Occupation of Istanbul
The occupation of Istanbul, also known as the occupation of
Constantinople, took place from 12 November 1918 to 4 October 1923.
It was carried out by British, French, Italian, and Greek forces in
accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, which marked the end of the
Ottoman Empire's participation in the First World War. The occupation
had a significant impact on the city and the region, leading to the
establishment of the Turkish National Movement and eventually the
Turkish War of Independence.
Occupation Zones
1 Allied Troops Enter
The first French troops entered the city on 12 November 1918, followed by British
troops the next day.
2 Occupation Administration
Allied troops occupied zones based on the existing divisions of Istanbul and set up an
Allied military administration early in December 1918.
3 Formal Arrangement
The initial phase of the occupation gave way in 1920 to a more formal arrangement
under the Treaty of Sèvres.
Population of Istanbul
Estimates Religious Western European
The Ottomans estimated
Composition Population
that the population of Half or less were Muslim, There had been a
Istanbul in 1920 was with the rest largely substantial Western
between 800,000 and consisting of Greek European population in
1,200,000 inhabitants. Orthodox, Armenian Istanbul before the war.
Apostolic, and Jewish
communities.
Legality of the Occupation
Armistice of Mudros British Position Ottoman Response
The Armistice of Mudros, Admiral Somerset Gough- The Ottoman side returned to
which ended Ottoman Calthorpe stated the Triple the capital with a personal
involvement in World War I, Entente's position that they letter from Calthorpe,
mentioned the occupation of had no intention to dismantle intended for Rauf Orbay, in
Bosporus and Dardanelles the government or to place it which he promised on behalf
forts. under military occupation by of the British government that
"occupying Constantinople". only British and French troops
would be used in the
occupation of the Straits
fortifications.
Military Administration
Allied Troops Enter
1 The first French troops entered the city on 12 November 1918, followed by
British troops the next day.
Occupation Zones
2 Allied troops occupied sections of Istanbul and set up an Allied military
administration early in December 1918.
Italian Battalion
3 An Italian battalion with 19 officers and 740 soldiers landed at the Galata
pier on 7 February 1919.
Ottoman Courts-Martial
Trial Beginnings Guilty Verdicts International Trials
The trials began in Istanbul The court-martial found The Ottoman trials were
on 28 April 1919. several defendants guilty of replaced with
subverting "International" trials, which
constitutionalism by force declined to use any
and found them evidence developed by the
responsible for massacres. Ottoman tribunals.
A New Movement
1 Inspector General
The power of the inspector general was curbed, at least on paper, as a 'compromise'
developed whereby the title had no power to command.
2 Understanding Kemal
General Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe began to understand Mustafa Kemal's role
in the establishment of the Turkish national movement.
3 Replacement of Forces
Captain Hurst in Samsun warned Calthorpe about the Turkish national movement, but
his units were replaced with a brigade of Gurkhas.
Establishing Authority
1 British Roundup 2 Response to 3 Conflict Resolution
The British rounded up a
Accusations Any source of conflict,
number of members of The French including Armenian
the old establishment Government's response questions, would be
and interned them in to those accused was investigated by a
Malta, awaiting their trial "distinction to commission, to which
for alleged crimes during disadvantage of Muslim- neutral governments
World War I. Turks while Bulgarian, could attach two legal
Austrian and German superintendents.
offenders were as yet
neither arrested nor
molested".
Enforcing the Peace Treaty
Early Pressure
1 The British argued that the insurgency of the Turkish National Movement should be
suppressed by local forces in Anatolia, with the help of British training and arms.
Local Support
2 Some Circassian exiles, notably Ahmet Anzavur, supported the British, while others,
such as Hüseyin Rauf Orbay, remained loyal to Kemal.
International Trials
3 The "International" trials declined to use any evidence developed by the Ottoman
tribunals.
End of the Occupation
1 Chanak Crisis
The Chanak Crisis nearly resulted in hostilities, these being avoided on 11
October 1922, when the Armistice of Mudanya was signed, bringing the
Turkish War of Independence to an end.
2 Evacuation of Istanbul
Under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, Allied forces started
evacuating Istanbul on 23 August 1923 and completed the task on 4
October 1923.
3 Liberation Day
Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili
Pasha, entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has
been marked as the Liberation Day of Istanbul.
