CANCER

INTRODUCTION TO CANCER:
Cancer is a condition characterised by the abnormal behaviour of certain cells within the body. In a
healthy person, cells follow a specific pattern of growth, division, and eventually, natural death, which is
essential to maintain proper bodily function. However, in the case of cancer, these cells deviate from this
normal behaviour, undergoing uncontrollable and abnormal growth (Due to absence of growth inhibition
factor).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CANCER CELLS AND NORMAL

CELLS:
Characteristic Normal Cells Cancer Cells

Growth Follow a controlled pattern Grow uncontrollably, ignoring signals

Communication Interact effectively with other cells Fail to respond to signals, act isolated

Cell Repair and Death Undergo self-repair or apoptosis Do not engage in self-repair or apoptosis.

Attachment Secrete adhesive substances Lack adhesive properties, can detach

Heterogeneous in size, significant

Appearance Uniform size, orderly appearance
variation

Remain undifferentiated due to rapid

Undergo maturation process
Maturation growth

TYPES OF CANCER:
Cancers are named after the organs or tissues in which they originate. The specific type of cell that gives
rise to cancer, such as epithelial or squamous cells, is also used in the classification.

1. Carcinoma: The Most Common Type

Carcinoma is the most prevalent type of cancer. It primarily consists of epithelial cells that line both the
inner and outer surfaces of the body. A variant known as basal cell carcinoma

2. Sarcoma: Affecting Bone and Soft Tissues

Sarcomas are cancers that develop in bone and soft tissues, encompassing muscle, fat, blood vessels,
lymphatics, as well as fibrous tissues like tendons and ligaments.
3. Leukaemia: Blood-Related Cancer
Leukaemia is a form of cancer that originates in the blood-forming tissues of the bone marrow. Unlike
other cancers, leukaemia does not form solid tumours. Instead, it results in the accumulation of
abnormal white blood cells (leukaemia cells and leukemic blast cells) in the blood and bone marrow,
displacing normal blood cells.

4. Lymphoma: Involving Lymphocytes

Lymphoma is characterised by the malignancy of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell crucial for the
immune system. In this type of cancer, abnormal cells accumulate in the body's lymph nodes, lymphatic
vessels, and other organs.

5. Melanoma: Skin and Beyond

Melanoma is a cancer that begins in specialised melanocytes, cells responsible for producing melanin.
While most melanomas develop in the skin, they can also occur in other pigmented tissues, including the
eye.

6. Brain And Spinal Cord Tumours: Diverse Forms

Tumours originating in the brain and spinal cord manifest in various forms. They are classified based on
the cell type of origin and the location within the central nervous system where they first appear.

Other Types of Cancer

 Germ Cell Tumours: These tumours initiate in the cells responsible for sperm or ovum
production and can appear in various body locations, potentially being benign or malignant.

 Neuroendocrine Tumours: These tumours arise from cells that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream in response to nervous system signals. They may lead to a wide range of symptoms
due to the excessive hormone production.

o Carcinoid Tumours: Carcinoid tumours, a subset of neuroendocrine tumours, typically

grow slowly and are commonly found in the gastrointestinal system. In some cases, they
can metastasize to the liver or other body parts.

COMMON CAUSES OF CANCER:

The primary cause of cancer is mutations, or alterations in the DNA within an individual's cells. These
genetic mutations may either be inherited or acquired after birth due to exposure to certain substances
and environmental factors.

Carcinogens, which are substances known to increase the risk of cancer, can be categorised into three
main groups:

 Physical Carcinogens:
 These encompass exposure to radiation and ultraviolet (UV) light, like that from the sun, which
can be harmful to the skin.

 Unprotected Exposure to UV Light: Excessive and unprotected exposure to UV light,

like sunlight and tanning beds, is linked to skin cancer

 Exposure to Radiation: Occupational or medical exposure to radiation, such as X-rays

and certain treatments, can increase the risk of cancer.

 Chemical Carcinogens:
Examples include cigarette smoke, asbestos, alcohol, air pollution, and certain chemicals found
in contaminated food and drinking water. These are substances that, when encountered, can
potentially lead to cancer.

 Tobacco Use: Smoking and the use of tobacco products significantly elevate the risk of
various types of cancer.

 High Alcohol Consumption: Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an increased

risk of certain cancers, including those of the mouth, throat, and liver.

 Exposure to Air Pollution: Prolonged exposure to polluted air, especially in urban

areas, may contribute to cancer risk, particularly lung cancer.

 Biological Carcinogens:
This category involves viruses, bacteria, and parasites that are linked to an increased risk of
cancer development.

 Lack of Physical Activity: A sedentary lifestyle can be a risk factor, as regular physical
activity has been shown to reduce the risk of certain cancers.

 Agrobacterium tumerfaciens: used a cloning vector in higher plants (actually it is a

tumour causing pathogen)

How Does Cancer Grow and Spread?

 Abnormal Cell Division: Normal cells grow, divide, and replace damaged ones according to
their life cycle. Cancer, caused by DNA mutations, disturbs this process. Mutations allow
cells to survive when they should die and create unnecessary new cells, resulting in
uncontrollable growth and tumour formation.
 Creation of Tumours: Tumours can pose health problems, but not all are cancerous. Benign
tumours remain localised, while malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues,
potentially causing more severe issues.
 Metastasis: Metastasis involves cancer cells spreading through the bloodstream or
lymphatic system. Metastatic cancers are more advanced and challenging to treat, often
associated with higher fatality rates.
SYMPTOMS OF CANCER:
Cancer can present with a variety of signs and symptoms, which may vary depending on the specific area
of the body that is affected. To help better recognize potential warning signs, here is a list of common
indicators that are not exclusive to cancer but should prompt you to seek medical attention:

 Changes in Bowel or Bladder Habits: Look out for unexplained changes like
persistent diarrhoea or constipation, frequent urgency when urinating, or any other unusual
bowel or bladder irregularities.

 Non-Healing Sores: It's important to pay attention to any sore on the body that doesn't seem to
heal as expected.

 Unusual Bleeding or Discharge: Any unexplained bleeding or discharge, such as blood in urine,
stool, between menstrual periods, vomit, or cough, should be investigated.

 Thickening or Lump: If you notice any unexplained lump or thickening in any part of the body,
you should consult a medical professional promptly.

 Wart or Mole Changes: Any noticeable changes in the size, shape, or colour
of warts or moles should be examined by a doctor.

 Nagging Cough, Breathlessness, or Hoarseness: Medical advice should be sought if one has a
cough or experiences breathlessness for more than two weeks, or if you notice blood in the
phlegm.

 Fatigue or Unexplained Swelling: Keep an eye out for fatigue that doesn't improve with rest, or
areas of swelling that can be felt under the skin.

 Weight Fluctuations: Significant unintentional weight loss or gain should be investigated.

 Skin Changes: Changes in the skin, including yellowing, darkening, redness, non-healing wounds,
or alterations in existing birthmarks, require medical attention.

 Persistent Indigestion After Eating: If one experiences ongoing discomfort or indigestion after
eating, they should consult a healthcare professional.

 Unexplained Persistent Fever or Night Sweats: Prolonged, unexplained fever or night sweats
should not be ignored.

 Unexplained Persistent Muscle or Joint Pain: One should seek medical evaluation for persistent,
unexplained muscle or joint pain.

DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER:
Various methods and techniques are employed to identify the presence of cancer cells and tumours in
the human body. When seeking the best cancer hospital in India for diagnosis and treatment, it's
essential to consider the hospital's expertise in utilising these methods.
 1. Biopsy
A biopsy is a medical procedure where a sample of tissue is collected from the suspicious area and
examined under a microscope. Pathologists analyse the tissue sample to check for the presence of
cancer cells, helping to confirm the diagnosis.

Histopathological Studies of Tissue

Histopathological studies involve the microscopic analysis of tissue samples. Pathologists study these
samples to detect abnormal cellular changes that are indicative of cancer. This technique is crucial for
understanding the characteristics of cancerous tissues.

2. Radiography Techniques
Radiography techniques, such as X-rays, are often used to capture images of affected areas in the body.
These images help in the identification of abnormalities, including tumours or irregular masses that
might be indicative of cancer.

3. Computed Tomography (CT)

Computed Tomography, commonly known as CT or CAT scans, provides detailed cross-sectional images
of the body. It aids in the detection and localization of cancerous growths. CT scans are particularly
valuable for visualising solid organs and bones.

4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

MRI is another imaging technique that provides high-resolution images for the assessment of cancer,
especially in soft tissues. It offers excellent contrast and is highly effective in identifying abnormalities in
various parts of the body.

Molecular Biology Techniques

Advanced molecular biology techniques have revolutionised cancer detection. These methods involve
the analysis of genetic and molecular markers to identify cancer-related mutations and abnormalities. By
studying the DNA and RNA of cells, scientists can pinpoint specific genetic changes associated with
different types of cancer.

5. Cancer Stages
Cancer staging systems play a pivotal role in guiding healthcare providers as they chart a course of
treatment and offer patients a prognosis, or an anticipated outcome. Among the various staging systems,
the TNM classification is the most widely employed. It simplifies the complex reality of cancer
progression into three key factors:

 T represents the primary tumour.

 N indicates lymph nodes and signals whether the cancer has extended to these vital components
of the immune system.

 M is for metastasis, indicating the spread of cancer to distant parts of the body.

Most cancer types are categorised into four primary stages. The specific stage assigned to a patient
depends on several factors, including the tumour's size and its location within the body:
  Stage I: At this stage, cancer is confined to a small, localised area, without any evidence of
spreading to nearby lymph nodes or other tissues.

 Stage II: Cancer has experienced some growth, but it still remains localised and hasn't extended
to other areas of the body.

 Stage III: Cancer has grown larger, possibly involving nearby lymph nodes or adjacent tissues.

 Stage IV: This advanced stage indicates that cancer has spread to other organs or distant areas of
the body, a condition often termed metastatic cancer.

In addition to these four primary stages, there's also Stage 0, which characterises the earliest phase of
cancer.

TREATMENT OF CANCER:
Cancer treatment is a collaborative effort that involves various approaches, each tailored to address
specific aspects of the disease. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the primary methods of
cancer treatment, their objectives, and how they contribute to the well-being of cancer patients.

Primary Treatment
The primary objective of cancer treatment is to completely eradicate cancer from the body or destroy all
cancer cells. While various treatment options can serve as primary treatments, the most common
approach for the most prevalent types of cancer is surgery.

o Adjuvant Treatment
Adjuvant therapy focuses on eliminating any residual cancer cells after primary treatment to reduce the
risk of cancer recurrence.

o Palliative Care
Palliative care treatments are designed to alleviate side effects resulting from treatment or symptoms
caused by cancer itself. They encompass a range of interventions, including surgery, radiation,
chemotherapy procedure, and hormone therapy, which can provide relief from pain and discomfort.

o Surgery
The primary goal of surgery is the complete removal of malignant tissue, whenever possible.

o Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy employs drugs to target and eliminate cancer cells.

o Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays, such as X-rays or protons, to obliterate cancer cells.

o Bone Marrow Transplant

A bone marrow transplant, also known as a stem cell transplant, involves using either the patient's own
bone marrow stem cells or those from a donor to restore healthy blood cell production.
 o Immunotherapy Procedure
Immunotherapy, a biological treatment, leverages the body's immune system to combat cancer. It
addresses the challenge where the immune system fails to recognize cancer as a threat, allowing it to
proliferate unchecked.

o Hormone Therapy
Certain cancers, such as breast and prostate cancer, are influenced by hormones. Hormone
therapy works by removing these hormones from the body or blocking their effects, thereby halting the
growth of cancer cells.

o Targeted Drugs
Targeted drug therapy focuses on specific abnormalities within cancer cells to inhibit their growth.

o Cryoablation
Cryoablation is a treatment that uses cold temperatures to destroy cancer cells. A cryoprobe, a thin
needle, is inserted directly into the cancerous tumour. It's filled with gas to freeze the tissue, which is
then thawed and repeated multiple times in the same session to effectively eliminate cancer cells.

o Radiofrequency Ablation
Radiofrequency ablation uses electrical energy to heat and destroy cancer cells. A doctor inserts a thin
needle through the skin or an incision in the cancerous tissue, and radiofrequency energy is applied to
the needle to heat the tissue, causing the cells to die.

PREVENTION OF CANCER
1. Avoid tobacco: Smoking and chewing tobacco are major risk factors for many types of cancer1.

2. Eat a healthy diet: Focus on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins

3. Stay physically active: Regular exercise can help reduce the risk of various cancers

4. Protect yourself from the sun: Use sunscreen, wear protective clothing, and avoid excessive sun
exposure

5. Get vaccinated: Vaccines like the HPV vaccine can help prevent certain cancers

6. Regular screenings: Early detection through screenings can catch cancers before they spread

7. Limit alcohol consumption: Excessive alcohol use is linked to an increased risk of several cancers
.