Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
❑ Heat is a form of energy.

❑ Energy is defined as the capacity of substance to do work

❑ Heat travels from higher temperature(hotter) region to lower

temperature(cooler) region.

❑The SI unit of heat is the joule (J).

❑ Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when there is no net transfer

of thermal energy.
 ‫االتزان الحرارى‬Thermal Equilibrium
❑ Body A is at a higher temperature than body B.
❑ When bodies A and B are in contact, body A loses thermal energy
at a rate higher than the rate at which it absorbs thermal energy
from body B .
❑ This causes a temperature drop in body A and an increase in
temperature in body B . Finally, the two bodies A and B have the
Heat transfer
same temperature. from A to B

❑ They are in thermal equilibrium A B

 Methods of Heat Energy Transfer
❑Conduction is the transfer of heat energy by collisions Between
particles of objects in direct contact

❑Convection is the transfer of heat energy by

- the movement of fluids(gas or liquid)

- convection currents due to hot fluid rising and cold fluid sinking

❑Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by

- electromagnetic waves

- transmission of energy through space without the necessary presence of

matter
 (1) CONDUCTION
❑ Heat conduction in many materials can be visualized as the result of
molecular collisions.
❑ As one end of the object is heated, the molecules there move
faster and faster.
❑ As they collide with their slower-moving neighbors, they transfer
some of their energy to these molecules whose speeds thus
increase.

❑ These in turn transfer some of their

energy by collision with molecules
farther along the object.
 (1) CONDUCTION

❑Thus the energy of thermal

motion is transferred by
molecular collision along the
object.

❑Good thermal conductors such

as silver, copper, aluminum,

and gold are also good

electrical conductors.
 Conductors Insulators
❑ Good conductors of heat
➢ Insulators are materials that heat cannot travel
refer to objects that can
through. They are poor conductors of heat.
conduct heat very fast.
➢ Poor conductors are good insulators. Non-metals,
❑ All metals are good
such as plastic and air, are poor conductor.
conductors of heat.
➢ Liquids and gases are usually poor conductors,
Examples:
this is because there are large inter-molecular
Copper, silver, iron are good
distances between liquid molecules.
conductors.
➢ There are also fewer and rare collisions between
the molecules
➢ The poorest conductor is vacuum.
 Why are metals good thermal conductors?

❑There are free electrons in metals

❑These free electrons can move freely throughout the metals

❑When heated, these free electrons gain kinetic energy and move from the
hotter end to the colder end, carrying energy with them.

❑This process is much faster than conduction by the vibration of the

molecules.
 (1) CONDUCTION
❑ Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids,
conduction is due to the collisions of the molecules

❑ The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the

temperature difference across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

At Steady-State

❑ A significant feature of this equation is the negative sign. This

dQ dT dQ dT
A = −K A recognizes that the natural direction for the flow of heat is from
dt dx dt dx high temperature to low temperature, and hence down the
temperature gradient

Heat Transfer through a finite slab

𝑇 𝑋
𝑑 𝑄 Τ𝑑 𝑡 𝑑 𝑄 Τ𝑑 𝑡 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇 = − 𝑑𝑥 න 𝑑𝑇 = − න 𝑑𝑥 𝑇 − 𝑇1 = − 𝑥
𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐴
𝑇1 0

dQ T1 − T2
At x = L T=T2 = Const . = KA
dt L
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction

k is the thermal conductivity of the material, which is a measure of the ability of

a material to conduct heat. Its units are W/m-K
Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity in materials depends on the following factors:
❑ The temperature difference(ΔT) between the ends of the conductor.
❑ The nature of the material (k).
 Example (1)
A major source of heat loss from a house is through the windows. Calculate the rate of heat flow through a
glass window 2m×1.5 m in area and 3.2 mm thick, if the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are
15.0°C and 14.0°C, respectively

Example (2)
Consider a 3 m high, 5 m wide, and 0.3 m thick wall whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.9
W/(m. K). On a certain day, the temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the wall
are measured to be 16oC and 2oC, respectively. Determine the rate of heat loss through the
wall on that day.
𝐴 = 3 × 5 = 15𝑚2 𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 16 − 2
= 𝐴𝐾 = 15 0.9 = 360 𝑊
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0.3
𝑄 =360(24×60×60)=31×106J
 Example (3)
One of the windows in a house has the shape of a square 1.0 m on a side. The glass in the window is
0.50 cm thick. (a) How much heat is lost through this window in one day if the temperature in the house
is 21°C and the temperature outside is 0.0°C?(b) Suppose all the dimensions of the window—height,
width, thickness—are doubled. If everything else remains the same, by what factor does the heat flow
change? the thermal conductivity of glass 0.84 W/(m . K)

(a)

(b)
Heat Transfer Through a Composite Slab

At Steady-State process; that is, the temperatures

everywhere in the slab and the rate of energy transfer do
not change with time.

dQ T1 − T2 T2 − T3
= Const . = K 1 A = K2 A
dt l1 l2
l1 dQ
T1 − T2 = (1)
K 1 A dt
l2 dQ
T2 − T3 = (2)
K 2 A dt
Add equation (1) & (2)

dQ T1 − T3
= A
dt  l1 l2 

K + K 

 1 2 
Example 4
A copper rod of length 0.50 m and cross-sectional area 6.0 × 10-2 m2 is connected to an iron rod
with the same cross section and length 0.25 m. One end of the
copper is immersed in boiling water and the other end is at the junction with the
iron. If the far end of the iron rod is in an ice bath at 0°C, find the rate of heat transfer passing
from the boiling water to the ice bath. Assume there is no heat loss to
the surrounding air (thermal conductivity of copper and iron is 401 and 80.2 W/m · K
respectively) dQ T −T
= A 1 3

dt  l1 l2 

 K + K 

 1 2 
𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇3
=𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶𝑢 𝐿𝐹𝑒 𝑑𝑄 100−0
+ = 0.06 0.50 0.25=1374.85 W
𝐾𝐶𝑢 𝐾𝐹𝑒 𝑑𝑡 +
401 80.2

𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 100 − 𝑇2
= 𝐾𝐶𝑢 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 1374.85 = 401 × 0.06 𝑇2 = 71.43 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶𝑢 0.5
 Example (5)
Two 0.525-m rods, one lead the other copper, are connected between metal
plates held at 2.0°C and 106°C. The rods have a square cross section, 1.50 cm on
a side. How much heat flows through the two rods in 1.0 s? Assume that no
heat is exchanged between the rods and the surroundings, except at the ends.
The heat flow in one second through the lead rod:

The heat flow in one second through the Copper rod:

the total heat

 Example (6)

Figure shows the cross section of a wall made of

white pine(‫ )خشب الصنوبر‬of thickness La and brick of
thickness Ld = 2.0 La, sandwiching two layers of
unknown material with identical thicknesses and
thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of
the pine is ka and that of the brick is kd = 5.0 ka . The
face area A of the wall is unknown. Thermal 𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 −𝑇2 𝑇4 −𝑇5
= 𝐴𝐾𝑎 = 𝐴𝐾𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑑
conduction through the wall has reached the steady
𝐾𝑎 𝐿𝑑
state; the only known interface temperatures are T1 = 𝑇4 = 𝑇5 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝐾𝑑 𝐿𝑎
25 oC, T2 = 20 oC, and T5 = −10 oC. What is interface 1 2
𝑇4 = −10 + × 25 − 20
temperature T4 5 1
𝑜
𝑇4 = −8 𝐶
Example (7)
Two slabs of thickness L1 and L2, thermal conductivities k1 and k2, and an equal surface area A. The temperatures at
the outer faces of the slabs are TH and Tc, where TH > Tc. In a steady-state condition, find: the interface temperature
T, when TH = 25◦C, Tc =−5 ◦C, L2 = 2 L1, and k2 = 4k1

𝑑𝑄 𝑇H − 𝑇 𝑇 − 𝑇C 𝐾1 𝐿2
= 𝐴𝐾1 = 𝐴𝐾2 𝑇H − 𝑇 = 𝑇 − 𝑇C
𝑑𝑡 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐾2 𝐿1
1 2
× 25 − 𝑇 = 𝑇 − −5 → 25 − 𝑇 = 2𝑇 + 10 → 𝑇 = 5𝐶 25 − 𝑇 = 2𝑇 + 10 → 𝑇 = 5𝐶
4 1

Problem (1)

What are Ti, Tj , and Tr in the wall?

 Home Insulation

Insulation is important in building houses, since it helps limit heat loss and hence keeps homes at a comfortable
temperature with less cost. Good insulation requires many insulation slabs.
Common Types of Thermal Insulation Used on Roofs

Foam Wool Polystyrene

Thermal Conduction in Two Dimensions (Cylindrical Shells)

we can divide a cylindrical pipe of length L into a series of

thin concentric cylindrical shells. The rate of heat flow
through a cylindrical shell of radius r and thickness dr is
given by
 Example (8)
A steam pipe with a radius of 2.0 cm, carrying steam at is surrounded by a cylindrical jacket with inner and outer radii
2.0 cm and 4.0 cm and made of a type of cork‫ فلين‬with thermal conductivity 0.04 W/m.k. This in turn is surrounded
by a cylindrical jacket made of foam with thermal conductivity 0.01 w/m.k and having inner and outer radii 4.0 cm
and 6.0 cm. The outer surface of the foam is in contact with air at 15 oC. Assume that this outer surface has a
temperature of 15 oC (a) What is the temperature at a radius of 4.0 cm, where the two insulating layers meet? (b)
What is the total rate of transfer of heat out of a 2.0-m length of pipe?

For steady-state heat flow, the rate of flow through the cork is the same as
through the Styrofoam

𝑑𝑄 2𝜋(0.04)𝐿 100 − 𝑇2 𝑑𝑄 2𝜋(0.01)𝐿 𝑇2 − 15

= =
𝑑𝑡 0.04 𝑑𝑡 0.06
ln ln
0.02 0.04
𝑇2 = 73𝐶
𝑑𝑄 2𝜋(0.04)(2) 100 − 73 2𝜋(0.01)(2) 73 − 15
= = = 49 JΤ𝑠
𝑑𝑡 0.04 0.06
ln 0.02 𝑙𝑛 0.04
 Heat transfer through a multilayered cylindrical wall
dQ 2K L (T − T ) 2K L (T − T )
= H = 1 1
=
2 2 2 3

dt R2 R3
ln ln
R1 R2
 1  dQ R2
T1 − T2 =   ln
 2K 1 L  dt R1 (1)

 1  dQ R3
T2 − T3 =   ln
 2K 2 L  dt R2 (2)

Add equation (1) & (2)

dQ 2L (T1 − T3 )
=
dt 1 R2 1 R3
ln + ln
K 1 R1 K 2 R2
 Example (9)
A thick-walled nuclear coolant pipe‫( انبوب تبريد نووى‬ks = 186 W/m.C) with 10 cm inside diameter and 12 cm outside
diameter is covered with a 3 cm layer of asbestos‫ االسبستوس‬insulation (ka = 2.08 W/m.C) as shown in Figure. If the
inside wall temperature of the pipe is maintained at 300°C, calculate the heat loss per unit length.

𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡൘ = 2𝜋 𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑎
𝐿 1 𝑅2 1 𝑅3
𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
𝐾𝑠 𝑅1 𝐾𝑎 𝑅2
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡൘ = 2𝜋 300 − 40
𝐿 1 0.06 1 0.09
𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛
186𝑠 0.05 2.08 0.06
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑡
=8341 J/S.m
𝐿
 Example (10)
A stainless-steel pipe has inner and outer radii of 2 and 2.5 cm, respectively. The pipe carries hot water at a
temperature of TH = 60 ◦C and has a thermal conductivity of 19 W/m.C. The pipe’s outer surface temperature is Tc =
56 ◦C, (a) What is the rate of heat flow per unit length of the pipe? (b) When an additional cylindrical insulator of
thermal conductivity of 0.2 W/m.C is used, what is the thickness required to reduce heat loss by a factor of 10 and
achieve an outer temperature of 37 ◦C?

(b) As far as the stainless-steel pipe is concerned, a reduction in H/L by

a factor of 10 requires that the temperature difference between the inner and
outer surfaces be reduced by the same factor. Thus, the original 4 C◦ difference is reduced to
0.4 ◦C. Hence, the inner surface of the cylindrical insulator
will be at TH = 59.6 ◦C and its outer surface temperature will be at TC = 37 ◦C,
i.e. TH - TC = 59.6 ◦C - 37 ◦C = 22.6 ◦C, In addition H/L will be reduced to 214 W/m. where rH
= 2.5 cm
 Heat transfer by conduction through a spherical shell
Fourier's Law in radial coordinates
dQ dT
= Const . = − K A
dt dr
Substituting the area of a sphere
dQ dT
= − K ( 4r 2 )
dt dr

 1  dQ dr T2
 1  dQ
R2
dr
dT =  −   dT =  −   r2
 4 K  dt r 2
T1  4 K  dt R1


T2 − T1 =  −
1  dQ  1
 −
1 
 dQ 4K (T1 − T2 )
 =
 4K  dt  R1 R2  dt 1 1
−
R1 R2
Example (11)
Consider a spherical container of inner radius R1=8 cm, outer radius R2=10 cm , and thermal
conductivity k =45 W/m·K, The inner and outer surfaces of the container are maintained at constant
temperatures of T1= 200°C and T2 =80°C, respectively, as a result of some chemical reactions occurring
inside. Determine the rate of heat loss from the container.
dQ 4K (T1 − T2 ) 𝑑𝑄 4𝜋 45 200−80
dt
=
1 1 = 1 1 =27.1 W
− 𝑑𝑡 −
R1 R2 0.08 0.1
Heat transfer by conduction through a spherical shell consisting of two different layers
dQ 4K 1 (T1 − T2 ) 4K 2 (T2 − T3 )
= =
dt 1 1 1 1
− −
R1 R2 R2 R3
1 dQ  1 1  1 dQ  1 1 
T1 − T2 =  −  T2 − T3 =  − 

4K 1 dt  R1 R2  4K 2 dt  R2 R3 

dQ 4 (T1 − T3 )
=
dt 1  1 1  1  1 1 

 R − 
 + 
 R − 

K1  1 R2  K2  2 R3 
 Example (12)
An aluminum hollow ball with an internal radius of 5cm and a wall thickness of 2mm. It contains
a liquid whose temperature is 50 oC and insulated with a layer thickness of 2cm and its thermal
conductivity coefficient is 0.03 W /m.K. Calculate the rate of thermal loss by conduction through
the ball, then calculate the temperature of the insulating material from the inside If the ambient
temperature is 20oC
𝑑𝑄 4𝜋 𝑇1 − 𝑇3
=
𝑑𝑡 1 1 1 1 1 1
− + −
𝐾1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐾2 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑑𝑄 4𝜋 50 − 20 𝑑𝑄
= = 2.116 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − 𝑑𝑡
238 0.05 0.052 0.03 0.052 0.072

𝑑𝑄 4𝜋𝐾1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 4𝜋 238 50 − 𝑇2
= 2.116 =
𝑑𝑡 1 1 1 1
− −
𝑅1 𝑅2 0.05 0.052
𝑇2 = 49.9C
Thermal circuits
 Conduction Conduction Type of
in Parallel in series conduction

T1 − T2
q=
Req
Single-layer wall with materials having different thermal conductivities

The rate of heat transfer Q is given by

 Calculate the rate of heat flow by conduction through the wall shown in the drawing if you know that:
Example
(13) T1 = 40 0 C , T2 = 15 0 C , A1 = A4 = 10 m 2 , A2 = A3 = 5m 2 L1 = 20 cm ,
L2 = L3 = 4 cm , L4 = 2cm , k1 = 1.08, k 2 = 0 .024, k 3 = 0.04,
k 4 = 0.08 .(W / m 0 C ).
 R  R 0 .333  0 .2
2 3
R = = = 0 .125
23
R + R 0 .333 + 0 .2
2 3

R = R + R + R = 0.0185 + 0.125 + 0.025 = 0.1685

eq 1 23 4
T −T 40 − 15
1 2
q = = = 148.37 (W att)
T R
eq
0.1685 q = q = q = q = 148.37 (W att)
T 1 4 23
 ‫لحسب درجة الحرارة على كل وجه من اوجه الشرائح المكون منها الجدار‬
T −T
1 12
q = T
24 − T
2
q =
1 R 4 R
4
1
o o
T
12
= T − q R = 37.25
1 1 C T
24 = q R 4 + T2 = 18.71 C
1 4

Exercise (2)
Calculate the rate of heat flow by conduction
through the wall shown in the drawing if you know
that: T1= 60 oC, T2= 20 oC, A1= 10 m2, A2= 20 m2
A3= 15 m2 , L1= L2= 20 cm, L3=4 cm, K1=1.08,
K2=0.024, K3=0.04 W/m oC,
 (2) CONVECTION
❑ Convection : is the transfer of heat energy through a substance by
the actual movement of the substance itself.
❑ Convection occurs in liquids and gases, but not in solids. When
heated, a liquid or gas becomes less dense. It then rises and is
replaced by a colder liquid or gas and the process repeats. For
example, electric kettles and central heating radiators always heat up
at the top.

❑ Molecules in fluids are further apart and have negligible cohesive

force.
❑ Convection currents are set up much faster in gases than in liquids
because of the extremely low cohesive forces existing between the
molecules of the gases.
 CONVECTION
Convective heat transfer may be categorised into two forms according to the
nature of the flow: natural(free) Convection and forced convection
(i) Natural convection; Involves change in density of the fluid with temperature.
(ii) Forced convection: Mixing of hot and cold parts of the fluid through some
external stirring, like a fan or pump
❑ In forced convection, air is forced by a fan carrying with
it heat from the wall if the wall temperature is lower or giving heat to the wall if the wall
temperature is lower than the air temperature.
❑ If T1 is the temperature of the surface receiving or giving heat, and T2 is the average
temperature of the stream of fluid adjacent to the surface, then the convective heat transfer
(heat flow rate) dQ/dt is governed by Newton’s law
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝛼 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = ℎ𝑐 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is hc, the convective heat transfer coefficient, which has units [W/m2 K].

𝑑𝑄 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
= = 1
𝑑𝑡 1 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑐 =
ℎ𝑐 𝐴 ℎ𝑐 𝐴
Example (14)
A 2 m long, 0.3 cm diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C,as shown in Figure. Heat is generated
in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152°C in
steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60 V and 1.5
A, respectively. Disregarding (‫ )تجاهل‬any heat transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat transfer
coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and the air in the room.

1. Steady operating conditions exist since the temperature readings do not change with time.
2. Radiation heat transfer is negligible.

dQ
= hc A T
dt

hc = 34.9 W / m . C 2 o
Example 15
Hot air at 80°C is blown over a 2m ×4m flat surface at 30°C. If the average convection
heat transfer coefficient is 55 W/m2 · °C, determine the rate of heat transfer from the
air to the plate.

1( Steady operating conditions exist.

2( Heat transfer by radiation is not considered.
3) The convection heat transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over the
surface.
dQ
= hc A T
dt
Example 16

For heat transfer purposes, a standing man can be modeled as a 30 cm diameter, 170 cm long
vertical cylinder with both the top and bottom surfaces insulated and with the side surface at an
average temperature of 34°C. For a convection heat transfer coefficient of 20 W/m2 · °C,
determine the rate of heat loss from this man by convection in an environment at 18°C.

1. Steady operating conditions exist.

2. Heat transfer by radiation is not considered.
3. The environment is at a uniform temperature.

A = π D L =π (0.3)(1.7) =1.602 m2
dQ
= hc A  T
dt
dQ
= ( 20)(1.602)(34 − 18) = 513 W
dt
 Combined Conduction and Convection
❑ The combined conduction and convection heat transfer usually arises in a situation where
heat is transferred from a fluid at a higher temperature to a fluid at a lower temperature via
a solid partition
❑ for example : the heat transfer from hot tea to the surrounding cold air through the side
wall of a cup containing the tea
Combined Conduction and Convection
 Example 17
A 150 mm thick concrete wall having thermal conductivity k = 0.8 W/(m °C) is exposed to air at 60°C on
one side and to air at 20°C on the opposite side. The average convective heat transfer coefficients are 40
W/(m2 °C) on the 60°C side and 10 W/(m2 °C) on the 20°C side. Determine the heat transfer rate per unit
surface area of the wall and the surface temperatures of the wall on both the sides.
𝑑𝑄
ൗ𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝐴 −𝑇𝐵 60−20 2 𝑑𝑄ൗ 𝐴 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇𝐵
= = = 128 𝑤/𝑚 𝑑𝑡 =
𝐴 1 𝑙 1
+ +
1 0.15 1
+ + 1 𝑙 1
ℎ1 𝑘 ℎ2 40 0.8 10 + +
ℎ1 𝑘 ℎ2
𝑑𝑄ൗ
𝑑𝑡 = 128 = 𝑇𝐴 − 𝑇1 = 60 − 𝑇1
𝐴 1 1 𝑇1 = 56.8𝐶 𝑜
𝑑𝑄ൗ ℎ1 40
𝑑𝑡 = 128 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 56.8 − 𝑇2
𝐴 𝑙 0.15 𝑇2 = 32.8𝐶 𝑜
𝑘 0.8
𝑑𝑄ൗ
𝑑𝑡 = 128 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇𝐵 = 𝑇2 − 20
𝐴 1 1 𝑇2 = 32.8𝐶 𝑜
ℎ2 10
 Multilayered wall with convection at the boundary surfaces
The left face of the wall is exposed to a surrounding fluid at a temperature of Tf1 while the right face is
exposed to a surrounding fluid at a temperature of Tf2 (Tf2 < Tf1)

Here h1, h2 are the convective heat transfer coefficients at the left and
right faces respectively
 Example (19)
A plane wall of a refrigerated van ‫شاحنة مبردة‬is made of 1.5
mm steel sheet (kS =25 W/(m K)) at the outer surface, 10
mm plywood (kP = 0.05 W/(m K)) at the inner surface
and 20 mm glass wool‫( الصوف الزجاجى‬kG = 0.01 W/(m K))
in between the outer and inner surfaces. The temperature
of the cold environment inside the van is –15°C, while
the outside surface is exposed to a surrounding ambient at
24°C. The average values of convective heat transfer
coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces of the wall are
12 W/(m2 K) and 20 W/(m2 K) respectively. The surface
area of the wall is 0.75 m2. Determine: (a) The individual
components of the thermal resistance to heat flow. (b)
The rate of heat flow through the wall. (c) The
temperatures at (i) the outer surface of the wall, (ii) the
interface between steel sheet and glass wool, (iii) the
interface between glass wool and plywood, and (iv) the
inner surface of the wall
 (3)Radiation
❑ Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does
not require any medium.
❑ Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a
hot body to a cooler one by electromagnetic
waves such as visible light , infrared, and
ultraviolet radiation
❑ Heat radiation is similar in character to light
waves – it travels at the same speed and can
pass through a vacuum
❑ All objects emit /radiate or absorb heat.
❑ Heating an object up make it radiate more energy.
❑ A dull dark surface is a better emitter or radiator than a shiny one.
The rate 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation
depends on the object’s surface area A and the temperature T of that area in
kelvins and is given by

𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴𝑇 4
Here σ = 5.6704× 10−8 W/m2 K4 is called the Stefan–Boltzmann constant

The symbol ε represents the emissivity of the object’s surface, which has a value
between 0 and 1, depending on the composition of the surface. A surface with
the maximum emissivity of 1.0 is said to be a blackbody radiator, but such a
surface is an ideal limit and does not occur in nature
The rate 𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑏𝑠 at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its
environment, which we take to be at uniform temperature Tenv (in kelvins), is

𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣
4

An idealized blackbody radiator, with ε = 1, will absorb all the radiated energy it
intercepts. The net rate 𝑄ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 of energy exchange due to thermal radiation is:

ሶ ሶ ሶ 4 4
𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣 - 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑 )

𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 is positive if net energy is being absorbed via radiation and negative if it is
being lost via radiation.
Example 20

A sphere of radius 0.5 m, temperature 27 oc, and emissivity 0.850 is located in an

environment of temperature 77oC. At what rate does the sphere (a) emit and (b)
absorb thermal radiation? (c) What is the sphere's net rate of energy exchange?

(a)𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 4
= 𝜎𝜀𝐴𝑇 =5.67× 10−8 0.85 4𝜋(0. 5)2(27 + 273)4= 1.23×103 W.

4 =5.67× 10−8 0.85 4𝜋(0. 5)2(77 + 273)4 = 2.28×103 W.

ሶ = 𝜎𝜀𝐴𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣
(b)𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠

ሶ
𝑐 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠 4
− 𝑄𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣 4
- 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑 )= 1.05×103 W
Example 21
Consider a person standing in a room. The inner surfaces of the walls, floors, and ceiling of the house are
observed to be at an average temperature of 12°C in winter and 23°C in summer. Determine the rates of
radiation heat transfer between this person and the surrounding surfaces in both summer and winter if
the exposed surface area, emissivity, and the average outer surface temperature of the person are 1.6 m2,
0.95, and 32°C, respectively
1 Steady operating conditions exist.
2 Heat transfer by convection is not considered.
3 The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room.
4 The surrounding surfaces are at a uniform temperature.
the net rates of radiation heat transfer from the body to the surrounding walls, ceiling, and the floor in both cases :
(a) Summer: Tsurr = 23+273=296

(b) Winter: Tsurr = 12+273= 285 K

 Example 22 Combined Convection and Radiation
Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of heat transfer from this
person if the exposed surface area, emissivity and the average outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 , 0.95 and 29°C, respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2 · K

𝑑𝑄
= ℎ𝑐 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑑𝑡
dQ
= 6(1.6 )(29 − 20 ) = 86 .4 W
dt
𝑄ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴(𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑑
4 4
- 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣 )
dQ
( )
= 0.95  (5.67  10 −8 ) (1.6 ) ( 29 + 273) 4 − 293 4 = 81.7 W
dt
dQ
= 86.4 + 81.7 = 168 W
dt
Example 23 Combined Conduction and Radiation
Consider steady heat transfer between two large parallel plates at constant temperatures of T1= 300 K and T2 = 200 K
that are L = 1 cm apart. Assuming the surfaces to be black (emissivity ε =1), determine the rate of heat transfer
between the plates per unit surface area assuming the gap between the plates is (a) filled with atmospheric air, (b)
evacuated, (c) filled with urethane insulation, and (d) filled with superinsulation that has an apparent thermal
conductivity of 0.00002 W/m K. The thermal conductivity at the average temperature of 250 K is k = 0.0219 W/m K
for air, 0.026 W/m K for urethane insulation

1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 There are no natural convection currents in the
air between the plates. 3 The surfaces are black and thus ε =1.
(a) The rates of conduction and radiation heat transfer between the plates through the air layer
are
𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 300 − 200
= 𝑘𝐴 = 0.0219 × 1 = 219 𝑊
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0.01
𝑄ሶ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝜀𝐴 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 5.67 × 10−8 1 1 3004 − 2004 = 369 𝑊

𝑄ሶ 𝑇 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛 + 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 219 + 369 = 588 𝑊

(b) When the air space between the plates is evacuated, there will be no
conduction or convection, and the only heat transfer between the plates will be
by radiation. Therefore,
𝑄ሶ 𝑇 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛 + 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0 + 369 = 369 𝑊
(c) An opaque solid material placed between two plates blocks direct radiation heat transfer between the plates.
Also, the thermal conductivity of an insulating material accounts for the radiation heat transfer that may be
occurring through the voids in the insulating material. The rate of heat transfer through the urethane insulation is

𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 300 − 200
= 𝑘𝐴 = 0.026 × 1 = 260 𝑊
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0.01
Note that heat transfer through the urethane material is less than the heat transfer through the air
determined in (a), although the thermal conductivity of the insulation is higher than that of air.
This is because the insulation blocks the radiation whereas air transmits it.
(d ) The layers of the superinsulation prevent any direct radiation heat transfer between the
plates. However, radiation heat transfer between the sheets of superinsulation does occur, and
the apparent thermal conductivity of the superinsulation accounts for this effect

𝑑𝑄 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 300 − 200
= 𝑘𝐴 = 0.00002 × 1 = 0.2 𝑊
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0.01
 Example 24
A horizontal steel pipe having an outer diameter of 80 mm is maintained at a temperature of 60°C in a
large room where the air and wall temperature are at 20°C. The average free convection heat transfer
coefficient between the outer surface of the pipe and the surrounding air is 6.5 W/(m2 K), and the
surface emissivity of steel is 0.8. Calculate the total heat loss by the pipe per unit length

If L be the length of the pipe, then the surface area of the pipe

In this example, we observe that the rate of heat transfer by convection and the rate of heat transfer by
radiation are almost the same. Therefore, we cannot neglect any one of them
Example 25

A 5-cm-external-diameter, 10-m-long hot-water pipe at 80°C is losing heat to the

surrounding air at 5°C by natural convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 25 W/m2 ·
°C. Determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe by natural convection

1( Steady operating conditions exist.

2( Heat transfer by radiation is not considered.
3) The convection heat transfer coefficient is
constant and uniform over the surface.

dQ
= hc A T
dt
Example 26
A transistor with a height of 0.4 cm and a diameter of 0.6 cm is
mounted on a circuit board. The transistor is cooled by air flowing
over it with an average heat transfer coefficient of 30 W/m2 · °C. If the
air temperature is 55°C and the transistor case temperature is not to
exceed 70°C, determine the amount of power this transistor can
dissipate safely. Disregard any heat transfer from the transistor base

1. Steady operating conditions exist.

2. Heat transfer by radiation is disregarded.
3. The convection heat transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over the surface.
4. Heat transfer from the base of the transistor is negligible

A = πDL +πD2/4 =π(0.6×10−2)(0.4×10−2 ) + π (0.6×10−2)2/4 =1.037×10−4 m2

dQ dQ
= hc A T = (30 )(1.037  10 − 4 )( 70 − 55 ) = 0.047 W
dt dt
Example 27
Four power transistors, each dissipating 15 W, are mounted on a thin vertical aluminum plate 22 cm 𝗑 22
cm in size. The heat generated by the transistors is to be dissipated by both surfaces of the plate to the
surrounding air at 25°C, which is blown over the plate by a fan. The entire plate can be assumed to be
nearly isothermal, and the exposed surface area of the transistor can be taken to be equal to its base
area. If the average convection heat transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2·°C, determine the temperature of the
aluminum plate. Disregard any radiation effects
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. The entire plate is nearly isothermal.
3. Thermal properties of the wall are constant.
4. The exposed surface area of the transistor can be taken to be equal to
its base area.
5. Heat transfer by radiation is disregarded.
6. The convection heat transfer coefficient is constant and uniform over
the surface
 Example 28
A 1000-W iron is left on the iron board with its base exposed to the air at 20°C. The
convection heat transfer coefficient between the base surface and the surrounding air
is 35 W/m2 · °C. If the base has an emissivity of 0.6 and a surface area of 0.02 m2,
determine the temperature of the base of the iron
1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. The thermal properties of the iron base and the convection heat transfer
coefficient are constant and uniform.
3. The temperature of the surrounding surfaces is the same as the temperature of
the surrounding air

to the iron will be At steady conditions, the 1000 W energy supplied

convection and radiation heat transfer dissipated to the surroundings by