............................................................. 17

3.5 EV Battery Specifications: ....................................................................................... 20

4 Modeling and MATLAB Simulations of the Studied Power System with Results ......... 21

4.1 Microgrid .................................................................................................................. 22

4.1.1 Main Grid ......................................................................................................... 22

4.1.2 PV Generator .................................................................................................... 23

4.1.3 Wind Generator ................................................................................................ 26

4.1.4 Diesel Generator ............................................................................................... 27

4.2 Bidirectional Charger ............................................................................................... 29

vi
5 Results Comparison and Discussion ................................................................................ 38

5.1 Comparison: ............................................................................................................. 38

5.1.1 Comparison between DC charging voltages: ................................................... 38

5.1.2 Comparison Between Reactive Power: ............................................................ 39

5.1.3 Comparison Between Discharging Voltages: .................................................. 41

6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 43

Works Cited.............................................................................................................................. 44

vii
List of Tables

Table 1: Battery Specifications ............................................................................................... 20

Table 2: Parameter for the PV modelling. ............................................................................... 25
Table 3: Parameter for the wind generator modelling. ............................................................ 27
Table 4: Table of Contributions and Comparison with the state-of-the-art technique ............ 42

viii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions of USA by Economic Sector in 2020 [6]. .......... 2
Figure 2: Yearly sale of the Electric Vehicles units [14]. ........................................................ 5
Figure 3: Multilevel converter (AC-DC and DC-AC) interfaced with a buck/boost converter
[26]. ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 4: Circuit diagram of a bidirectional charger with a bidirectional DC-DC Converter
and a high-frequency switching converter [26].......................................................................... 7
Figure 5: Circuit of bi-directional charger explained in [27]. .................................................. 8
Figure 6: Circuit diagram of a bidirectional charger presented in [29]. ................................... 9
Figure 7: The block diagram representing different stages of the designed bidirectional EV
charger. ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 8: Power flow during V2G and G2V mode. ............................................................... 12
Figure 9: Per-phase equivalent circuit of LCL filter. ............................................................. 13
Figure 10: Schematic Diagram of the three-phase power factor correction stage. ................ 15
Figure 11: Block diagram of phase lock loop working. ......................................................... 16
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of sinusoidal PWM generation using unipolar modulation
scheme. ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 13: Block diagram of PI internal function. ................................................................. 18
Figure 14: Controller block diagram for three phase inverter PWM control to maintain
VDC=800V at DC bus. ............................................................................................................ 19
Figure 15: For Battery charging and discharging. ................................................................. 20
Figure 16: The complete schematics of the proposed power system ..................................... 21
Figure 17: 2500MVA/ 120KV voltage source is modelled to operate as the main grid. ....... 22
Figure 18: Simulink model of 12KW PV Generator. ............................................................ 23
Figure 19: The Simulink model of maximum power point tracking system for PV generator.
.................................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 20: Simulink Circuit of the VSC Main Controller that takes Vabc and Iabc and
produces pulses for the three-phase inverter. ........................................................................... 24
Figure 21: Simulink model of 12KVA/ 400V wind generator. ............................................. 26
Figure 22: Simulink model of 15MVA/ 25KV Diesel Generator. ......................................... 28
Figure 23: Inside Simulink model of Diesel Engine Governor block. ................................... 28
Figure 24: The complete Simulink model of the bidirectional charger. ................................ 30

ix
Figure 25: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the charging
mode. ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 26: In the figure, the graphs of all the three phases of currents are displayed during
the charging mode. ................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 27: This displays the graph of DC voltage before buck converter during charging
mode. ........................................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 28: DC Battery voltage during charging mode. .......................................................... 32
Figure 29: Battery Current during charging mode. ................................................................ 33
Figure 30: Consumption of real power by the bidirectional charger is shown in this figure. 33
Figure 31: Consumption of reactive power by the bidirectional charger is shown in this
figure. ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 32: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the
discharging mode. .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 33: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the charging
mode. ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Figure 34: DC Voltage of the battery after the boost converter and before the main three-
phase inverter is displayed in this figure. ................................................................................. 35
Figure 35: DC Battery voltage during the V2G mode. .......................................................... 36
Figure 36: Battery current during the V2G mode. ................................................................. 36
Figure 37: Real power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is shown
in this figure. ............................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 38: Reactive power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is
shown in this figure. ................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 39: The graph of DC charging voltage in G2V mode from [30]. ............................... 38
Figure 40: DC Battery voltage during charging mode………………………………………39
Figure 41: The graph of discharging real and reactive power in G2V mode [30]…………..39
Figure 42: Reactive power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is
shown in this figure…………………………………………………………………………...40
Figure 43: The graph of DC dis-charging voltage in V2G mode [30]…...………….………41
Figure 44:DC Battery Voltage during the dischargingV2G mode……….………………….41

x
1 Introduction
The growing global connectivity along with challenges like depleting conventional energy
resources and environmental concerns is positively urging the researchers to innovate modern
alternate energy economical and eco-friendly solutions.

1.1 Background and Motivations

One of the emerging technological innovations in this regard is the utilization of Electric
Vehicle (EV) batteries as a storage and backup solution for improvement in various electrical
energy utilization scenarios by actively participating in demand response by either selling back
stored energy or throttling charging rate. The concept of a high-density EV battery as a source
to inject electrical power into the grid has enabled multiple benefits for EV owners i.e., revenue
generation, grid congestion management via valley filling and peak shaving, the inclusion of
more and more renewable resources for energy production, a backup source in case of
emergency or blackout, reliability enhancement of microgrids through participation in Virtual
Power Plants (VPP) etc. However, apart from these numerous advantages, the only drawback
is the potential stress resulting in a reduced life span of EV batteries due to increased
charge/discharge cycles. Thus, Vehicle to Grid (V2G) implementation on the industrial level
still faces a lot of technical difficulties leaving room for novel research and development.

By the end of 2015, the total number of electric vehicles on the roads reached one million. To
motivate the concept of clean energy type of transportation they introduced multiple policies to
facilitate them [1]. The alarming concern of global warming and greenhouse emissions is
leading to various new and innovative solutions in multiple aspects of life to adopt a greener
and ecofriendly lifestyle both on a countrywide and individual level. There is reported to be a
significant 27% contribution of greenhouse emissions in the USA by the transportation sector
only in the year 2020 [2]. Thus, there is an evident global trend of shifting toward more
environment friendly options in every aspect e.g., in the transportation sector the replacement
of conventional fossil fuel operated transportation, the adaptation of EVs can be a revolutionary
step toward a cleaner environment. The benefit being the possibilities to fuel up the EV from
renewable greener energy production sources apart from conventional fuel-powered sources.
Hence, the energy storage infrastructure i.e., batteries and their chargers are being actively
researched to improve their efficiency. There are some serious problems EVs are still facing
like expensive batteries and their limited life cycles [3], incremental cost, power quality issues

Page 1 of 47
regarding EV chargers, and inefficiency in the charging circuitry of EVs. Power quality-related
issues can be addressed by using active filters [4], [5].

Figure 1: Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions of USA by Economic Sector in 2020 [6].

Usually, an on-board unidirectional charger is used with EVs that is a part of the vehicle itself
and allows only the charging of EV battery via a flow of power from gird i.e., unidirectional
Grid to Vehicle (G2V) operation. However, the relatively novel concept of V2G operation
where an EV with stored energy can export its power back to the electrical grid ensures the
numerous benefits stated above and it is very viable as the vehicle is parked for 85% of the
time.

Based on the location of installation of EV battery charger, two classes have been specified in
the literature.

• On-board Chargers are installed inside the electric vehicles operational on either
single-phase or three-phase power sources. They being a part of EV add to its weight
and volume that hinder the mobility somehow so, their power rating and size are limited
[7], [8].
• Off-board chargers are fixed and installed at specific stations where an EV can get DC
terminals of the battery attached for charging. As they do not affect the EV design so
these types of chargers are usually high power rated and larger in size [9], [10].

Page 2 of 47
V2G operation enables bidirectional power flows and allows the energy to be exchanged
between vehicle and grid in either way. In specific V2G indicates the flow of active power from
the vehicle to the grid, however, it can provide reactive power compensation also and the flow
of reactive power is independent of the battery state of charge (SOC). The major advantage of
reactive power support is that it can act like Var compensation and reduce losses of reactive
power long-span transmission in grids by balancing the Var demand of load locally. On the
other hand, charging from renewable sources during active hours and then feeding this energy
during inactive hours can be an efficient solution to intermittent problems of renewable
resources. The inherent limitation of power capacity of on-board chargers due to mobility of
EV can be efficiently overcome by off-board chargers as they have high power ratings and are
fixed so they can work under the agreement of ancillary services etc.

A vital aspect of V2G implementation is to enable communication between grid and vehicle for
data exchange e.g., mode of operation, battery SOC etc. IEC 61850 [11] communication
standard defines the standards to be followed for information exchange between intelligent
electronic devices inside a substation while IEC 61850-7-420 [12] extension projects to the
field of renewable energy generation infrastructure-related communication and IEC 61850-7-
420 [13] extends to account for components that do not lie under the previous standards.
However, the EVs and V2G operations were still unincorporated until 61850-90-8 [14] was
proposed to fully accommodate EVs in smart grids. So accordingly, the EV utility grid can be
connected to the EV via a so-called EV supply equipment (EVSE) and a charging outlet i.e.,
CHAdeMO, CCS/Combo, etc. The desirable characteristics of an EV charger are high
efficiency, high power density, low power current ripple, bidirectional power flow and galvanic
isolation etc. The high output current ripple negatively affects the battery lifespan.

Page 3 of 47
1.2 Objectives
This research aims to design an off-board three-phase, 2 stages, and bidirectional EV charger
suitable for both G2V and V2G mode by allowing bidirectional power exchange between
vehicle and grid. The working and performance of the proposed design are to be tested through
its integration with a three-phase AC microgrid composed of a combination of diesel generators
with renewable energy sources i.e., wind and PV generation units. The operation of the
proposed design scheme along with its control architecture is simulated using the
MATLAB/Simulink platform to rigorously test the outcomes in both V2G and G2V modes.

1.3 Thesis Structure

This research proposes an off-board, 2 stages, bidirectional EV charger. The remainder of the
thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 2 elaborates on the related work and literature review
on the topic. Chapter 3 discusses the methodology of proposed work. Chapter 4 focuses on
modeling and simulations of the proposed topology of power electronic circuitry followed by
Chapter 5 significantly discusses the results and outcomes of simulations and comparison.
Lastly, the performance of the proposed topology is summarized in the conclusion section in
Chapter 6.

Page 4 of 47
2 Literature Review
The petrol and diesel engines have some very negative impacts on the environment and human
health. The emissions from petrol engines and diesel engines are very dangerous for the health
of human beings, especially for children and the old ones. Those emissions can cause asthma,
lung cancer, etc. in serious scenarios [15]. Furthermore, these emissions damage the lower-level
ozone layer which protects vegetable crops and trees and these emissions are also the main
cause of acidic rain which affects the drinking water and other essentials of a human being like
vegetables, fish meat and animal meat etc. [16]. Due to all those non-eco-friendly features, the
market growth of Electric Vehicles is increasing exponentially worldwide.

Figure 2: Yearly sale of the Electric Vehicles units [14].

However, with the increasing demand for EVs, some serious issue arises like the demand of
electricity is increasing exponentially. In [17] suggested that the issue of the deficiency of
electricity can be resolved by making photovoltaic generator-based EV charging stations. Those
charging stations also have the capability of grid connection as during the absence of solar
energy it can take energy from the grid to charge EVs.

Page 5 of 47
San Diego Firm also worked on this adaptation and they designed the first solar-based
standalone EV charging station However, the disadvantage of these strategies is that solar
energy is mostly available from 8 AM to 5 PM during the daytime and this is the active timings
for most of the jobs. To handle this problem [18] proposed to design renewable charging
stations at workplaces where most people can charge their EVs during their job time. In [19]
some methods are proposed to design a lightweight body of an EV to reduce the consumption
of electricity. In [20] the issue of charging EVs is addressed by suggesting some methods of
smart charging. Those methods are,

• Charging of EVs during off-peak hours.

• Charging EVs during the high availability of renewable energy sources links wind and
solar.

• Charging EVs by remotely sensing the demand and supply patterns.

Smart charging can operate in two modes unidirectional charging and bidirectional charging.
In unidirectional charging mode, EVs can be only charged like in G2V mode. In bidirectional
charging mode, power can flow in both directions in V2G mode and G2V mode. A bidirectional
charger has more advantages as it is capable to supply power back to the grid during peak hours.
Charging of electric vehicles can be classified into two categories centralized [21], [22]or direct
method and decentralized [23] or indirect method [24]. In the centralized or direct method, the
EV charging is decided by an aggregator and in the indirect or decentralized approach, V2G or
G2V mode is decided by the owner of the EV.

In [25] a multilevel AC-DC and DC-AC converter is used in bidirectional chargers as shown in
FIGURE 2, with the integration of a buck/ boost converter. In G2V mode multilevel converter
act as a rectifier and converts the AC voltage of the grid to DC voltage, a filter is used to make
this DC voltage ripple-free. Then buck-boost converter acts as a buck converter and transforms
high-level DC voltage to the battery level DC voltage. In V2G mode buck/boost converter acts
as a boost converter and transforms battery level DC voltage to grid-level DC voltage and then
through a multi-level converter that behaves like an inverter, this voltage is transformed to grid-
level AC.

Page 6 of 47
Figure 3: Multilevel converter (AC-DC and DC-AC) interfaced with a buck/boost converter
[26].

In [26] a different topology of bidirectional charger is presented as shown in FIGURE 3. This

model has the same functionality with the inclusion of a DC-DC converter and an AC-DC
bidirectional converter. The control topology used in this formation is also responsible for
sustaining the unity power factor and improving power quality. However, the issue of this
topology is that it can achieve THD (Total Harmonic distortion) of just up to 8%. More number
of switches are involved in this topology which is why more conduction loss occurs which is
the main drawback of this topology.

Figure 4: Circuit diagram of a bidirectional charger with a bidirectional DC-DC Converter

and a high-frequency switching converter [26].

Page 7 of 47
In [27] it is advised that to minimize the THD three-phase input is first transformed from AC-
AC at higher frequency and battery level voltage through a step-down transformer. Then this
voltage is transformed to DC through a rectifier as shown in FIGURE 4. Due to a greater number
of switches, this topology again failed to impress due to the more conduction loss. This topology
reduced the THD but low order harmonics remain the same.

Figure 5: Circuit of bi-directional charger explained in [27].

In [28] another topology is introduced in which AC-AC conversion is done through a double
active bridge [29] converter followed by a series resonant tank and a transformer to further step
it down then through a single-stage converter, this AC voltage is rectified or inverted based on
the direction of current or mode of operation as shown in FIGURE 5. The advantage of this
topology is that more efficiency is achieved and soft switching phenomenon. However, again
the disadvantage of this topology is the involvement of a greater number of switches and more
conduction loss.

Page 8 of 47
 Figure 6: Circuit diagram of a bidirectional charger presented in [29].

In [30] a three-phase two-stage bidirectional charger for electric vehicles. The first stage was
based on AC-DC and the second stage is for DC-DC conversion. Furthermore, the charger is
modelled with a non-isolated converter based on a half bridge rectifier/inverter and the isolated
converter based on a dual active bridge rectifier/inverter. The disadvantage of this charger is
that it exchanges only active power so EV cannot be used as a static VAR compensator which
is one of the benefits of EVs. The other disadvantage is that it takes a much longer time to
stabilize or reach the steady state.

There are two classes of EV chargers based on the location of installation of a battery charger
on-board charger [31] and off-board chargers [32]. On-board Chargers are installed inside the
electric vehicles operational on either single-phase or three-phase power sources. They being a
part of EV add to its weight and volume that hinder the mobility somehow so, their power rating
and size are limited. Off-board chargers are fixed and installed at specific stations where an EV
can get DC terminals of the battery attached for charging. As they do not affect the EV design
so these types of chargers are usually high power rated and larger in size.

Page 9 of 47
In specific V2G indicates the flow of active power from the vehicle to the grid, however, it can
provide reactive power compensation also and the flow of reactive power is independent of the
battery state of charge (SOC). The major advantage of reactive power support is that it can act
like VAR compensation and reduce losses of reactive power long-span transmission in grids by
balancing the Var demand of load locally. On the other hand, charging from renewable sources
during active hours and then feeding this energy during inactive hours can be an efficient
solution to intermittent problems of renewable resources. The inherent limitation of power
capacity of on-board chargers due to mobility of EV can be efficiently overcome by off-board
chargers as they have high power ratings and are fixed so they can work under the agreement
of ancillary services etc. [33].

In this thesis, an off-board three phase, 2 stages, and bidirectional EV charger is designed for
both G2V and V2G mode by allowing bidirectional power exchange between vehicle and grid.
The working and performance of the proposed design is to be tested through its integration with
a three-phase AC microgrid composed of the combination of a diesel generator with renewable
energy sources i.e., wind and PV generation units. The operation of the proposed design scheme
along with its control architecture is simulated using MATLAB/Simulink platform to rigorously
test the outcomes in both V2G and G2V modes.

Equation Chapter (Next) Section 1

Page 10 of 47
3 Modeling and Methodology of Proposed Work
A two-stage three phase, 100KVA bidirectional charger for high energy density EV batteries
supporting both G2V (Charging) and V2G (Dis-charging) operations is designed. The major
constitutes of the design topology are,

1. Designing of a Micro Grid

2. Grid Side LCL filter
3. three-phase Power Factor Correction (PFC) stage
4. Bidirectional voltage level converter stage
The design and control formulation along with parameter settings are elaborated in the
following sections.

LCL ~
FIlter Buck/ Boost EV
PFC
Micro
Grid

Figure 7: The block diagram representing different stages of the designed bidirectional EV
charger.

During G2V mode, the vehicle takes energy from the microgrid and the battery charging process
takes place where EV behaves as a conventional load to the microgrid. However, in V2G mode
the EV can inject its stored energy into the microgrid as the battery discharges. The three-phase
rectifier stage during charging mode behaves as a three-phase controlled grid-tied inverter/
power factor correction stage during V2G mode. The direction of current and power flow during
both V2G and G2V modes are displayed in FIGURE 8.

Page 11 of 47
3.1 Designing of a Micro Grid
A microgrid is a self-sufficient interconnected network of loads and distributed generation units
that can work in two modes i.e., grid-connected and islanded. In grid-connected mode this
network is connected with the main grid however in the islanded mode it is operating
independently. The main difference between the main grid and a microgrid is the generation

Figure 8: Power flow during V2G and G2V mode.

system and transmission line. Normally the main grid consists of a central generation system,
and a large transmission network and can cover a large area. On the other hand, a microgrid
contains distribution energy resources mainly consisting of wind distributed generators,
photovoltaic distributed generators, and Electric Vehicles (EVs) in some cases. In this thesis, a
bi-directional charger for Electrical Vehicles is designed that can work both in Grid to Vehicle
(G2V) and Vehicle to Grid (V2G) during charging mode and discharging mode respectively.

A microgrid is designed by connecting multiple loads and multiple distributed generators on

different nodes. To depict the real-time behaviors loads and generators are modelled
stochastically.

Page 12 of 47
3.2 Grid side LCL filter
LCL filter is used on the grid side to interface the EV charger with a three-phase grid. The major
benefits of using LCL filters are reduction in switching frequency harmonics produced in the
following stage of the circuit, reduce disturbance of sensitive loads, loss reduction and overall
reduced Total Harmonics Distortion (THD). The LCL filter ensures the quality of power
injected into the grid in V2G operational modes. LCL filter having a capacitor branch bypasses
higher switching harmonics thus the size of the required inductor is reduced additionally better
decoupling between the filter and grid impedance due to the LCL filter providing lower current
ripples across grid current [34] [35].

L1 Vx L2

is ig
Vs C

Figure 9: Per-phase equivalent circuit of LCL filter.

The per-phase equivalent circuit of the LCL filter is shown in FIGURE 9. Where, L1 is

convertor side inductor, L2 is grid side inductor, ig is single phase grid current and Vs is

convertor side voltage. For simplicity the parasitic resistance of L1 , L2 , and C is considered to

be ideally zero [36]. The transfer function of the given circuit is shown in Equation (3.1)

ig 1
= (3.1)
Vs j L2 + j L1 − j 3 L1L2C

Page 13 of 47
3.2.1 Parameter Selection for Inductors
Manipulating the transfer function in Equation (3.1) to find the values of filter inductors gives
us.

1
L = (3.2)
 ig ( sw)  sw2

sw  1 − 2 
 Vi ( sw)  res 

Where, L = L1 + L2 , ig ( sw) is the value of current at switching frequency, Vi ( sw) is the value

of input voltage at switching frequency, sw is the switching frequency and res is the resonance

1
frequency , and
CL f

L1 L2
Lf =
L1 + L2

Where, L1 is the converter side inductor, and L2 is the inverter side inductor [37]. According

to IEEE standard, ig ( sw) = 0.3% of ig , Vi ( sw) = 0.9% of Vi , VL is the voltage across inductor

Lmax
i.e. VL = 0.2 Vg for Lmax , where = L1 = L2 . So, two equal valued inductors are applied in
2
the LCL filter [38].

3.2.2 Parameter selection for Capacitor

The value of the capacitor is selected based on the well-known consideration that the reactive
power requirement of the capacitor must be limited to 5% of the rated power of the power
device. [39]

Qc = 5% of Srated

V2
Qc = = 5% of Srated
0.5 fC

(0.05)Srated
C = (3.3)
2 fVg2

Page 14 of 47
Where Srated is the rated apparent power, Qc is the reactive power of the capacitor, C is the

value of the capacitor, V is the voltage and Vg is the single-phase voltage of the grid. As

evident, the value of a capacitor depends upon frequency i.e., f res , f sw that ultimately depends

upon device constraints, size, cost and thermal capabilities etc.

3.3 Three-phase Power Factor Correction Stage

The PFC stage consists of three phase bridge bidirectional rectifier/ inverter consisting of six
power electronics switches controlled by voltage and current controls based on Park Clark
transformation along with a phase-locked loop with feedback to ensure the unity power factor
operation. Indirect control methods ensure improved performance parameters (both static and
dynamic). The power electronics circuit of the three-phase power factor correction stage is
shown in FIGURE 10.

Figure 10: Schematic Diagram of the three-phase power factor correction stage.

Page 15 of 47
The PWM control mechanism used for PFC stage switching control is explained below which
maintains 800V constant DC at the DC bus of the PFC stage.

Let the three-phase voltage measured at the grid side be

Vg = [VR VY VB ] (3.4)

These voltages are transformed to  0 and dq0 domain respectively by applying the coordinate

transformation. After applying  0 transformation we get two-dimensional parameters where

the third dimension is zero.

Va = [V V ] (3.5)

These parameters are fed to the phase-locked loop controller as input. The controller generates
phase angel ( t ) which is feedback to it also. The working of PLL is shown in FIGURE 11.

Figure 11: Block diagram of phase lock loop working.

Similarly, the three-phase non-filtered current outputs of the LCL filter I abc are transformed to

 and then dq0 domain using ( t ) output of PLL. The resulting currents I d and I q are used
for error calculation with respect to I dref and I qref which are in turn fed to PI. Current

controllers. The resultant voltages after adding suitable gain to make it comparable to carrier
wave amplitude are then transformed back to three-phase reference voltage parameters through
inverse coordinate transformation. The reference voltage parameters are used as input for PWM
generation that ultimately governs DC/AC conversion during V2G mode and vice versa.

Page 16 of 47
The PWM generation uses a uni-polar SPWM scheme also known as 3 level modulation as
shown in the block diagram below. The scheme reduces THD along with lower values of
filtering inverter output and efficiency up to 98% due to reduced Zero Voltage Solution (ZVS)
state losses [40].

Figure 12: Schematic diagram of sinusoidal PWM generation using unipolar modulation
scheme.

3.4 Bidirectional Voltage level converter stage

This stage consists of a bidirectional Buck/Boost converter. This stage works as a Buck
converter when the charger is used in G2V mode operation and as a Boost converter. The
current reference polarity decides the charging/discharging operation as it changes the direction
of power flows PWM1 controls the upper switch performing buck operation while PWM2
controls the lower switch corresponding to boost operation.

Page 17 of 47
 Figure 13: Block diagram of PI internal function.

The transfer function of the PI controller incorporates proportional and integral coefficients
K P and Ki resulting in the output relation given in Eq. (3.6)

 K 
Y (s) = E (s)   K P + i  (3.6)
 S 

The basic schematic of the three-phase grid-connected inverter s shown in FIGURE 14. DC
voltage of a battery is taken as input and an inverter is designed by using BJTs and MOSFETS.
The AC output of that inverter is then connected to the LCL filter which is explained already.
Then the three-phase output of the LCL filter is connected to the grid. Then to design a
controller three-phase voltage is transformed into two-phase V and V through parks

transformation.

Page 18 of 47
Then through these two voltages phase loop lock is implemented. Phase loop lock is already
explained in detail in the previous section. Then V and V are transformed into Ed and Eq

through Clark's transformation. On the other hand, all the three-phase currents are converted to
I , I  and then further converted to I d and I q by using parks and Clark's transformation.

Then these are transformed Ed , Eq , I d and I q are used for generating six PWMs for the BJTs/

MOSFETs of the inverter to synchronize the voltage, frequency, and shape of the sine wave to
the microgrid.

Figure 14: Controller block diagram for three phase inverter PWM control to maintain
VDC=800V at DC bus.

Page 19 of 47
I ref is the current that indicates the behavior of the converter. Positive I ref switch the converters
behavior to charging mode or G2V mode, and Negative I ref shows the converter is working in
discharging and V2G mode as shown in FIGURE 15.

Figure 15: For Battery charging and discharging.

3.5 EV Battery Specifications:

The following TABLE 1 shows the battery specifications which have been chosen for this
system.

Table 1: Battery Specifications

Parameter Value
Nominal Voltage (V) 360V
Rated Capacity (Ah) 300Ah
Initial State of Charge (%) 50%
Battery Response Time (s) 1s
Battery Type Lithium-Ion
Cut off Voltage (V) 270V
Fully Charged Voltage (V) 419.1V
Capacity at Nominal Voltage (V) 271.3V
Nominal Discharge Current (A) 130.43A
Internal Resistance (Ohms) 0.012 Ohms

Page 20 of 47
4 Modeling and MATLAB Simulations of the Studied
Power System with Results
This chapter describes the simulations and the results of the proposed bi-directional charger.
The simulations are done on MATLAB R2020a. In the first step, a microgrid is designed that
includes some distributed generators for islanded mode i.e., PV Generator, Wind Generator and
a Diesel Generator and a main utility grid for the grid-connected mode. The main grid of
2500MVA / 132KV is used.

Figure 16: The complete schematics of the proposed power system

Page 21 of 47
4.1 Microgrid
As the thesis is based on the designing of a bidirectional EV charger and its effects on the
microgrid. So, for that purpose, a microgrid is designed that consists of main utility grid diesel
generator, wind, generator, PV generator and bidirectional charger as shown in FIGURE 16.

4.1.1 Main Grid

A three-phase voltage source of 2500MVA/ 11KV is designed with a 50Hz frequency as shown
in FIGURE 17. Then by using Star/Delta transformation a step-up transformer of 11KV/132KV
is used before transmission to reduce the I 2 R losses. A grounding transformer is used to protect
the power network from fault. After that, a 14KM long transmission line is used to transfer the
electricity from the main grid to the distribution grid.

Figure 17: 2500MVA/ 120KV voltage source is modelled to operate as the main grid.

Page 22 of 47
4.1.2 PV Generator
A Photovoltaic Generator of 12KW is designed in Simulink MATLAB. A PV array of 66 solar
panels is used that takes irradiance and temperature as input and generates DC power. By
keeping the behavior of the solar energy, the dispatch curve is modelled for temperature and
irradiance and given to the PV array module to depict the real-time behavior. All the parameters
for the modelling of the PV array are shown in TABLE 2. Furthermore, a boost converter is used
to step up the voltage to 500V DC. Then this DC Voltage is converted into three-phase AC
voltage by using 3 level bridge inverter and further steps up to 25KV by using a three-phase
delta/Star transformer as shown in FIGURE 18.

Figure 18: Simulink model of 12KW PV Generator.

Page 23 of 47
Maximum power point tracking by incremental conductance method is used to obtain maximum
power. Maximum power point is obtained when dP/dV=0 where P= V*I.

d (VI ) / dV = I + VdI / dV = 0
(3.7)
dI / dV = − I / V
Where dI and dV are the fundamental components of I and V ripples measured with a sliding
time window T_MPPT. I and V are the mean values of voltage and current measured with a
sliding time window T_MPPT.

Figure 19: The Simulink model of maximum power point tracking system for PV generator.

The Simulink circuit of the VSC main control is shown in FIGURE 20. VSC Main Control is
responsible for producing gate pulses for the three-phase inverter.

Figure 20: Simulink Circuit of the VSC Main Controller that takes Vabc and Iabc and produces
pulses for the three-phase inverter.

Page 24 of 47
Table 2: Parameter for the PV modelling.

Variable Value
Parallel strings 66
Series connected module per string 5
Cells Per module (Ncell) 96
Maximum Power per module 305.2W
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 64.2V
Voltage at maximum power point (Vmp) 54.7V
Temp. Coefficent of Voc -0.27 %/deg.C
Short Circuit Current (Isc) 5.96A
Current at maximum power point (Imp) 5.58A
Temp. Coefficent of Isc 0.062 %/deg.C
T_Cell [0 25 50] deg.C
Series Resistance (Rs) 0.37152 ohms
Shunt Resistance (Rsh) 269.59 ohms
Diode Ideality factor (D0) 0.95

Page 25 of 47
4.1.3 Wind Generator
A Wind Generator of 50KVA/400V is designed in MATLAB Simulink by keeping the wind
behavior in mind. A block of wind induction turbine is used which takes two inputs wind and
trip and provides three-phase AC as output. The trip is a binary input 1 is used to switch off the
wind Generator and 0 is used to switch on the wind generator. The second input named wind is
used to provide a dispatch curve to the wind generator. This block has built-in AC-AC
conversion to have stable output. This three-phase AC is further stepped up to 25KV by using
Delt/star transformation as shown in FIGURE 21. All the values of the parameters used in the
modelling of wind generators are given in

Figure 21: Simulink model of 12KVA/ 400V wind generator.

Page 26 of 47
Table 3: Parameter for the wind generator modelling.

Variable Value
Apparent Power (Pw) 50KW
Line voltage (Vn) 400V
Frequency (f) 50Hz
Stator Resistance (Rs) 0.004843 pu
Stator Inductance (Ls) 0.1248 pu
Rotor resistance (Rr) 0.004377 pu
Rotor Inductance (Lr) 0.1791 pu
Magnetizing inductance Lm (pu) 6.77 pu
Inertia constant 5.04 s
friction factor (F) 0.01 pu
pairs of poles (p) 3
Pitch angle beta 0 deg.
Nominal wind turbine mechanical output power 12 KW
Base wind speed 12 m/s
Base rotational speed 1 pu
Maximum power at base wind speed 1 pu
Proportional gain (Kp) of the PI-controller 2
Integral gain (Ki) of the PI-controller 25
Maximum pitch angle 45 deg.
The maximum rate of change of pitch angle 2 deg/s

4.1.4 Diesel Generator

A Diesel Generator of 15MVA/ 25KV is also used as a DG. A block of synchronous machines
is used that takes two inputs. One is for connecting a prime mover for mechanical input and the
other one is for excitation as shown in FIGURE 22. The diesel generator produces three-phase
AC output that passed through an Isolation transformer of 1:1 that is used for safety purposes.
Then these phase-to-phase voltages are measured by using voltmeters and displayed on the
scope. Three ports of the three-phase AC are connected with the main grid in the main model.
Some blocks are used to measure the electric power of the diesel generator and display it on the
scope.

Page 27 of 47
 Figure 22: Simulink model of 15MVA/ 25KV Diesel Generator.

A prime mover/ Actuator system with a control scheme is implemented by keeping mechanical
power in mind as shown in FIGURE 23. The built-in Simulink block of excitation system is
used for Vf1.

Figure 23: Inside Simulink model of Diesel Engine Governor block.

Page 28 of 47
4.2 Bidirectional Charger
The main objective of this thesis is to design a three-phase bidirectional charger for an electric
vehicle. The three phases of the input line from the mainline are connected to an LCL filter. A
detailed description of an LCL filter is given in the previous section. The values of the inductor
and capacitors are calculated by using (3.2) and (3.3). Then the output of the LCL filter is
passed through a three-phase controller. The three-phase controller can perform inverter
operations or rectification operations based on the requirement as shown in FIGURE 24. Six
PWMs are generated to control the switching of the IGBTs of the three-phase controller as
shown in FIGURE 14. Then Buck or Boost operation is performed on DC voltage based on the
charging operation (G2V) or discharging operation (V2G). While charging in G2V mode power
is flowing from right to left fashion. Three-phase AC voltage is converted to DC through a
three-phase rectifier and then to charge the battery DC voltage is stepped down by a buck
converter at the voltage levels of the battery. While in V2G mode when the vehicle is
transferring its power to the main grid, the DC voltage of the battery is stepped up by a boost
converter and then transformed to a three-phase AC by using a three-phase inverter.
Furthermore, this three-phase AC voltage is passed through an LCL filter and then connected
with the grid. Current and voltages are transformed using Clarks and parks transformation and
a phase loop lock is used to lock it with the grid. All the details regarding the transformations
and phase loop lock are explained in the previous section. The Simulink models of the complete
simulations are shown in FIGURE 24.

Page 29 of 47
Figure 24: The complete Simulink model of the bidirectional charger.

Page 30 of 47
The three-phase voltage from the main bus of all the synchronized generation units i.e., Utility
grid, Diesel generator, Wind generator, and PV generator is displayed in FIGURE 25. The
results display that all the phases of voltages are balanced 120 degrees apart.

Figure 25: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the charging
mode.

The three-phase current from the main bus of all the synchronized generation units i.e., Utility
grid, Diesel generator, Wind generator, and PV generator are displayed in FIGURE 26. It
indicates that all the phases are balanced, currents are in-phase and exactly 120 degrees apart.

Figure 26: In the figure, the graphs of all the three phases of currents are displayed during
the charging mode.

Page 31 of 47
In FIGURE 27, DC voltage before the buck converter and after the rectification is displayed.

Figure 27: This displays the graph of DC voltage before buck converter during charging
mode.

The battery voltage during the charging mode is shown in FIGURE 28.

Figure 28: DC Battery voltage during charging mode.

Page 32 of 47
The battery current during the charging mode is shown in FIGURE 29.

Figure 29: Battery Current during charging mode.

The real power consumed by the bidirectional charger during the charging mode is shown in
FIGURE 30.

Figure 30: Consumption of real power by the bidirectional charger is shown in this figure.

Page 33 of 47
The reactive power consumed by the bidirectional charger during the charging mode is shown
in FIGURE 31.

Figure 31: Consumption of reactive power by the bidirectional charger is shown in this
figure.

The three-phase voltage from the main bus of all the synchronized generation units i.e., Utility
grid, Diesel generator, Wind generator, and PV generator in V2G mode are displayed in
FIGURE 32. The results display that all the phases of voltages are balanced 120 degrees apart.

Figure 32: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the
discharging mode.

Page 34 of 47
The three-phase current from the main bus of all the synchronized generation units i.e., Utility
grid, Diesel generator, Wind generator, and PV generator are displayed in FIGURE 33. It
indicates that all the phases are balanced, currents are in-phase and exactly 120 degrees apart.

Figure 33: In the above figure the graphs of three-phase voltages are shown for the charging
mode.

DC voltage of the batteries of EV after the boost converter and before the three-phase inverter
during dis-charging mode is shown in FIGURE 34.

Figure 34: DC Voltage of the battery after the boost converter and before the main three-
phase inverter is displayed in this figure.

Page 35 of 47
The battery voltage during the discharging mode is shown in FIGURE 35.

Figure 35: DC Battery voltage during the V2G mode.

The battery current during the discharging mode is shown in FIGURE 36.

Figure 36: Battery current during the V2G mode.

Page 36 of 47
Real power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is shown in this FIGURE
37.

Figure 37: Real power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is shown
in this figure.

Reactive power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is shown in
FIGURE 38.

Figure 38: Reactive power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is
shown in this figure.

Page 37 of 47
5 Results Comparison and Discussion
The microgrid is designed in the first step in which multiple generators are designed i.e.,
photovoltaic generator, wind generator and diesel generator. By keeping the same frequency,
voltage, and phase sequence all the three are synchronized to manage optimal loading. Then
through a step-down transformer, the voltage is stepped down for the secondary distribution
level. In the results and the simulations section, the voltage and current waveforms are
displayed. Batteries of EVs are also connected at the secondary distribution level for V2G mode
or G2V mode. In G2V mode DC voltage after the three-phase converter is also shown the same
graphically. The positive real power in FIGURE 30 indicates that the real current is in the
forward direction and the EV is consuming the power from the grid. The graph of the DC
voltage of the battery shown in FIGURE 28 indicates that the voltage of the battery is rising
slowly with the charging of the battery.

5.1 Comparison:
A comparison between DC charging voltage , DC discharging voltage , discharging real and
reactive power of the [30] to our system results are shown in the following sections.

5.1.1 Comparison between DC charging voltages:

. It can be seen from the below FIGURE 39 that due to switching devices and charging devices,
reaching the steady stage of DC charging voltage is taking more than one second. However, in
our proposed scheme from FIGURE 40, it can be seen that the steady-state is achieved in less
than 0.1s.

Figure 39: The graph of DC charging voltage in G2V mode from [30].
Page 38 of 47
 Figure 40: DC Battery voltage during charging mode.

5.1.2 Comparison Between Reactive Power:

In FIGURE 41 reactive power is zero throughout so it cannot be used as a static VAR
compensator but our proposed bidirectional charger EV can be used as a static VAR
compensator as it can be seen from FIGURE 42.

Figure 41: The graph of discharging real and reactive power in G2V mode [30].

Page 39 of 47
 Figure 42: Reactive power provided by the bidirectional charger during the V2G mode is
shown in this figure.

For V2G mode graphs of three-phase AC voltage, three-phase AC current, DC voltage before
the three-phase converter and after the buck converter, real power, and reactive power is
displayed in the above section. The battery DC voltage in V2G mode shown in FIGURE 35
indicates that the voltage of the battery is decreasing slightly with the time as the battery is
getting discharged.

Page 40 of 47
5.1.3 Comparison Between Discharging Voltages:
It can be seen from the below FIGURE 43 graph that due to switching devices and charging
devices, to reach the steady stage discharging voltage is taking more than one second. However,
in our proposed scheme from FIGURE 44, it can be seen that the steady-state is achieved in less
than 0.1second.

Figure 43: The graph of DC dis-charging voltage in V2G mode [30]

Figure 44: DC Battery voltage during the discharging V2G mode.

Page 41 of 47
The negatively valued graph of real power indicates that current is flowing in the reverse
direction and power is EV is supplying power to the grid. All the results have been shown
quantitatively, proving that our bidirectional charger has the ability to perform in both V2G and
G2V mode efficiently. Therefore, our proposed technique is far better than the state-of-the-art
techniques in terms of performance and power quality concerns as batteries of EVs are one of
the most expensive components and by improving the power quality we can increase their life.

A highlight of our comparison of results is shown in the following TABLE 4:

Table 4: Table of Contributions and Comparison with the state-of-the-art technique

Variable [30] Our System

Flow of Forward Real Power Yes Yes
Flow of Reverse Real Power Yes Yes
Flow of Forward Reactive Power No Yes
Flow of Reverse Reactive Power No Yes
Time to reach Steady State 1.2s 0.02s
Transients -2.5% - +1% -0.1% - +0.05%

Page 42 of 47
6 Conclusion
A three-phase, two stages off-board bidirectional EV charger is proposed. The first stage
rectifies the three-phase grid voltage for charging purposes while the later stage attenuates the
rectified DC bus voltage to a magnitude level suitable for battery charging and vice versa. The
power factor correction enables the exchange of both active and reactive powers between the
two entities. The grid side LCL filter works perfectly to keep the total harmonic distortion of
grid current within the encapsulated range of approximately 5%. The DC link voltage remains
constant for all operational scenarios and there is no spike or overshoot while switching between
modes or even if the grid side voltage is disturbed somehow. The detailed analytical assessment
of the results for both charging and discharging modes verifies the robustness of the proposed
design and control and proves the feasibility of its practical implementation.

Page 43 of 47
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