MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
REVISION NOTES
Engineering
Physics
UNIT 1 NOTES
QUANTUM MECHANICS
QUANTUM MECHANICS
Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with
the behaviour of particles at microscopic scales, where
classical mechanics is inadequate. It describes the wave-like
properties of particles and introduces the wave function as a
fundamental concept.
MATTER WAVES
According to de Broglie's hypothesis, particles exhibit wave-
like properties described by matter waves. The wavelength of
a particle is inversely proportional to its momentum, linking
particles with wave properties.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES
Matter waves have characteristics such as wavelength,
frequency, amplitude, and phase. These properties determine
the behaviour and interactions of particles at quantum scales.
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION
The wave function, denoted by ψ, encapsulates all information
about a quantum system. |ψ|² gives the probability density of
finding a particle at a specific position, illustrating the
probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.
SCHRÖDINGER’S EQUATIONS
Schrödinger's time-dependent equation describes how the
wave function evolves over time in a quantum system. The
time-independent equation finds stationary states with
corresponding energy eigenvalues, essential for
understanding particle behaviour.
OPERATORS, EIGENVALUES, AND
EIGENFUNCTIONS
Operators in quantum mechanics represent physical
observables, such as position, momentum, and energy.
Eigenfunctions of operators correspond to measurable
quantities, with eigenvalues providing the results of
measurements.
Expectation Values: The expectation value of an operator in
a given quantum state provides the average value of a physical
quantity over many measurements. It reflects the most
probable outcome of a measurement.
APPLICATIONS OF SCHRÖDINGER’S EQUATION
• Motion of a Free Particle: Schrödinger's equation
predicts the wave function for a particle not subjected to
any potential. It describes how the wave function spreads
out over time.
• Electron in an Infinite Deep Potential Well (Rigid
Box): In a rigid box, the potential energy is zero inside
and infinite outside. Solutions to Schrödinger's equation
yield discrete energy levels and quantized wave
functions.
• Electron in a Finite Deep Potential Well (Non-Rigid
Box): A non-rigid box has a finite potential barrier.
Schrödinger's equation here gives discrete energy levels
as well, but with different boundary conditions affecting
the wave function.
UNIT 2 NOTES
SOLID STATE PHYSICS
LATTICE PARAMETERS
Lattice parameters describe the geometric characteristics of a
crystal lattice, including lattice constants (a, b, c) and angles
(α, β, γ) between crystallographic axes. They define the unit
cell dimensions and symmetry of the crystal structure.
MILLER INDICES
Miller indices are used to describe crystallographic planes and
directions within a crystal lattice. They denote the reciprocal
intercepts of these planes on the crystallographic axes,
providing a unique identifier for each plane.
INTERPLANAR DISTANCE OF LATTICE PLANE
The interplanar distance is the distance between adjacent
lattice planes in a crystal. It can be calculated using Bragg's
law, which relates the wavelength of incident X-rays to the
crystal lattice spacing.
DENSITY OF CRYSTALS
• Linear Density: Linear density is the number of atoms
or ions per unit length along a specific direction in a
crystal lattice.
• Planar Density: Planar density refers to the number of
atoms or ions per unit area of a crystal plane.
• Volume Density: Volume density (or simply density) is
the mass of a substance per unit volume. In crystals, it
often refers to the number of atoms or ions per unit
volume of the crystal.
SÖMMMERFIELD’S FREE ELECTRON THEORY
Sömmmerfield’s theory describes the behavior of free
electrons in a crystalline lattice as a quantum gas. It models
electrons as a free electron gas subject to periodic potential
from the lattice ions, explaining properties like electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity in metals.
DENSITY OF STATES (3D)
The density of states (DOS) in three-dimensional solids
describes the distribution of allowed energy states for
electrons. It quantifies the number of electronic states per unit
energy interval at each energy level, crucial for understanding
electronic properties.
FERMI-DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION
The Fermi-Dirac probability function describes the probability
of finding a fermion (such as an electron) occupying a
quantum state at a given temperature. It characterizes the
distribution of electrons among energy levels in a system
governed by Fermi-Dirac statistics.
NEARLY FREE ELECTRON THEORY (E-K CURVE)
The nearly free electron theory extends Sömmmerfield’s
theory by considering periodic potential effects on electrons in
a crystal. It generates the E-k relation (energy vs. wave
vector) describing the energy bands formed due to the
periodic potential, essential for understanding electronic band
structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF
BAND THEORY
• Conductors: Metals have overlapping energy bands or
partially filled bands near the Fermi level, allowing easy
movement of electrons and high electrical conductivity.
• Insulators: Insulators have a large energy gap between
the valence and conduction bands, making it difficult for
electrons to move, thus exhibiting high resistivity.
• Semiconductors: Semiconductors have a small energy
gap between the valence and conduction bands. At low
temperatures, they behave as insulators, but with
increased temperature or doping, their conductivity can
be significantly enhanced.
UNIT 3 NOTES
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
ELECTRON AND HOLE CONCENTRATIONS IN
SEMICONDUCTORS
In semiconductors, electrons and holes are the charge carriers.
Their concentrations depend on factors like doping and
temperature. Electrons are majority carriers in n-type
semiconductors (doped with donor impurities), while holes
are majority carriers in p-type semiconductors (doped with
acceptor impurities).
INTRINSIC DENSITY
The intrinsic density of carriers (electrons and holes) in a
semiconductor is the density at thermal equilibrium, where
intrinsic carriers are generated by thermal excitation and
recombination.
INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC CONDUCTIVITY
• Intrinsic Conductivity: Intrinsic conductivity arises
from carriers (electrons and holes) thermally generated in
a pure semiconductor at room temperature.
• Extrinsic Conductivity: Extrinsic conductivity results
from doping a semiconductor with impurities (donors or
acceptors), altering carrier concentrations and
conductivity significantly.
POSITION OF FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC AND
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
• Intrinsic Semiconductor: The Fermi level in intrinsic
semiconductors lies midway between the valence and
conduction bands at absolute zero temperature.
• Extrinsic Semiconductor: Doping shifts the Fermi
level. In n-type semiconductors, it lies closer to the
conduction band due to excess electrons from donor
impurities. In p-type semiconductors, it lies closer to the
valence band due to excess holes from acceptor
impurities.
Law of Mass Action: The law of mass action states that the
product of the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic
semiconductor at thermal equilibrium is constant and equals
the square of the intrinsic carrier density.
TEMPERATURE VARIATION OF CARRIER
CONCENTRATION IN EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS:
• n-type Semiconductors: Electron concentration
increases with temperature due to thermal generation of
electron-hole pairs.
• p-type Semiconductors: Hole concentration increases
with temperature due to thermal excitation of valence
band electrons into the conduction band.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR
• n-type Semiconductors: Conductivity primarily results
from the movement of electrons, which are the majority
carriers due to donor impurities.
• p-type Semiconductors: Conductivity primarily results
from the movement of holes, which are the majority
carriers due to acceptor impurities.
UNIT 4 NOTES
LASER PHYSICS
INTRODUCTION TO LASER
A laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) is a device that emits coherent light through
stimulated emission. It typically consists of an optical cavity
with a gain medium (such as a gas, liquid, or solid) that
amplifies light by stimulated emission.
SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION OF
RADIATION
• Spontaneous Emission: Atoms spontaneously emit
photons when electrons transition from higher to lower
energy states.
• Stimulated Emission: Photons can stimulate emission of
identical photons when passing through a medium with
excited atoms in a similar state. This process produces
coherent light.
Thermal Equilibrium: Thermal equilibrium is achieved
when the rate of absorption equals the rate of stimulated
emission, ensuring a stable population of excited states in a
medium.
CONDITION FOR LIGHT AMPLIFICATION
Light amplification occurs when the number of photons
produced by stimulated emission exceeds losses through
absorption and leakage in the laser medium.
Population Inversion: Population inversion refers to a
condition where more atoms or molecules are in higher
energy states than in lower energy states. It is essential for
achieving light amplification through stimulated emission.
PUMPING (THREE LEVEL AND FOUR LEVEL
PUMPING):
• Three Level Pumping: Involves pumping electrons
from the ground state to a higher energy level close to
the conduction band.
• Four Level Pumping: Requires an additional
intermediate level between the ground state and the
upper laser level, facilitating higher efficiency and
achieving longer wavelength operation.
Optical Resonator: An optical resonator consists of two
mirrors (one fully reflective and one partially reflective) that
form a cavity. It enhances light amplification and maintains
coherence by reflecting photons back and forth through the
gain medium.
LASER BEAM CHARACTERISTICS
Laser beams are characterized by coherence (phase correlation
of photons), directionality (narrow beam divergence),
monochromaticity (single wavelength), and high intensity
(concentrated power).
TYPES OF LASERS:
• Ruby Laser: Uses a synthetic ruby crystal as the gain
medium, producing pulses of red light.
• Nd-YAG Laser (Neodymium-doped Yttrium
Aluminum Garnet): Uses a solid-state crystal (Nd) to
generate infrared light, widely used in medicine and
industry.
• He-Ne Laser (Helium-Neon Laser): Uses a gas mixture
of helium and neon to produce visible red light,
commonly used in research and alignment applications.
• Semiconductor Laser: Uses a semiconductor diode as
the gain medium, emitting light through electron-hole
recombination, essential in telecommunications and
optical storage.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF LASER
• Fiber Optics: Uses laser light for high-speed data
transmission through optical fibers, enabling
telecommunications and internet services.
• Laser Material Interaction: Involves laser cutting,
welding, drilling, and marking of materials in
manufacturing, medicine (surgery), and scientific
research.
