HOW SCIENCE WORKS

The scientific process

Before starting to work like a scientist, it is a good idea to understand exactly how the
world of the science works. Scientist across the world, work together to confirm
scientific processes observed supported with multiple evidence.
Scientists come up with hypothesis - then test them.
❖ Scientists try to explain everything.
❖ They start by observing and thinking about something they don't understand- it
could be anything, e.g., Planets in the sky, person suffering from an illness, what
matter is made-up of …
❖ Then using what they already know submit of insight they come up with a
hypothesis or possible explanation for what they've observed.
❖ The next step is to test whether the hypothesis might be right or not this involves
gathering evidence that is data from investigations.
❖ To gather evidence the scientist uses the hypothesis to make
a prediction- statement based on the hypothesis that can be tested by carrying
out experiments
❖ If the result from the experiment matched the prediction then the scientists can
be more confident that the hypothesis correct. This doesn't mean the hypothesis
is true though other predictions other predictions based on the hypothesis might
turn out to be wrong.
Scientists work together to test hypothesis.
[Link] scientists can look at the same evidence and interpret it in different ways
that's why scientists usually work in teams they can share their different ideas on how to
interpret the data they find
[Link] the team has come up with and tested a hypothesis they all agree with they'll
present their work to the scientific community through journalism through journals and
scientific conferences so it can be judged this is called the peer review process.
[Link] scientists then check the teams result by trying to replicate them and carry out
their own experiments to collect more evidence
4. If all the experiments in the world back up the hypothesis scientists start to have a lot
of confidence in it a hypothesis that is accepted by pretty much every scientist is
referred to as a theory
[Link], if another scientist does the inexperience and the results don't fit with the
hypothesis and other scientists can replicate these results then the hypothesis is in
trouble when this happens scientists have to come up with a new hypothesis maybe a
modification of the old explanation or maybe a completely new one next paragraph
A hypothesis a possible explanation for an observation
If scientists think something is true, they need to produce evidence to convince others –
it’s all parts of testing a hypothesis. One hypothesis might survive these tests, while
others won't - it's how things progress. And along the way some hypothesis will be
distributed – i.e. Shown not to be true.

Scientific ideas change as new evidence is found

[Link] explanations are provisional because they only explain the evidence that's
currently available new evidence may come up that can't be explained.
2. This means that the scientific explanations never become hard and fast totally
indisputable fact as new evidence is found or new ways of interpreting existing evidence
are found hypothesis can change or be replaced
3. Sometimes an unexpected observation or result will suddenly throw a hypothesis into
doubt and further experiments will need to be carried out this can lead to new
developments that increase our understanding of science
 Planning Investigations
In a fair test you have to control the variables
[Link] a lab experiment you usually change one variable and measure how it affects the
other variable.
[Link] make it a fair test everything else that could affect the results should stay the
same(otherwise you can't tell if the thing that's being changed is affecting the result or
not - the data won't be reliable or valid).
3. The variable that you change is called the independent variable.
4. The variable that's measured is called dependent variable.
5. The variables that you keep the same are called control varables.

E.g., You might change only temperature of an enzyme- controlled reaction and
measure how it affects the rate of reaction. You need to keep the pH same,
otherwise you won’t know if any change in the rate of reaction is changed by the
change in temperature or change in pH.
Independent variable- temperature Dependent variable- rate of reaction
Control variable- pH

6. Because you can't always control all the variables, you often need to use a control
experiment - an experiment that’s kept under the same conditions, as the rest of the
investigation, but doesn’t have anything done to it. This is so that you can see what
happens when you didn't don't change anything at all
Experiments must be safe
[Link] of planning an investigation is making sure that it's safe.
2. A hazard is something that can potentially cause harm.
[Link] are lots of hazards you could be faced with during an investigation. E.g.
radiation,electricity,gas,chemicals and fire.
[Link] should always make sure that you identify all the hazards that you may
encounter.
[Link] should also come up with ways of reducing the risk from the hazard you've
identified.
[Link] way of doing this is to carry out a risk assessment.
 Quality of data
The scientific community won’t just accept any old results… They’ve got to be reliable
and valid.

Evidence needs to be reliable that is (Repeatable and Reproducible)

Reliable means that the data can be repeated and reproduced by others.
Evidence is only reliable, if it can be repeated (during and experiment and other
scientists can reproduce it too in other experiements). If it’s not relaible, you can’t
believe it.

Evidence also needs to be valid

Valid means that the data is reliable and answers the original question.

RRRR- Remember, reliable means repeatable and reproducible.

The scientific community won't aacept someone's data if it can't be repeated by anyone
else. It may sound like a really fantastic new theory but it is no other support for it it's
just it just isn't reliable
The way evidence is gathered can have a big effect on how trustworthy it is…
The bigger the sample size the better
[Link] based on small samples isn't as good as data based on large samples.

2. The bigger the sample size the better, but scientists have to be realistic when
choosing how big.

Don't always believe what you are being told straight away
 Collecting data
There are a few things that can be done to make sure that you get the best results you
possibly can.
The equipment used has to be right for the job.
[Link] measuring equipment you use has to be sensitive enough to accurately measure
the chemicals you're using.

[Link] smallest change information instrument can detect is called resolution. [Link]
mass balances have a resolution of 1g and some have resolution of 0.1g.
[Link], equipment needs to be calibrated so that your data is more [Link]
balances need to be set to zero before you start weighing things.
Trial runs give you the range and interval of variable values
[Link] you carry out an experiment it's good idea to do trial run first – a quick version
of your experiment.
2. Trial runs help you work out otherwise whether your plan is right or not- you might
decide to make some changes after trying out your method.
3. Trial runs are used to figure out the range of variable valuesused the upper and lower
limit.

4. And they are used to figure out the interval (gaps) between the values too.

5. Trial runs can also help you figure out how many times experiment has to be
repeated to get reliable results. E.g. If you repeat two times then the results are all
similar then two repeats are enough.
Data should be relaible, accurate and precise as possible
Reliable
1. When carrying out an investigation you can improve the reliability of the result by
repeating the readings and calculating the mean (average). You should repeat readings
at least twice so that you have at least three readings to calculate an average.
2. To make sure your results are reliable you can cross check them by taking a second
set of meetings with another instrument or a different observer
[Link] your results match with secondary sources. [Link] that other people
have done also increases the reliability of their data.
Accurate
[Link] should always make sure that your results are accurate. Really accurate results
are those that are really close to the true answer.
2. You can get accurate results by doing things like making sure the experiment you’re
using is sensitive enough and by recording your data to a suitable level of accuracy.
e.g. if you're taking digital readings of, something the results will be more accurate if you
include at least a couple of decimal places instead of rounding to whole numbers.
Precise
[Link] should also always make sure that your results are precise.
[Link] results residents are ones where the data is all ready close to the mean(not
spread out).
You can check for mistakes made when collecting data
[Link] you have collected all the results of the experiment you should have a look to
see , if there are any results that don't seem to fit in with the result.
[Link] results vary a bit, but any that are completely different called anomalous
results.

[Link]’re caused by human errors.e.g. by a mistake when measuring.

4. The only way to stop them happening is by taking all your measurements as carefully
as possible.
5. If you ever get any anomalous results, you should investigate them to try to work out
what happened. If you can work out what happened [Link] measured something
wrong you can ignore them when processing the results.

Organising and processing data

Once the data has been collected it's needs to be organized and processed
Data needs to be organized
[Link] that been collected needs to be organized so it can be processed later on.
[Link] are dead useful for organizing data.
3. When drawing tables you should always make sure that each column has a

4. Tables can help in identifying pattern and you need to use some kind of graph or
mathematical technique for that.
Data can be processed using a bit of math
[Link] data generally is just not useful. You usually have to process it in some way.
2. A couple of the most simple calculations you can perform are the mean and the
range. Mean is the average and range is how spread the data is.
 Presenting data
Once you’ve carried out an investigation you’ll need to present your data and graphs
are just about the best way of doing it.
Different types of data should be presented in different ways
[Link] that it's easier to see patterns and relationships in the data.
2. Different types of investigations give you different types of data so you'll always have
to choose what the best way to present your data is.
Bar charts
If the independent variable is categoric (comes in distinct categories,[Link] types,
metal etc.) you should use a bar chart to display the data. You also use them if the
independent variable is discrete (the data can be counted in chunks where there's no in
between value example number of people is discrete because you can't half person)

Line graphs
If the individual independent variable is continuous (numerical data that you can have
any value within a range, e.g. length, volume, temperature( you should use a line graph
to display the data.
 Interpreting data
Once you've drawn your graph using all the tips you need to be able to understand what
it is telling you. Line graphs are great for showing relationships between two variables.
A correlation is a relationship between sets of data.
Here are some of the different types of correlations shown on line graphs.
[Link] correlation- As one variable increases, the other increases.

2. Negative correlation- As one variable increaases, the other decreases.

3. No correlation- There’s no relationship between the two variables.

Linear graph- is a staright line graph.

This is also an example of a directly proportional graph
Where both variables increase or decrease in the
same ratio.
You've got to be careful not to confuse correlation with cause though. A correlation just
means that there’s a relationship between two variables it doesn't always mean there is
that the change in one variable is causing the change in the other variable.
There are three possible reasons for correlation.
▪ It could three down to chance
▪ It could be that there's third variable linking the two thing
▪ It might actually be that one variable is causing the other to change.

Concluding and Evaluating

Concluding and evaluating at the end of the investigation is communication of your
results effectively.
An experiment a must have a conclusion and an evaluation - writing about where you
went wrong is an important skill it shows you've got a really good understanding of what
the investigation was about.
A conclusion is a summary of what you’ve learnt through the investigation
1. Once all the data has been collected,presented and analyzed, an investigation will
always involve coming to conclusion.
2. Drawing a conclusion can be quite straightforward just look at your value and see
what pattern you have.

[Link], you also need to use the data that's been collected to justify the conclusion
( to back it up)

[Link] are some things to watch out for too- it's important that the conclusion matches
the data, it's based on and does not do any further.
[Link] not to confuse correlation and [Link] can only conclude that one
variable is causing a change in another if you have control all the other variables(make
it a fair test)
Evaluations- describing how the investigation could be improved
An evaluation is a critical analysis of the whole investigation
1. You should comment on the method- was the equipment suitable? was it a fair test?
[Link] on the quality of the results - was there enough evidence to reach a valid
conclusion? Were the results reliable, accurate and precise?
3. Were there any anomalies in the results- if there were none then say so.
[Link] there were any anomalies, try to explain them- were they caused by errors in
measurement? Were there any other variables that could have affected the result?
5. When you analyze your investigation like this,you’ll be able to say how confident you
are that your conclusion is right.
6. Then you can suggest any changes that would improve the quality of the results,so
that you could have more confidence in your conclusion for example you might suggest
changing the way you control the variable or changing the interval of values you
measured.
[Link] could also make more predictions based on your conclusion,then further
experiments could be carried out to test them.
8. When suggesting improvements to the investigation always make sure that you say
why you think this would make the results better.
9. When discussing how to improve your investigation you may consider how to remove
these sources of error and how to better use the equipment to make sure your readings
are more accurate. You may also decide that to see a clearer pattern in the results you
need to take more measurements and what values these will take.
[Link] the various possible sources of errors that could have affected your results.
Types of error
Errors can happen when taking a measurement, usually leading to a spread in data.
There are two types of error that affect scientific measurements:
random error and systematic error.
Random errors- are due to things you have no control over, such as a change in room
temperature whilst you were collecting the results. Repeating your measurements and
finding a mean will reduce the effect of random errors.
This can alter the spread of data and cause outliers, as some measurements may be
affected and not others. This can happen when equipment isn't used properly or a
reading is taken incorrectly during measurements.
An example of this is parallax error. This is caused when a measurement is not taken at
eye level. The reading recorded can end up being too high or low.

Systematic errors - are due to problems with the equipment you [Link] can make
measurements less accurate. It may happen if equipment is not used properly and can
cause each result to differ by the same amount.
For example, the balances you used may have been out by 0.1 g for every
[Link] not resetting a mass balance to zero and measuring from the end of a
ruler instead of from zero, could lead to such systematic errors.
 Limits of science
science can give us amazing things cures for diseases space travel heated toilet
seats…. but science has its limitations- there are questions that is just that it just can't
answer.
Some questions are unanswered…
Some questions are unanswered- we don't know everything and we never will. We'll find
out more as new hypothesis as suggested and more experiments are done but they'll
always be stuff we don't know

…Others are answerable

[Link] there's the other type….questions that all the experience for word won't help us
answer the should we be doing this at all time questions there are always two sides.
2. Take embryo screening which also allows you to choose or enter your particular
characteristic it's possible to does that mean we should?
[Link] people have different opinions, for example

[Link] question of whether right or wrong country answered by more experiments there
is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer.
[Link] best we can get is consensus from society adjustments that most people are
more or less happy to live [Link] can provide more information to help people
make this judgment and the judgment might change but in the end it's up to people and
their conscience.
 Scientific developments are great but they can raise issues
Scientific knowledge is increased by doing experiment and this knowledge leads to
scientific developments except example new technologies or new advice these
developments can create issues though for example
Economic issues
Society can't always afford to do things scientists recommend. E.g. Investing heavily in
alternative energy sources without cutting the back elsewhere.
Social issues
Decisions based on scientific evidence affect people. E.g. Should fossil fuels be taxed
more highly to invest in? To invest in alternative energy? Should alcohol be banned to
prevent health problems? Would the effect on people's lifestyle be acceptable?
Environmental issues
Genetically modified crops may help us produce more food- but some people think they
could cause environmental problems.
Ethical issues
There are a lot of things that scientists scientific development have made possible, but
should we do them? E.g. clone humans, develop better nuclear weapons.

Things are not always what they seem

No matter who what you're reading or who it's written by you've always got to be really
careful about what you believe. Ask yourself whether the sample is a decent size check
whether the author has anything to gain from what is written. E,g. an article on the
magical busting power of spinach written by the country's leading spinach grower may
not be all it seems. Don't be fooled!
It's not all test tubes and explanations
Life can be hard as a scientist. You think you'll get it all figured out and then someone
comes along with some issues. But it's for the best really the world would be pretty
messed up if no one ever thought about the issues created by scientific development.
(just watch Jurassic park!!!)
Sources:
GCSE- Additional science- Higher level- Complete revision and practice
Planning an experiment - Practical skills - GCSE Biology (Single Science) Revision - AQA - BBC Bitesize

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