PC3652 PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION DYNAMICS AND CONTROL

UNIT I INSTRUMENTATION

PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTS

The principles of measurement are fundamental guidelines that ensure accurate, consistent, and
reliable measurement of physical quantities. These principles apply across various fields,
including engineering, physics, and metrology. Below are the key principles:

The selection of a measurement device should consider the following factors:

1. Measurement range (span).

The required measurement range for the process variable must lie entirely within the instrument's
range of performance.

2. Performance.

Depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability, or some other measure of performance is

appropriate. For closed-loop con trol, speed of response is also important.

3. Reliability.

Manufacturers provide baseline conditions. Previous experience with the measurement device is
very important. Temperature Thermocouple

4. Materials of construction.

The instrument may need to withstand high temperatures, high pressures, and corrosive and
abrasive environments. For some applications, seals or purges may be necessary.

5. Prior use.

For the first installation of a specific measurement device at a site, training of maintenance
personnel and purchases of spare parts might be necessary.

6. Potential for releasing process materials to the environment.

Preventing exposure to fugitive emissions for maintenance personnel is important when the
process fluid is corrosive or toxic. Sterility in bioprocesses must be maintained.

7. Electrical classification.

If the sensor is not inherently compatible with possible exposure to hazards, suitable enclosures
must be purchased and included in the installation costs.

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 8. Invasive or non-invasive. The insertion of a probe (invasive) can cause fouling, which leads
to inaccurate measurements. Probe location must be selected carefully to ensure measurement
accuracy and minimize fouling.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROCESS INSTRUMENTS

TYPE
 Sensors: Measure process variables
 Transmitters: Convert sensor signals into standardized output signals
 Controllers: Process signals from transmitters to generate control actions
 Actuators: Convert control signals into physical actions
 Analyzers: Measure the chemical composition of substances

FUNCTION
 Monitoring instruments: Monitor process conditions
 Control instruments: Regulate process conditions

ANALOG OR DIGITAL
 Analog instruments: Provide an analog output
 Digital instruments: Provide a digital output

MEASUREMENT
Temperature Flow Pressure Level Composition
1. 1. Orifice 1. Liquid 1. Float- [Link]-liquid chromatography
Thermocouple 2. Venturi column activated (GLC)
[Link] 3. 2. Elastic -chain gauge, [Link] spectrometry (MS)
temperature Rotameter element - lever - [Link] resonance
detector (RTD) 4. Turbine bourdon tube - magnetically analysis (MRA)
[Link]-system [Link]- bellows - coupled [Link] (IR) spectroscopy
thermometer shedding diaphragm 2. Head [Link] spectroscopy
[Link] [Link] 3. Strain devices - [Link] (UV)
thermometer gauges bubble tube spectroscopy
5. Pyrometer - 7. Magnetic 4. 3. Electrical [Link] conductivity
total radiation - [Link] Piezoresistive (conductivity) 8. Refractive index (RI)
photoelectric - mass transducers 4. Radiation [Link] probe
ratio 9. Coriolis 5. 5. Radar [Link] acoustic wave
6. Laser 10. Target Piezoelectric [Link]
[Link] transducers [Link]
acoustic wave 6. Optical [Link]
[Link] fiber [Link]/bioluminescence
[Link] diode laser
absorption
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MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a fundamental physical quantity that indicates how hot or cold an object is. It is
measured using various devices known as thermometers. The choice of a thermometer depends
on the range of temperatures to be measured and the level of accuracy required.

Units of Temperature

Temperature is measured in different units, including:

1. Celsius (°C) – Commonly used in daily life and scientific applications.

2. Fahrenheit (°F) – Used mainly in the United States.
3. Kelvin (K) – The SI unit of temperature, used in scientific calculations.
4. Rankine (°R) – Used in some engineering applications.

Conversion formulas:

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°F=(°C×5)+32°F

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°C=(°F−32)× 9 °C

K=°C+273.15K

°R=°F+459.67°R

Types of Thermometers

 Mercury-in-glass Thermometer
 Alcohol-in-glass Thermometer
 Digital Thermometer
 Infrared Thermometer
 Thermocouple
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
 Gas Thermometer

PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF MERCURY-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

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Principle

A Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer operates based on the principle of thermal expansion.

When the temperature increases, mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube. Conversely,
when the temperature decreases, mercury contracts and moves down. The level of mercury in the
calibrated glass tube indicates the temperature.

Operation

1. Structure:
o A sealed glass tube containing mercury.
o A bulb at the bottom holds extra mercury.
o A narrow capillary tube allows mercury to expand and rise.
o A calibrated scale (Celsius, Fahrenheit, or both) for temperature reading.
2. Working Process:
o The thermometer is placed in the environment where temperature needs to be
measured.
o Mercury absorbs heat, expands, and rises in the capillary tube.
o The reading at the mercury level on the calibrated scale gives the temperature.
o When the temperature decreases, mercury contracts and moves down.

Advantages of Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

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  High Accuracy – Mercury provides precise temperature readings.
 Wide Temperature Range – Suitable for measuring a broad range of temperatures.
 Durability – Mercury does not evaporate or stick to the glass, ensuring longevity.
 No Power Required – Works without electricity or batteries.
 Fast Response Time – Quickly adjusts to temperature changes.

Limitations of Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

 Toxicity – Mercury is hazardous to health and the environment if the thermometer

breaks.
 Fragility – Glass is delicate and can break easily.
 Limited Temperature Range – Cannot measure extremely high or very low
temperatures.
 Slow Cooling – Mercury takes time to contract when cooling down.
 Not Suitable for Remote Sensing – Cannot be connected to digital systems for
monitoring.

PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF ALCOHOL-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER

Principle

An Alcohol-in-Glass Thermometer operates on the thermal expansion principle. When

temperature increases, the alcohol expands and rises in the capillary tube. When the temperature
decreases, alcohol contracts and moves down. The height of the alcohol column in the calibrated
tube indicates the temperature.

Operation

1. Structure:
o A sealed glass tube filled with alcohol (often dyed for visibility).
o A bulb at the bottom containing extra alcohol.
o A narrow capillary tube through which alcohol moves.
o A calibrated scale for temperature reading.
2. Working Process:
o The thermometer is placed in the environment where temperature needs to be
measured.
o As temperature rises, alcohol absorbs heat, expands, and moves up the tube.
o The reading at the alcohol level on the calibrated scale shows the temperature.
o When temperature drops, alcohol contracts and moves down in the tube.

Advantages of Alcohol-in-Glass Thermometer

✔Safer than Mercury – Alcohol is non-toxic and less hazardous if the thermometer breaks.
✔Measures Lower Temperatures – Alcohol has a lower freezing point than mercury, making
it suitable for very cold environments.
✔More Visible – Alcohol is often dyed (red, blue, or green) for better readability.
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✔More Sensitive to Temperature Changes – Alcohol expands more than mercury, making it
more responsive.
✔Less Fragile – Since alcohol sticks to the tube less than mercury, readings remain clear.

Limitations of Alcohol-in-Glass Thermometer

❌ Less Accurate – Alcohol does not expand uniformly like mercury, leading to slight
inaccuracies.
❌ Evaporation Risk – Alcohol evaporates over time if the seal is damaged.
❌ Not Suitable for High Temperatures – Alcohol boils at a lower temperature than mercury,
limiting its range.
❌ Can Stick to Glass – Alcohol can leave stains or separate inside the tube, affecting
readability.

PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF DIGITAL THERMOMETER

PRINCIPLE

A Digital Thermometer works on the principle of electronic temperature sensing. It typically

uses a thermistor or a temperature-sensitive sensor (such as a thermocouple or resistance
temperature detector - RTD) to measure temperature. The resistance of the sensor changes
with temperature, and this change is converted into a digital reading displayed on an LCD
screen.

Operation

1. Structure:
o A temperature sensor (thermistor, thermocouple, or RTD).
o An electronic circuit that processes the temperature signal.
o A microcontroller to convert the signal into a temperature reading.
o A digital display (LCD/LED) for showing the temperature.
o A battery to power the thermometer.
2. Working Process:
o The thermometer is placed in contact with the object or environment to measure
temperature.
o The sensor detects temperature changes and alters its electrical resistance.
o The electronic circuit converts this resistance change into a numerical value.
o The microcontroller processes the signal and displays the temperature on the
digital screen.

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Advantages of Digital Thermometer

✔High Accuracy – Provides precise readings with minimal error.

✔Quick Response – Displays temperature readings within seconds.
✔Easy to Read – Large, clear digital display for accurate reading.
✔Safe to Use – No toxic substances like mercury, making it safer.
✔Memory Function – Some models store previous temperature readings.
✔Auto Shut-off Feature – Saves battery power by turning off when not in use.
✔Versatile – Can measure body, air, or liquid temperature depending on the model.

Limitations of Digital Thermometer

❌ Battery Dependency – Requires power to function, so it may fail if the battery runs out.
❌ Sensor Damage Risk – Can malfunction if the sensor is exposed to extreme conditions.
❌ Less Durable – More sensitive to physical damage compared to mercury thermometers.
❌ Calibration Issues – May require periodic calibration for accuracy.
❌ Electronic Interference – External electromagnetic fields can affect accuracy.

INFRARED THERMOMETER: PRINCIPLE, OPERATION, ADVANTAGES, AND

LIMITATIONS

Principle

An Infrared Thermometer works on the principle of blackbody radiation. Every object emits
infrared radiation (IR) based on its temperature. The thermometer detects this infrared radiation
and converts it into a temperature reading using a thermopile sensor.

Operation

1. Structure:
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 o
Infrared Lens: Captures infrared radiation from the object.
o
Thermopile Sensor: Converts IR radiation into an electrical signal.
o
Microprocessor: Processes the signal and converts it into a temperature reading.
o
LCD Display: Shows the measured temperature.
o
Battery: Provides power.
2. Working Process:
o The infrared lens detects IR radiation emitted by an object.
o The thermopile sensor absorbs this radiation and converts it into an electrical
signal.
o The microprocessor calculates the temperature based on the signal.
o The temperature reading is displayed on the screen in °C or °F.

Advantages of Infrared Thermometer

✔Non-Contact Measurement – Safer for measuring temperature without direct contact.

✔Fast Response Time – Provides instant readings within seconds.
✔Hygienic and Safe – Ideal for medical, industrial, and food safety applications.
✔Can Measure Moving Objects – Useful for measuring temperature from a distance.
✔Wide Temperature Range – Can measure extreme temperatures (both hot and cold).
✔Works in Harsh Environments – Can measure temperatures in hazardous or hard-to-reach
areas.

Limitations of Infrared Thermometer

❌ Accuracy Affected by Distance – Requires proper distance calibration for accurate results.
❌ Cannot Measure Internal Temperatures – Only measures surface temperatures.
❌ Emissivity Variations – Accuracy depends on the material's ability to emit infrared radiation.

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❌ Expensive – More costly than traditional thermometers.
❌ Interference Issues – Dust, steam, and smoke can affect readings.

THERMOCOUPLE: PRINCIPLE, OPERATION, ADVANTAGES, AND LIMITATIONS

Principle

A thermocouple works based on the Seebeck Effect, which states that when two different
metals are joined at two junctions and exposed to different temperatures, a voltage is generated.
This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference and can be measured to determine the
temperature.

Operation

Structure:

1. Two Different Metal Wires – Made of different materials (e.g., copper and iron).
2. Hot Junction – The point where the two metals are joined and exposed to the
temperature being measured.
3. Cold Junction (Reference Junction) – The other end, maintained at a known reference
temperature.
4. Voltage Measurement Device – Measures the voltage generated due to the temperature
difference.
5. Microcontroller (Optional) – Converts the voltage reading into a temperature value.

Working Process:

1. The hot junction is placed in the environment where temperature needs to be measured.
2. A temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions creates an electrical
potential (voltage).
3. This voltage is measured and converted into a temperature reading using calibration data.
4. The reading is displayed or used for further processing in industrial applications.

Advantages of Thermocouples

✔Wide Temperature Range – Can measure extreme temperatures (from -200°C to over
2000°C).
✔Fast Response Time – Quickly detects temperature changes.
✔Durable and Robust – Works well in harsh industrial environments.
✔Compact and Lightweight – Suitable for small spaces.

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✔No External Power Required – Generates its own voltage.
✔Affordable – Low-cost compared to other temperature sensors.

Limitations of Thermocouples

❌ Less Accurate – Requires calibration for precise readings.

❌ Non-Linear Output – Voltage-to-temperature conversion is not a straight line.
❌ Cold Junction Compensation Needed – Accuracy depends on the reference junction.
❌ Susceptible to Electrical Noise – Voltage readings can be affected by interference.
❌ Limited Lifespan – High temperatures and harsh environments degrade the metals over time.

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): Principle, Operation, Advantages, and

Limitations

Principle

An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) operates based on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal increases with temperature. The resistance change is measured and
converted into a temperature reading. Platinum (Pt-100, Pt-1000) is commonly used due to its
high accuracy and stability.

Operation

Structure:

1. Sensing Element – A thin wire or film made of platinum, nickel, or copper.

2. Protective Sheath – Protects the sensing element from the environment.
3. Lead Wires – Connect the sensor to the measuring circuit.
4. Wheatstone Bridge or Measuring Circuit – Converts resistance change into a
temperature reading.

Working Process:

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 1. The RTD sensor is placed in the environment where temperature needs to be measured.
2. As the temperature increases, the resistance of the metal wire increases.
3. The measuring circuit detects this resistance change.
4. A microcontroller or display converts the resistance value into a temperature reading.

Advantages of RTD

✔High Accuracy – More precise than thermocouples and thermistors.

✔Stable and Repeatable – Provides consistent readings over time.
✔Wide Temperature Range – Typically from -200°C to 600°C.
✔Reliable for Industrial Use – Less susceptible to electrical noise.
✔Long Lifespan – More durable than thermocouples.

Limitations of RTD

❌ Higher Cost – More expensive than thermocouples and thermistors.

❌ Slower Response Time – Due to thermal mass, it takes longer to react to temperature
changes.
❌ Susceptible to Lead Wire Resistance – Long wires can affect accuracy without
compensation.
❌ Limited to Lower Temperatures – Cannot measure extremely high temperatures like
thermocouples.

Resistance Temperature Detector

Bimetallic Strip Thermometer: Principle, Operation, Advantages, and Limitations

Principle

A Bimetallic Strip Thermometer operates based on the principle of thermal expansion.

Different metals expand at different rates when heated. A bimetallic strip, made of two different
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metals bonded together, bends when the temperature changes due to the difference in expansion
rates. This bending movement is converted into a temperature reading.

Operation

Structure:

1. Bimetallic Strip – A thin strip made of two metals with different thermal expansion
coefficients (e.g., brass and steel).
2. Spiral or Helical Shape – In some thermometers, the strip is coiled for better sensitivity.
3. Pointer or Dial Mechanism – Converts bending movement into a temperature reading.
4. Scale (Celsius/Fahrenheit) – Displays the measured temperature.

Working Process:

1. The bimetallic strip is exposed to the environment where temperature needs to be

measured.
2. As the temperature increases, the metal with a higher expansion rate expands more than
the other, causing the strip to bend.
3. This bending moves a pointer on a calibrated scale, indicating the temperature.
4. When the temperature decreases, the strip contracts, and the pointer moves back
accordingly.

Advantages of Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

✔Simple and Durable – No electronic components, making it long-lasting.

✔No Power Required – Works without electricity or batteries.
✔Wide Temperature Range – Used in household, industrial, and HVAC applications.
✔Low Cost – Affordable compared to digital thermometers.
✔Fast Response Time – Quickly reacts to temperature changes.

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Limitations of Bimetallic Strip Thermometer

❌ Less Accurate – Not as precise as digital or RTD thermometers.

❌ Limited Sensitivity – Small temperature changes may not be detected easily.
❌ Hysteresis Effect – The strip may not return to the exact original position after repeated
cycles.
❌ Calibration Needed – May require periodic adjustments to maintain accuracy.
❌ Mechanical Wear – Moving parts can degrade over time.

GAS THERMOMETER: PRINCIPLE, OPERATION, ADVANTAGES, AND

LIMITATIONS

Principle

A Gas Thermometer works based on the principle that the pressure or volume of a gas
changes with temperature, following Charles' Law and Boyle’s Law. These laws state that:

 At constant volume, gas pressure increases as temperature rises.

 At constant pressure, gas volume expands with increasing temperature.

By measuring these changes in pressure or volume, the temperature can be determined.

Operation

Types of Gas Thermometers:

1. Constant Volume Gas Thermometer – Measures temperature by recording pressure

changes at a fixed volume.
2. Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer – Measures temperature by recording volume
changes at a fixed pressure.

Structure:

 Bulb (Gas Chamber) – Contains a gas (usually hydrogen or helium).

 Capillary Tube – Connects the bulb to the measuring system.
 Manometer (Pressure Gauge) – Measures gas pressure changes.
 Reservoir (Optional) – Holds extra gas for adjustments.

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Working Process:

1. The bulb is placed in the environment where temperature needs to be measured.

2. As temperature increases, the gas in the bulb expands, causing:
o A pressure increase in a constant-volume thermometer.
o A volume increase in a constant-pressure thermometer.
3. This change is measured by a manometer or volume scale and converted into a
temperature reading.
4. The process is repeated for different temperature ranges.

Advantages of Gas Thermometer

✔Highly Accurate – Used for precision measurements in scientific research.

✔Wide Temperature Range – Works in extreme cold and high heat conditions.
✔Minimal Thermal Expansion Issues – Gas expands uniformly, ensuring accuracy.
✔Standard Reference Instrument – Used to calibrate other thermometers.

Limitations of Gas Thermometer

❌ Bulky and Complex – Not portable or convenient for everyday use.

❌ Fragile Components – The glass bulb and tubes can break easily.
❌ Slow Response Time – Gas takes time to reach thermal equilibrium.
❌ Requires a Sealed System – Any gas leakage affects accuracy.
❌ Limited to Laboratory Use – Not practical for household or industrial applications.

PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND REPRODUCIBILITY OF A THERMOMETER

When evaluating the performance of a thermometer, three key concepts are important: Precision,
Accuracy, and Reproducibility. These terms describe how well a thermometer measures
temperature and how consistent its readings are.

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1. Accuracy

Definition:

Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true (actual) temperature. A
thermometer is accurate if its readings match the standard or reference temperature.

Example:

 If a thermometer reads 37.0°C when the actual temperature is 37.0°C, it is highly

accurate.
 If it reads 36.5°C or 37.5°C, it has a low accuracy (error present).

Factors Affecting Accuracy:

✔Calibration errors
✔Sensor quality
✔External environmental conditions

2. Precision

Definition:

Precision refers to the consistency of repeated measurements, regardless of whether they are
correct (accurate) or not. A thermometer is precise if it gives similar readings when measuring
the same temperature multiple times.

Example:

 If a thermometer gives readings of 37.2°C, 37.2°C, and 37.3°C for the same body, it is
precise.
 If it gives 37.2°C, 36.8°C, and 37.5°C, it is not precise.

Key Point:

A thermometer can be precise but not accurate if it consistently gives wrong readings.

3. Reproducibility

Definition:

Reproducibility refers to the ability of a thermometer to give consistent results when

different users or instruments measure the same temperature under the same conditions.

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Example:

 If two identical thermometers give similar readings in different locations, they are
reproducible.
 If different thermometers or users get significantly different readings, reproducibility is
low.

Factors Affecting Reproducibility:

✔Manufacturing variations
✔Calibration differences
✔Environmental changes (e.g., humidity, altitude)

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE, MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW,

MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID WEIGHT AND WEIGHT FLOW RATE,
MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY, MEASUREMENT OF PH, MEASUREMENT OF
CONCENTRATION, MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY, MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY OF GASES.
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UNIT II OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION AND ITS APPLICATION IN PROCESS CONTROL.
FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS AND THEIR TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR STANDARD
INPUT FUNCTIONS, FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS IN SERIES, LINEARIZATION AND
ITS APPLICATION IN PROCESS CONTROL, SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS AND
THEIR DYNAMICS; TRANSPORTATION LAG.

UNIT III CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS

CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS, DEVELOPMENT OF BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR
FEED-BACK CONTROL SYSTEMS, SERVO AND REGULATORY PROBLEMS,
TRANSFER FUNCTION FOR CONTROLLERS AND FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT,
PRINCIPLES OF PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRONIC CONTROLLERS, TRANSIENT
RESPONSE OF CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS AND THEIR STABILITY.

UNIT IV FREQUENCY RESPONSE

INTRODUCTION TO FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS,
CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN BY FREQUENCY RESPONSE TECHNIQUES, BODE
DIAGRAM, STABILITY CRITERION, TUNING OF CONTROLLERS Z-N TUNING
RULES, C-C TUNING RULES.

UNIT V OUTCOME: ADVANCED CONTROL SCHEMES

FEEDBACK CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH DEAD TIME AND INVERSE
RESPONSE. CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS. ADVANCED
CONTROL SCHEMES A) FEED FORWARD B) RATIO CONTROL. CONTROL OF
DISTILLATION TOWERS AND HEAT EXCHANGERS,

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