Introduction to geometrical optics

OPTOM 106
GEOMETRICAL, PHYSICAL AND VISUAL OPTICS
Fall 2023
 Outline
• Huygen’s principle
• Shadows
• Vergence
• Pinholes & apertures
 Geometrical optics
Geometrical optics is an approximation that considers light as rays.
It applies ideas from both the particle and wave theories of light, though many suggest it
stems from the particle theory of light alone. In truth, it is agnostic about the duality of light.
HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
 Huygen’s principle
Let’s briefly revisit waves:
• Huygens assumed that light is a form of wave motion rather than a stream of particles
• Huygens’s Principle is a geometric construction for determining the position of a new
wave at some point based on the knowledge of the wavefront that preceded it
• Wavefront: the locus of the points which are in the same phase.

Courtesy of Dr. Lakshminarayanan

 A circular wavefront

A drop of water into a pool of water causes circular ripples to spread out from the point of impact, each point on the
circumference of the circle (whose center is at the point of impact) oscillates with the same amplitude and phase.
 Huygen’s principle
Let’s briefly revisit waves:
• Huygens assumed that light is a form of wave motion rather than a stream of particles
• Huygens’s Principle is a geometric construction for determining the position of a new wave at some point based on the knowledge of the wavefront that
preceded it
• Wavefront: the locus of the points which are in the same phase.

• Each point of a wavefront is a source of secondary disturbance and the wavelets

emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave.
The envelope of these wavelets gives the shape of the new wavefront.

Rays are perpendicular to the wavefront.

Rays reaching the eye determine what is seen.

Courtesy of Dr. Lakshminarayanan

 What is a wavefront?
Planar wavefront

Curved
Light rays wavefront

• A wavefront is an imaginary surface that represents the direction of propagating light.

• The wavefront is always perpendicular to the direction of travel at all points in space.

Slide courtesy of Dr. Geunyoung Yoon

 Geometrical optics

From: Geometrical Optics: Lectures in Optics,

Volume 2; George Asimellis, August 2020
 Geometrical optics
Assumptions:
• The scale of the optics is much, much larger than the wavelength of light.
• Light rays travel in straight lines in a homogeneous medium. This is the law of rectilinear
propagation.
• Light rays do not perturb one another when they intersect. This is the law of
independence of light rays.
• The angle between rays and a reference axis is small (<< 1 rad). This allows us to assume
that sin θ = θ [rad]. This is the paraxial approximation.
SHADOWS
 Point source
A point source is infinitely small, so is dimensionless. Light radiates out from
the point source in all directions.
 Point source
A point source is infinitely small, so is dimensionless. Light radiates out from
the point source in all directions.

Rays

Wavefront

Animation courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Demonstrating the law of rectilinear propagation
Shadows are formed when an opaque object is placed between a light source
and an imaging screen

Umbra - a shadow with no illumination

Penumbra - a shadow with partial illumination

 Shadows – point source
Aperture Screen
(element of interest)

Umbra
k+

Umbra Illumination

k+
Opaque Disc
(element of interest) Umbra

Screen

k+ is the direction of propagation of the light towards the element of interest

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Extended source
An extended source has a finite size. Think of it as a series of point sources.
Light radiates out from all “points” in the extended source in all directions.

We attend to the ‘notional’ point sources that are at the extreme ends of the
extended source to predict how it will behave.
 Shadows – extended source
Aperture Screen
(element of interest)

k+
Umbra

Penumbra
Extended Full Illumination
Source Penumbra

Umbra

Extended Source = gradual reduction in amount of light forming image from full illumination to umbra

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

SIGN CONVENTION
 Sign convention for Optometry
The direction of travel of light indicates the positive direction (usually left to
right, but may be reversed in reflection)

All measures made in the same direction as propagation of light are POSITIVE
(usually denoted in my diagrams as k+)

Optical axis joins centres of curvature/centre of aperture in a system

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Sign convention for Optometry
Interface of interest
(may be lens, mirror, prism, aperture)
k+

Object space is defined by Image space is defined by

rays of the beam before rays of the beam after
meeting the optical element meeting the optical element

OPTICAL ELEMENT
Optical Axis

Object Space Image Space

• All measures are made from the surface of interest (the optical element)
• If light travels from L to R, object space is to the left of the interface and image space is to
the right (sign convention can be used for light traveling in any direction)
• All angles measured FROM surface normal (perpendicular to interface of interest) TO ray;
counterclockwise is +ve.
Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings
 Terminology
Ray (each of the arrows on a ray
diagram)
• Shows the direction of
propagation in a single direction
• These are perpendicular to the
wavefront
• Rays emerge in all directions
from a point source or from
every point on an extended
object

Pencil (the collection of arrows on

a ray diagram)
• A group of rays is called a pencil
Text courtesy of Dr. Hutchings
 Terminology
Limiting Aperture
• Defines the rays that form an image
• May be the edge of a lens or mirror, an actual aperture

Principal / Chief Ray

• The ray passing through the centre of an aperture
• The undeviated ray (relevant to lens or optical elements; more on this later)

Text courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Pencils & Wavefronts
Direction of Propagation Diverging Beam
 k+ • Wavefront gets bigger as it
moves further from the source
POINT
SOURCE • Rays are moving away from
each other and from the optic
CHIEF
RAY axis
• Radius of curvature of the
wavefront is measured from
Center of curvature the wavefront to the center of
APERTURE
curvature (-ve; in opposite
direction to propagation)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Pencils & Wavefronts
Direction of Propagation
 k+ Converging Beam
FOCUS OF
• Wavefront gets smaller as it
CONVERGING RAYS moves towards point of
convergence (focus)
CHIEF • Rays are moving towards each
RAY
other and toward the optic
axis
• Radius of curvature of the
APERTURE wavefront is measured from
the wavefront to the center of
curvature (+ve; in same
direction to propagation)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Pencils & Wavefronts
Direction of Propagation
Parallel Pencil
 k+
• A wavefront at an infinite (or
large enough!) distance from
the source has an infinitely
large radius, the wavefronts
CHIEF have no curvature and
RAY
therefore this gives a parallel
beam
• The rays positions are not
APERTURE changing relative to each
other
• Rays are parallel with the
optical axis
Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings
 Wavefront Curvature
• Wavefront curvature (R) is defined by the reciprocal of the distance of a point (r) on
a wavefront to the source (or focus).
– Thus, R=1/r
– Must use the correct sign for r

• As the distance of the wavefront from the source (or the focus) increases, the
curvature decreases.

• The units of curvature are reciprocal metres (m-1)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

VERGENCE
 Vergence
• Vergence describes the curvature of the wavefront in a specific medium
• That is:
Vergence = n x Curvature

– Where n is the refractive index of the medium (more on this next week)
– In air (n=1), Vergence = Wavefront Curvature

• The unit of vergence is the Dioptre or Diopter (D)

• Special note: theoretically vergence is in units of m-1 (useful for unit cancellation),
however, vergence and the unit of vergence the dioptre is a context specific unit.

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Vergence of Light and the Diopter (D)
Divergence is ALWAYS given in minus (-) vergence power
Convergence is ALWAYS given in plus (+) vergence power.

Example shows a
wave in air

Notice that the vergence has a larger magnitude nearer to the source (or focus, in the
case of convergence). Thus, planar wave fronts have ZERO vergence.

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

PINHOLES & APERTURES
 Pinhole Camera
k+

hb’

OBJ SPC IMG SPC

Pinhole = aperture that is approximately dimensionless

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Pinhole Camera
• The aperture is a pinhole, therefore approximately dimensionless
• Image is formed on film at image plane
• Size of image (hb’) depends on object size (h), distance of object and
image from aperture
– Using similar triangles

'
h l'
b
=
h l

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Imaging through an aperture
• The aperture has a dimension
• With an extended source, the image
produced is the sum of many point hb ’
sources
– Find image formed by chief rays from
each extreme point on the extended
source through the centre of the
aperture first
b

• Basic image size hb is defined by the chief

rays passing from the top and bottom of
the object through the aperture center
Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings
 Imaging through an aperture
• Each point on the source produces an
image blur, b, dependent on the size of
the aperture and the distance from the hb ’ T
screen
b
– Each blur has the shape of the
aperture
• Total image is the sum or superposition
of blurs from all points
• Total size of image is T: b

T=h +b
'
b

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Imaging through an aperture
• The image is REAL Letter being
– It can be formed on a screen observed at a
distance
• The total image is inverted relative to the object without glasses

– it appears upside down and backward compared to the

object/source
• When the aperture is small, the blur is small
E Image produced
on the retina
E
with a pinhole

– a clear image can be formed without a lens

– We use this clinically to estimate the ‘best’ vision we can get
with a corrective lens Image produced on
the retina with an
• The blur circle is the projected size of the aperture on the screen extended aperture
• Clinical note: What happens when you have a myope without their
E
glasses trying to see something in the distance?

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Pinhole Camera & Apertures
• Final intensity of image is sum of intensities from all point sources in object
• Very small aperture (pinhole)
– Diffraction (more about this in physical optics)
– low illumination at image plane
– large depth of focus (position of screen has little effect)
• Larger aperture (not a pinhole)
– higher illumination at image plane
– blurred image
– small depth of focus (position of screen has large effect)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Quick recap
• Huygen’s principle
• Shadows
• Vergence
• Pinholes & apertures
Reflection from a planar surface

OPTOM 106
GEOMETRICAL, PHYSICAL AND VISUAL OPTICS
Fall 2023
 Outline
• Types of reflections
• Law of reflection
• Image appearance
• Mirror ray diagram
• Rotating planar mirrors
 Specular versus diffuse reflections
Specular reflection: Diffuse reflection:
Light is reflected off a smooth (within a few Light is reflected off an irregular, rough
λ), polished surface (appears bright) and surface (appears matte) that tends to reflect
obeys the laws of reflection light in all directions
 Specular reflections
Amount of light reflected depends on the quality of the polish and the media. It may be
colour (wavelength) dependent. Very high reflecting (> 90%) or very low reflecting
surfaces (< 5%) are difficult to create.
Examples:
• Polished surface having glare and/or acting as a
glare source may be disabling for vision

• Planar mirror in Optometry clinic consulting

room to view the letter chart
 Law of Reflection
A reflection is the return of light, heat, sound, etc. after striking a surface

It is the change in direction of the wavefront at an interace between two

different media. The wavefront remains in the media within which it originated.

Image courtesy of Dr. Lakshminarayanan

 Planar mirror ray diagram components
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑟𝑟
The reflected ray is traveling in the opposite direction so that 𝑖𝑖 = −𝑟𝑟

PLANE OF INCIDENCE
NORMAL
Perpendicular to the reflecting surface

INCIDENT RAY REFLECTED RAY

ANGLE OF REFLECTION
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
i r
Angle reflected ray makes with normal
Angle incident ray makes with normal
Plane Mirror Surface

Indicates a REFLECTING Surface

Animation courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 A Note On ‘Labeling’ Convention in Equations
• Throughout geometrical optics:
• Distances are given as a lower case letter
• Curvature or vergences are given as an uppercase letter
– The same letter as associated with the distance
– e.g. if object distance is l then object vergence is L
• Measurements or vergences associated with:
– object space are without a prime
– image space are with a prime
– e.g. Object vergence is L and image vergence is L’
– e.g. Object distance is l and image distance is l’

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Law of Reflection
Incident
Reflected IN AIR:
n=1 before reflection
n’= -n= -1 after reflection

r Normal 1/l = -1/l‘

IN ANY OTHER MEDUIM:
i n= n before reflection
n’= -n after reflection

n/l = n’/l’
B B’ n/l = -n/l‘

Angle of incidence Image is as far behind

= l l’
the mirror surface as
Angle of reflection object is in front
OBJ

IMG
Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings
 Reversion of images

Right to left reversion

Text will be upright,
but reversed

Image courtesy of Dr. Lakshminarayanan

 Reversion of images
Image Reversion depends
on viewing position
At O1
Looking in mirror, Q’ is on right and B’ is on left
Back to mirror, Q is on left and B’ is on right
LEFT to RIGHT REVERSION

At O3
No left to right reversion
Looking in mirror, R’ is farther away from you
Looking at object in front R is nearer to you
IMAGE IS AS FAR BEHIND AS OBJECT IS IN FRONT
From Freeman (10th Edition)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Drawing a Mirror Ray Diagram – Point Source
A A’

k+

Obj Img
Optic
Axis

A virtual image!

B B’

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Drawing a Mirror Ray Diagram
k+

Optic
Axis
Obj Img

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Field of view
Extent of image seen in mirror describes the field of view

Has important applications in exam room design since visual acuity is usually
taken @ 6m, but exam rooms are not usually 6m long (WHY?). Letters must be
reverted (WHY?)

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Consulting Room Optics
To read the chart at an effective distance of 6m in a
3m room

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Rotation of a Planar Mirror
Angle of Deviation (υ):
• Light incident on a planar a = Angle of rotation when light is
incident at the center of rotation
When a planar mirror is rotated….
mirror undergoes a change This is a mechanical angle
a …the angle of the reflected ray alters
in direction
• The angle through which by twice the angle of rotation
the beam is turned is called N1 i
the angle of deviation
a
• It depends on the angle of υ
incidence N2

• Note that the angle of i+a υ’

deviation and the angle of
υ = “Angle of deviation” caused by reflection
reflection ARE NOT THE υ’ = “Angle of deviation” caused by reflection after mirror rotation
SAME THING

Slide courtesy of Dr. Hutchings

 Clinical applications of rotating planar mirrors
Imaging with scanning laser ophthalmoscope
(SLO) and optical coherence tomography (OCT)

[Link]

Images from Heidelberg Spectralis

 Quick recap
• Types of reflections
• specular vs diffuse
• Law of reflection
• Image is as far behind planar surface as object is in front
• Angle of incidence = - Angle of reflection
• For a planar mirror all normals are PARALLEL
• Image appearance
• Exact replica, erect
• Reverted
• virtual
• Mirror ray diagrams
• Rotating planar mirrors
 What’s next?
Fourth law of geometrical optics:
the law of refraction

Light travels in a straight line until the media

changes. Then what?