Chapter 7

Macroscopic Balances for

Isothermal Flow Systems
◼ §7.1 The macroscopic mass balance (scalar)
◼ §7.2 The macroscopic momentum balance (vector)
◼ §7.3 The macroscopic angular momentum balance
(excluded)
◼ §7.4 The macroscopic mechanical energy balance
(scalar)
◼ §7.5 Estimation of the viscous loss
◼ §7.6 Use of the macroscopic balances for steady-
state problems
◼ §7.7 Use of the macroscopic balances for
unsteady-state problems (excluded)
◼ In this chapter we write similar conservation laws
for "macroscopic systems"-that is, large pieces of
equipment or parts thereof.
◼ A sample macroscopic system is shown in Fig. 7.0-
1. The balance statements for such a system are
called the macroscopic balances;
◼ For unsteady-state systems, these are ordinary
differential equations,
◼ For steady-state systems, they are algebraic
equations.
◼ The macroscopic balances contain terms that
account for the interactions of the fluid with the
solid surfaces.
◼ The fluid can exert forces and torques on the
surfaces of the system, and the surroundings can
do work Wm on the fluid by means of moving
surfaces.
◼ The first three of these macroscopic balances
(mass, momentum, angular momentum) can be
obtained by writing the conservation laws directly
for the macroscopic system algebraically.
◼ However, the corresponding equation of change
over time and position must be integrated over
the macroscopic system.
◼ In §§7.1 and 7.2 we set up the macroscopic
mass, and momentum balances by writing the
conservation laws.
◼ In the macroscopic mechanical energy balance,
there is a term called the "friction loss," and we
devote §7.5 to estimation methods for this
quantity.
◼ The macroscopic balances have been widely used
in many branches of engineering. They provide
global descriptions of large systems without much
regard for the details of the fluid dynamics inside
the systems.
 §7.1 THE MACROSCOPIC MASS
BALANCE
◼ In the system shown in Fig. 7.0-1 the fluid enters
the system at plane 1 with cross section S1 and
leaves at plane 2 with cross section S2. The
average velocity is v1 at the entry plane and v2
at the exit plane.
◼ In this and the following sections, we introduce
two assumptions that are not very restrictive:
◼ (i) at the planes 1 and 2 the time-smoothed
velocity is perpendicular to the relevant cross
section, and
◼ (ii) at planes 1 and 2 the density and other
physical properties are uniform over the cross
section.
◼ The law of conservation of mass for this system
is then

in kg/sec

◼ Here mtot = dV is the amount of mass of fluid in

the system between planes 1 and 2.
◼ We now introduce the symbol w =  v S for the
mass rate of flow, and the notation w = w2 – w1
(exit value minus entrance value).
◼ Then the unsteady-state macroscopic mass
balance becomes
◼ .

◼ If the total mass of fluid does not change with

time, then we get the steady-state
macroscopic mass balance

◼ which is just the statement that the rate of

mass entering equals the rate of mass leaving.
◼ The term "steady state“ means that the time
derivative on the left side of Eq. 7.1-2 is zero.
 Example 7.1-1 Draining of a Spherical
Tank
◼ A spherical tank of radius R and its drainpipe of
length L and diameter D are completely filled
with a heavy oil. At time t = 0 the valve at the
bottom of the drainpipe is opened.
◼ How long will it take to drain the tank?
◼ There is an air vent at the very top of the
spherical tank. Ignore the amount of oil that
clings to the inner surface of the tank, and
assume that the flow in the drainpipe is laminar
and liquid at any time is still inside the spherical
tank. The system considered is between planes
1 and 2’.
 Direction of gravity force

Direction of flow
◼ We label three planes as in Fig. 7.1-1, and we let
the instantaneous liquid level > plane 2’ be h(t).
Then, at any time t the total mass of liquid in the
upper spherical segment is (the change of volume
happens only in sphere)
◼ .

◼ See next slide to obtain Eq. 7.1-4

◼ Since no fluid crosses plane 1 we know that w1 = 0.
◼ The outlet mass flow rate, w2 = w3, as determined
from the Hagen-Poiseuille formula, is (P3 = - g(h+L),
P2 = 0)
 Point 2 to point 3

◼ The Hagen-Poiseuille formula was derived for

steady-state flow, but we use it here since the
volume of liquid in the tank is changing slowly with
time (laminar flow); this is an example of a
"quasisteady-state" approximation.
◼ When these expressions for mtot and w2 are
substituted into Eq. 7.1-2 (boundary is the sphere
where there is negative accumulation), we get, after
some rearrangement,

◼ We now abbreviate the constant on the right side of

the equation as A. The equation is easier to
integrate if we make the change of variable H
(variable) = h (variable) + L (constant) so that
◼ Within the boundary from 1 to 2’, we now
integrate this equation between t = 0 (when h =
2R or H = 2R + L), and t = tefflux (when h = 0 or
H = L). This gives for the efflux time

◼ in which A is given by the right side of Eq. 7.1-6.

Note that we have obtained this result without
any detailed analysis of the fluid motion within
the sphere.
 §7.2 THE MACROSCOPIC
MOMENTUM BALANCE
◼ We now apply the law of conservation of
momentum to the system in Fig. 7.0-1, using the
same two assumptions mentioned in the previous
section, plus two additional assumptions:
◼ (iii) the forces associated with the stress tensor
are neglected at planes 1 and 2, since they are
generally small compared to the pressure forces
at the entry and exit planes,
◼ (iv) the pressure does not vary over the cross
section at planes 1 and 2.
◼ Momentum rate = mass rate x velocity = kg/sec
x m/sec = Newton → vector.
 Momentum rate = mass rate * velocity → vector
+ = in to the system; - = out of the system; + = act on fluid
◼ Since momentum is a vector quantity, each term
in the balance must be a vector. We use unit
vectors ul and u2 to represent the direction of
flow at planes 1 and 2.
◼ The law of conservation of momentum on fluid
then reads

in Newton =
kg/sec.
m/sec =
mass rate x
velocity
◼ Here Ptot = vdV is the total momentum in the
system. Unit vector
Unit vector
◼ The equation states that the total momentum
within the system changes because of the
◼ 1. convection of momentum into and out of the
system, and
◼ 2. the various forces acting on the system: 2.1 the
pressure forces at areas of fluid at the ends of the
system, 2.2 the force of the solid surfaces acting
on the fluid in the system, and 2.3 the force of
gravity acting on the fluid volume within the walls
of the system.
◼ The subscript "s → f" (solid to fluid) serves as a
reminder of the direction of the force.
◼ By introducing the  symbol we finally get for the
unsteady-state macroscopic momentum balance
◼ .

◼ If the total amount of momentum in the system

does not change with time, then we get the
steady-state macroscopic momentum balance

◼ It is useful for computing the force of the fluid on

the solid surfaces, Ff→s, such as the force on a
pipe bend or a turbine blade.
Example 7.2-1 Force Exerted by a Jet
(Part a, by momentum balance)
◼ A turbulent jet of water emerges from a tube
of radius R1 = 2.5 cm with a speed v1 = 6
m/s, as shown in Fig. 7.2-1. The jet impinges
on a disk-and-rod assembly of mass m = 5.5
kg, which is free to move vertically. The
friction between the rod and the ambient will
be neglected.
◼ Find the height h at which the disk will "float"
as a result of the jet. Assume that the water
is incompressible.
out mg

-: Direction of gravity
+: Direction
of flow

in
◼ To solve this problem one has to imagine how the
jet behaves. In Fig. 7.2-1 (a) we make the
assumption that the jet has a constant radius, R1,
between the tube exit and the disk, whereas in
Fig. 7.2-l(b) we assume that the jet spreads
slightly.
◼ In this example, we make the first assumption,
and in Example 7.4-1 we account for the jet
spreading.
◼ We apply the z-component of the steady-state
momentum balance between planes 1 and 2
(Remember this is a vector balance).
◼ The pressure terms can be omitted, since the
pressure is atmospheric at both planes. The z
component of the fluid velocity at plane 2 is zero.
 ◼ The momentum balance then becomes

◼ When this is solved for h, we get (in SI units)

+ : direction of the force

by fluid on the disk =
- : direction of gravity force  direction of flow.
direction of flow. Rule for
Rule for momentum balance
momentum balance
 §7.4 THE MACROSCOPIC MECHANICAL
ENERGY BALANCE
◼ Next we want to set up the macroscopic mechanical
energy balance, which corresponds to the equation
of mechanical energy in Eq. 3.3-2.
◼ There is no conservation law for mechanical
energy since some of the mechanical energy may
change to heat or fluid may expand. In this
instance we must integrate terms of this change
over the volume of the flow system.
◼ Mechanical energy = mass rate x velocity x velocity
= momentum rate x velocity = force x velocity =
Joule/sec = Watt → scalar
◼ The equation is derived in §7.8; here we state
the result and discuss its meaning on fluid:
 = g.h

Accumulation
of mechanical
energy

Integration
required in
mechanical
energy balance

in Joule/sec =
Watt =
Newton.m/sec
◼ Here Ktot and tot are the total kinetic and potential
energies within the system.
◼ According to Eq. 7.4-1, the total mechanical energy
(i.e., kinetic plus potential) changes
◼ 1. because of a difference in the rates of addition
and removal of mechanical energy,
◼ 2. because of work done on the fluid by the
surroundings and
◼ 3. because of expansion effects and viscous
dissipation.
◼ Note that, at the system entrance (plane 1), the
force p1S1 multiplied by the velocity v1 gives the
rate at which the surroundings do work on the
fluid.
◼ Furthermore, Wm is the work done by the
surroundings on the fluid by means of moving
surfaces.
◼ The macroscopic mechanical energy balance
may now be written more compactly as

◼ in which the terms Ec and Ev are defined as

follows: Expansion
(fluid gives
work) and
heat
dissipation
Their values are positive for ∆ symbol on balance (fluid gives
heat) reduce
expansion and heat dissipation = out - in mechanical
energy of
fluid
◼ If the total kinetic plus potential energy in the
system is not changing with time, we get (7.4-5)

◼ which is the steady-state macroscopic mechanical

energy balance. Here h is the height above some
arbitrarily chosen datum plane.
◼ Next, if we assume that it is possible to draw a
representative streamline through the system,
we may combine the (p/) and Ec terms to get
the following approximate relation (see §7.8)
◼ Then, after dividing Eq. 7.4-5 by w1 = w2 = w,
we get

◼ Equation 7.4-7 is the version of the steady-state

mechanical energy balance that is most often
used. For isothermal systems, the integral term
can be calculated as long as an expression for
density as a function of pressure is available.
 Momentum balance

Mechanical energy
balance

◼ Equation 7.4-7 should now be compared with Eq.

3.5-12, which is the "classical" Bernoulli equation for
an inviscid fluid.
◼ If, to the right side of Eq. 3.5-12, we just add the
work Wm done by the surroundings and subtract the
viscous dissipation term Ev and reinterpret the
velocities as appropriate averages over the cross
sections, then we get Eq. 7.4-7.
◼ This provides a "plausibility argument" for Eq. 7.4-7
and still preserves the fundamental idea that the
macroscopic mechanical energy balance is
derived from the equation of motion (that is,
from the law of conservation of momentum)
Example 7.4-1 Force Exerted by a Jet
(Part b, by mechanical energy balance
and momentum balance)
◼ Continue the problem in Example 7.2-1 by
accounting for the spreading of the jet as it
moves upward.
SOLUTION
◼ We now permit the jet diameter to increase with
increasing z as shown in Fig. 7.2-1(b).
◼ It is convenient to work with three planes and to
make balances between pairs of planes.
◼ The separation between planes 2 and 3 is taken
to be quite small.
◼ A mass balance between planes 1 and 2
gives
◼ Next we apply the mechanical energy balance of
Eq. 7.4-5 or 7.4-7 between planes 1 and 2 .
◼ The pressures at planes 1 and 2 are both
atmospheric, and there is no work done by
moving parts Wm. We assume that the viscous
dissipation term Ev can be neglected.
◼ If z is measured upward from the tube exit, then
gh = g(h2 – h1)  g(h - 0). Thus the
mechanical energy balance between planes
1 and 2 gives
◼ We now apply the z-momentum balance
between planes 2 and 3.
◼ Since the region is very small, we neglect the
last term in Eq. 7.2-3. Both planes are at
atmospheric pressure, so the pressure terms
do not contribute.
◼ The fluid velocity is zero at plane 3, so there
are only two terms left in the momentum
balance
+
◼ From the above three equations (planes 1 to
2 and planes 2 to 3) we get
◼ in which mg and v1w1 = R2v12 are known.
◼ When the numerical values are substituted into
Eq. 7.4-10, we get h = 0.77 m.
◼ This is probably a better result than the value
of 0.87 m obtained in Example 7.2-1, since it
accounts for the spreading of the jet.
◼ We have not, however, considered the
clinging of the water to the disk, which gives
the disk-rod assembly a somewhat greater
effective mass. In addition, the frictional
resistance of the rod in the sleeve has been
neglected.
 §7.5 ESTIMATION OF THE
VISCOUS LOSS
◼ This section is devoted to methods for estimating
the viscous loss (or friction loss), Ev, which
appears in the macroscopic mechanical energy
balance. The general expression for Ev is given in
Eq. 7.4-4.

◼ If we select the reference velocity to be v then it

is defined that
◼ .

◼ in which ev the friction loss factor, is a function of

Re and relevant dimensionless geometrical ratios.
The factor 1/2 has been introduced in keeping
with the form of several related equations.
◼ If, in addition, the flow is turbulent then mean
hydraulic radius Rh may be used (see Eqs. 6.2-16
to 18) so that
◼ .

◼ in which f is the friction factor discussed in

Chapter 6. This equation can also be used for
laminar flow.
◼ Since this equation is of the form of Eq. 7.5-4,
we get a simple relation between the friction loss
factor and the friction factor
◼ .

◼ for laminar and turbulent flow in sections of

straight pipe with uniform cross section.
◼ For a similar treatment for non-uniform cross
section, see Problem 78.2.
◼ Rh is hydraulic radius. It is defined as the cross-
section area of a pipe or conduit divided by its
circumference. For circular pipe,
◼ Rh = /4.D2/(.D) = D/4, where D is the pipe
diameter.
◼ The corresponding Moody diagram for Eq. 7.5-8 is
shown in Figure 6.2-2 or Figure 1 below.
◼ The other version of Eq. 7.5-8 is found in some
other references. The equation is
◼ Êv = f.L/D.<v>2/2 (Eq. 7.5-8a)
◼ The corresponding Moody diagram for Eq. 7.5-8a
is shown in Figure 2 below
Figure 6.2-2. Moody diagram corresponding to Eq. 7.5-8
Figure 1. Moody diagram corresponding to Eq. 7.5-8
Figure 2. Moody diagram corresponding to Eq. 7.5-8a
◼ Most flow systems contain various "obstacles,"
such as fittings, sudden changes in diameter,
valves, or flow measuring devices. These also
contribute to the friction loss Ev.
◼ Some rough values of ev are tabulated in Table
7.5-1 for the convention that v is the average
velocity downstream from the disturbance. These
ev values are for turbulent flow for which the
Reynolds number dependence is not too important
 < 1 for contraction, so  = S2/S1;  > 1 for expansion, so  = S2/S1
◼ Now we are in a position to rewrite Eq. 7.4-7
in the approximate form frequently used for
turbulent flow calculations in a system
composed of various kinds of piping and
additional resistances:
◼ .

◼ Here Rh is the mean hydraulic radius defined

in Eq. 6.2-16 = cross-sectional area/wetted
perimeter, f is the friction factor defined in Eq.
6.1-4, and ev is the friction loss factor given in
Table 7.5-1. For pipe, Rh = 1/4D2/D = ¼ D.
Example 7.5-1 Power Requirement for
Pipeline Flow
◼ What is the required power output from the
pump at steady state in the system shown in
Fig. 7.5-1?
◼ Water at 68°F ( = 62.4lbm/ft3,;  = 1.0 cp)
is to be delivered to the upper tank at a rate
of 12 ft3/min. All of the piping is 4-in. internal
diameter smooth circular pipe.
Viscosity 1 cP = 6.72 x 10-4 lb/([Link])
 §7.6 USE OF THE MACROSCOPIC
BALANCES FOR STEADY-STATE
PROBLEMS
◼ In this section we show how to use the set of
steady-state macroscopic balances to obtain the
algebraic equations for describing large systems.
◼ For each problem we start with the three
macroscopic balances. By keeping track of the
discarded or approximated terms, we automatically
have a complete listing of the assumptions inherent
in the final result.
◼ All of the examples given here are for isothermal,
incompressible flow. The incompressibility
assumption means that the velocity of the fluid
must < the velocity of sound in the fluid and the
pressure changes must be small enough that the
resulting density changes can be neglected
◼ These balances are summarized in Table 7.6-1 for
turbulent flow (where the velocity profiles are
regarded as flat).
The difference between momentum in
and momentum out is lost as friction
from fluid to solid
 Example 7.6-2. Performance of a
Liquid-Liquid Ejector
◼ A diagram of a liquid-liquid ejector is shown in
Fig. 7.6-2. It is desired to analyze the mixing
of the two streams, both of the same fluid, by
means of the macroscopic balances.
◼ At plane 1 the two fluid streams merge.
Stream 1a has a velocity v0 and a cross-
sectional area 1/3 S1 and stream 1b has a
velocity ½ v0 and a cross-sectional area 2/3
S1. Plane 2 is chosen far enough downstream
that the two streams have mixed and the
velocity is almost uniform at v2.
◼ The flow is turbulent and the velocity profiles at
planes 1 and 2 are assumed to be flat. In the
following analysis Ff→s is neglected, since it is felt
to be less important (much smaller) than the
other terms in the momentum balance.
Units in Eq. 7.6-15 are energy/time
 Example 7.6-3 Thrust on a Pipe Bend

◼ Water at 95°C is flowing at a rate of 2.0 ft3/s

through a 60° bend, in which there is a
contraction from 4 to 3 in. internal diameter
(see Fig. 7.6-3).
◼ Compute the force exerted on the bend if the
pressure at the downstream end is 1.1 atm.
◼ The density and viscosity of water at the
conditions of the system are 0.962 g/cm3 and
0.299 cp, respectively.
◼ Ff→s as a friction force is neglected
1 ft = 12 inches. 1 inch = 2.54 cm. 1 cP = 10-2 Poise = 10-2 gram/([Link])
 Elbow 60o

The quantity 2/5 = ev in Table 7.5-1 for 60o rounded

elbow.  < 1 for contraction, so  = S2/S1
Momentum balance involves 2 axis, x and y