Tourism Management Perspectives 29 (2019) 157–165

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Tourism Management Perspectives

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Understanding how Amsterdam City tourism marketing addresses cruise T

tourists’ motivations regarding culture
⁎
Tianchen Daia,b, Carola Heinb, Tong Zhanga,
a
Department of Architecture, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
b
Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper argues that a gap exists between the marketing of shore excursions and cruise tourists' expectations of
Tourism marketing ‘local flavor' experiences. The paper first establishes that this discrepancy exists, then aims to refine the focus of
Motivation marketing and promotion, and finally proposes strategies for improving cruise tourists' satisfaction. Amsterdam,
Sea cruise tourism a city eager to attract more cruise tourists, is chosen as the case area to evaluate the alignment of marketing and
Shore excursion
passenger expectation. The study is based on an analysis of tours proposed by cruise companies, using a word
Satisfaction
Amsterdam
frequency analysis of their narratives, and on structured interviews with 228 passengers. The result indicates
ICT that marketers should more effectively focus on and promote ‘local flavor' experience. They could place a
Cultural tourism stronger emphasis on local identity by cooperating with more local partners and engaging tourists in product
design.

1. Introduction role in this collaboration. The tasks of DMOs include coordinating

constituent elements of the tourism sector; providing leadership and
Devesa, Laguna, and Palacios (2010) state that motivation for advocacy for tourism within local communities; helping to ensure the
tourism is a determinant of the visitor's level of satisfaction. A tourist's development of tourism facilities, events, programs and a competitive
motivation is determined by emotional, spiritual or physical needs destination image; assisting visitors through the provision of visitor
(Wall & Mathieson, 2006). From a tourist's perspective, tourism is a services, and serving as a key liaison to assist external organizations,
response to felt needs and acquired values within temporal, spatial, such as tour operators (Bornhorst, Ritchie, & Sheehan, 2010). DMOs
social and economic parameters (Wall & Mathieson, 2006). Once needs also need to provide activities and experiences to be enjoyed by the
and values have been applied to a holiday scenario, the generated visitors at a price which they are willing to pay, and which enables the
motivation constitutes a major parameter in expectation formation destination to operate in a sustainable manner for the sustainable de-
(Gnoth, 1997). Expectations, in turn, determine performance percep- velopment of the destination. In terms of cruise tourism, DMOs work
tions of products as well as perceptions of experiences. Motivation thus with tour operators to provide support in promoting tourism products
impacts satisfaction (Sukiman, Omar, Muhibudin, Yussof, & Mohamed, to cruise companies, for instance, through familiarization tours, in
2013). For cruise tourists, motivations to visit a destination also have a order to sell them to cruise tourists. DMOs' fulfillment of the tasks of
consequential impact on their overall satisfaction regarding the desti- marketing and promotion greatly influences tourists' satisfaction with
nation. If their motivation is not successfully matched by the products their visitation experience. As Presenza, Sheehan, and Ritchie (2005)
— shore tours — or through the visiting experience, it is highly likely state, the quality of visitor experience acts as an indicator of the success
that they will be less satisfied with their experience of the destination as of DMOs. To increase the satisfaction level of cruise tourists in regard to
a whole. Therefore, understanding whether and how tourism products shore excursions, it is important to understand how to refine the focus
and services purchased by cruise tourists in a destination satisfy tour- of DMOs' marketing and promotion regarding tourists' motivations and
ists' motivations is crucial in improving satisfaction. expectations.
Tourism products and services for cruise tourists are the results of a Amsterdam, in order to maintain a liveable and diverse city for
collaboration between Destination Management Organizations (DMOs), residents, visitors and business partners (City of Amsterdam, 2016),
tour operators and sea cruise companies. DMOs play the most important urgently needs to attract higher-paying tourists and to reduce the

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hytong@[Link] (T. Zhang).

[Link]
Received 29 October 2018; Received in revised form 1 December 2018; Accepted 3 December 2018
2211-9736/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
([Link]
T. Dai et al. Tourism Management Perspectives 29 (2019) 157–165

number of budget travelers. Cruise tourists, being a group of high- field of sea cruise tourism, and we propose strategies regarding how
spending tourists, constitute a vital target group for Amsterdam city marketing and promotion might be improved in order to better satisfy
tourism marketing. As a key player among DMOs in Amsterdam, Am- passengers.
sterdam Marketing is a coalition made up of the Amsterdam Tourism &
Convention Board, Amsterdam Partners, and Amsterdam Uitburo 2. Literature review
(Amsterdam Marketing, 2015). Amsterdam Marketing sees city hospi-
tality as a vital part of city marketing. ‘I amsterdam’, launched by the 2.1. Relationship between tourists' motivations and satisfaction
city in 2004, serves as the motto of the brand for the city and people of
Amsterdam and represents an attempt to change the brand identity of The relationship between tourists' motivations and their satisfaction
Amsterdam in reaction to the perceived decline of the city against in- has been extensively discussed in the field of tourism research (Deci &
ternational benchmarks. The city's current marketing efforts in tourism Ryan, 1985; García & Picos, 2009; Oliver, 1980; Severt, Wang, Chen, &
primarily focus on attracting higher-paying cultural tourists and redu- Breiter, 2007). A motive is an internal factor that can be likened to “an
cing the number of budget tourists as a way of counteracting negative awareness of potential satisfaction” in a future situation, which means
aspects of the city's image and negative effects of ‘over-tourism’ that motives are cognitive representations of future states (Deci, 1975;
(Aalbers & Sabat, 2012; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2007). Only by redu- Deci & Ryan, 1985). Such motivation is expected to lead to personally
cing the number of tourists and increasing their ‘quality’ (City of satisfying experiences (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Thus, motivation and sa-
Amsterdam, 2016), can the new equilibrium between growth and life tisfaction are positively related to one another. Ross and Iso-Ahola
be achieved in a way that will maintain the city's appeal to all users, as (1991) demonstrated through their fieldwork that there is a con-
expressed by the slogan ‘City in Balance’ (City of Amsterdam, 2016). sequential relationship between motivations and satisfaction and when
Cruise tourists are considered higher-paying cultural tourists because the primary motivation is relatively dominant and is successfully met
31% of their total expenditures is spent on tours (including ground through tourist experiences, the resultant satisfaction spills over to
transportation), which are mainly cultural tourism products, generating various aspects of the experience, affecting overall satisfaction with the
much income for the city directly and indirectly (Amsterdam Cruise traveling experience. Devesa et al. (2010) also verify in their research
Port, 2015). Therefore, for the sustainable development of the city, to that motivation is a determinant of the visit assessment criteria and, as
maintain this group of tourists and increase their satisfaction level, a direct consequence, of the level of satisfaction of the visitor. They also
Amsterdam Marketing needs to clarify this group's motivations for reveal the existence of specific satisfactory elements directly linked to
traveling to Amsterdam. With knowledge of their motivations, they can the motivation for tourists to take the trip. For example, ‘cultural visi-
work on improving the quality of products and how best to promote tors’, who present high levels of satisfaction, have registered statisti-
them. cally significant higher evaluations of those items related to their cul-
In regard to their motivations, which tourists are least satisfied with tural motivation (Devesa et al., 2010).
their cultural experience in Amsterdam? Before answering this ques-
tion, it is helpful to segment cultural activities based on passengers' 2.2. Segmentation of passengers' motivations
motivations to build up a rigorous and systematic context for further
discussion, as the cruise tourists' motivations are the main driver of Since the primary motivation is a determinant of the resultant level
their choice of shore excursions. Although many typologies have been of overall satisfaction, it is crucial to examine tourists' motivations
developed to categorize tourist behavior, only a few are proposed based based on certain segments. Segmentation enables products to be de-
on the idea of cultural motivations (Richards, 1996). In this research, veloped to more effectively satisfy the differing needs of each segment.
we adopt and modify the idea proposed by McKercher, Ho, Cros, and In addition, segments are only meaningful if they can help an organi-
So-Ming (2002) that emphasizes the centrality of cultural motives and zation better match its products with its target markets (Mitchell &
integrates the meaning of ‘culture’ with up-to-date connotations to Wilson, 1998). Many researchers argue that one of the many aspects of
propose a typology of shore excursions with two main types: ‘high- tourism is that it can be considered a sociopsychological experience
culture-motivated’ excursion and ‘everyday-culture-motivated’ excur- sought by groups of tourists across socio-demographic strata (Ross &
sion. Based on terminology of ‘high culture’ and ‘everyday culture’ in Iso-Ahola, 1991; Rubio, 2003; Wacker, 1996). Therefore, benefit seg-
culture studies and cultural dimensions typifying this city proposed by mentation is more applicable than strict socio-demographic segmenta-
the city of Amsterdam (2004), these two types of excursion are sub- tion (Frochot & Morrison, 2000; McKercher & Du Cros, 2003; Prentice,
divided into five additional categories: ‘history’, ‘art’, ‘local flavor', Witt, & Hamer, 1998). Many tourist typologies have been developed
‘nature’ and ‘special activities'. according to tourism motivation and behavior (Table 1) (Andreu,
Based on this typology, this paper categorizes all the cultural ac- Kozak, Avci, & Cifter, 2006; Assiouras, Skourtis, Koniordos, &
tivities in shore excursions, collaboratively provided by Amsterdam Giannopoulos, 2015; Chen, Bao, & Huang, 2014; Cohen, 1972, 1979;
Marketing and three main international tour operators, and examines Dolnicar & Leisch, 2003; Elands & Lengkeek, 2000; Jacobsen &
the online information and structure of shore excursions provided on Antonson, 2017; Khoo-Lattimore, Prayag, & Disegna, 2018; Kruger,
the websites of 27 cruise companies that cooperate with the city of Myburgh, & Saayman, 2016; Li, Meng, Uysal, & Mihalik, 2013;
Amsterdam. As Amsterdam Marketing develops and distributes the McKercher et al., 2002; Özel & Kozak, 2012; Paker & Vural, 2016; Park
shore excursions products and online information for promotion with & Yoon, 2009; Plog, 1974; Richards, 1996; Richards & Wilson, 2003;
tour operators and cruise companies, by examining webpages it is Rid, Ezeuduji, & Pröbstl-Haider, 2014; Sarigöllü & Huang, 2005;
possible to identify marketers' focus in marketing and promotion. Sirakaya, Uysal, & Yoshioka, 2003; Stebbins, 1997; Thrane, 2000).
Inferences made from the examination predicting the discrepancy be- However, concerning the focus of cultural tourism products in this re-
tween marketers' focus and passengers' expectations can be further search, only a few typologies are proposed based on the idea of cultural
verified in interviews with sea cruise passengers. This research is based motivations (Özel & Kozak, 2012; Richards, 1996). McKercher et al.
on two steps: an analysis of shore excursions in five types, and an ex- (2002) identified five types of cultural tourists based on centrality and
amination of passengers' satisfaction with shore excursions in relation depth of experience: ‘the purposeful cultural tourist’, ‘the sightseeing
to the five types of expectations. According to a statistical analysis of cultural tourist’, ‘the casual cultural tourist’, ‘the incidental cultural
the satisfaction score, passengers are least satisfied with ‘local flavor' tourist’, and ‘the serendipitous cultural tourist’. Superior to other
excursions falling under the category of ‘everyday-culture-motivated’ typologies, in this typology, they emphasize the fact that the im-
excursion. This research sheds lights on the discrepancies between portance or centrality of cultural motives in driving destination choice
marketers' focus and tourists' demands of cultural products within the varies significantly among tourists.

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Table 1
Existing typologies of tourists regarding tourism motivation and behavior.
Researcher/s Typologies of tourists

Erik Cohen (1972) The organized mass tourist; the individual mass tourist; the explorer; the drifter
Stanley Plog (1974) Psychocentrics; Near-psychocentrics; Mid-centrics; Near-allocentrics; Allocentrics
Erik Cohen (1979) The recreational mode; the diversionary mode; the experiential mode; the experimental mode; the existential mode
Greg Richards (1996) general cultural tourist;specific cultural tourists(“new cultural intermediaries”)
Robert A. Stebbins (1997) Amateurism;hobbyist activities;career volunteering.
Elands and Lengkeek (2000) mode of amusement; mode of change; mode of interest; mode of rapture; mode of dedication
Christer Thrane (2000) Well-educated tourists; poorly educated tourists
McKercher et al. (2002) The Purposeful Cultural Tourist; The Sightseeing Cultural Tourist; The Casual Cultural Tourist; The Incidental Cultural Tourist; The
Serendipitous Cultural Tourist
Richards and Wilson (2003) Backpacker;Traveller;Tourist
Sirakaya et al. (2003) Seekers; Escapers
Dolnicar and Leisch (2003) Fun & snow; Relaxation and Health; Moderate Culture Tourist; Pure Culture Tourist; Fun, Snow, Snowboards and Discos
Sarigöllü and Huang (2005) Adventurer; Multifarious; Fun & Relaxation Seeker; Urbane
Andreu et al. (2006) Fuzzy Tourists; Recreational-Type; Active; Escape Seekers; Relax-Quiet Tourists
Park and Yoon (2009) Family Togetherness Seeker; Passive Tourist; Want-It-All Seeker; Learning and Excitement Seeker
Özel and Kozak (2012) Relaxation Seekers; Sports Seekers; Family Oriented; Escapists; Achievement and Autonomy Seekers
Li et al. (2013) Entertainment/Adventure Seekers; Life-seeing Experience/Culture Explorers; Relaxation/Knowledge Seekers
Chen et al. (2014) Self-Actualizers; Destination Experiencers; Social Seekers
Rid et al. (2014) Heritage & Nature Seekers; Multi-Experiences Seekers; Multi-Experiences & Beach Seekers; Sun & Beach Seekers
Assiouras et al. (2015) Novelty Seekers; Want-it-All; Lowly Motivated
Kruger et al. (2016) Commitment and Event Affiliation; Lifestyle; Achievement and Challenge; Escape and Socialization; International Standing of Event; Skill
Mastery and Group Affiliation
Paker and Vural (2016) socially oriented; indifferent; supportive facilities oriented; service and prestige-oriented; touristic attractiveness-oriented clusters
Jacobsen and Antonson (2017) Sightseeing and Outdoor Life; Getting Away and Traveling Around; A Quick Route to Family and Friend
Khoo-Lattimore et al. (2018) Socializer; Enjoyers; Rejoicers

Source: Authors.

It is noteworthy that McKercher's definition of culture (2002) falls tourists' demands. Therefore, this research aims to reveal which cultural
within the context of high culture, neglecting the motivation of seeking types of excursion least satisfy passengers, and what causes this dis-
‘everyday culture’. The notion of ‘centrality of cultural motives’ refers satisfaction regarding their motivations, so as to propose corresponding
to the importance of high culture in tourists' motivations. However, in strategies for future product development and marketing.
this paper, the definition of culture is broadened according to more
contemporary meanings and functions attributed to ‘culture’. Culture
3. Methodology
can be viewed as comprising what people think (attitudes, beliefs,
ideas, and values), what people do (normative behavior patterns, or
This research focuses on Amsterdam because the city is eager to
way of life) and what people make (artworks, artifacts, cultural pro-
attract more high-quality tourists, including sea cruise passengers. To
ducts) (Littrell, 1996). Culture is therefore composed of processes (in-
evaluate the alignment between marketing around sea cruise tours and
cluding people's ideas and ways of life) and the products of those pro-
passengers' expectations of tourism products, a systematic analysis is
cesses (buildings, artifacts, art, customs, atmosphere) (Richards, 2001).
employed. First, we propose a typology of shore excursions regarding
Cultural tourism is, therefore, not just about visiting sites and monu-
the tourists' cultural motivations to categorize all the excursions offered
ments, which has tended to be the ‘traditional’ view of cultural tourism,
in Amsterdam. Second, in order to comprehensively understand mar-
but also involves consuming the way of life of the areas visited, since
keters' focus on particular types of the shore excursion, we deconstruct
both consuming cultural products and processes involve the collection
the narrative used for promoting the shore excursions through word
of new knowledge and experiences (Richards, 2001). Everyday life is
frequency analysis of online information and we then compare the
important in establishing a sense of local identity (Edensor, 2002),
structure of excursions based on the typology. Third, through the
which can help build a sense of place in a tourist's mind (Relph, 1976),
analysis of the marketing's focus and passengers' expectations with each
distinguishing the destination from others. Tourists who seek out ev-
type of shore excursion, we point out the possible discrepancy between
eryday culture always see culture as ‘a way of life’, and ‘lived experi-
marketing focus and passenger expectation and propose our hypothesis.
ence’ (Williams, 1981, 1983). Cultural tourism, hence, covers not just
Since a failure of marketers to focus on certain types of shore excursions
the consumption of the cultural products of the past, but also of con-
may result in passenger dissatisfaction, we design a questionnaire to
temporary culture or the ‘way of life’ of a people or a region.
collect data on passengers' satisfaction level with different types of the
shore excursion, in relation to their expectations, in order to verify the
hypothesis. If passengers' dissatisfaction is greatest with the type of
2.3. Research gap and research aim
cultural activities neglected by marketers, it means the discrepancy
between marketing and passengers' expectations should be responsible
Although a few typologies have been proposed to categorize tour-
for this result and the focus of marketing needs refining to improve
ists' behaviors based on their cultural motives, very few such typologies
satisfaction.
are found within the domain of cruise tourism or have been developed
based on the up-to-date definition of ‘culture’ mentioned in Section 2.2.
A typology of shore excursions regarding passengers' cultural motiva- 3.1. The case of Amsterdam
tions, including the motivation of seeking both ‘high culture’ and ‘ev-
eryday culture’, should be developed to build a systematic context for This research focuses on Amsterdam as a case for exploration of the
the discussion of which type of motivation is not satisfied during a visit discrepancy between marketers' focus and cruise tourists' motivations,
Passengers' dissatisfaction with a certain type of excursion denotes that because of the city's aim to improve the quality of land-based tourism
their motivation has not been successfully met by that type of cultural products to increase the satisfaction of the type of cruise passengers the
product and that there are discrepancies between marketers' focus and city of Amsterdam hopes to attract to further the sustainable

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development of the tourism industry and welfare of local residents. (Beamish, 2010; Oakley, Ball, & Cunningham, 2018). Visiting an opera
In its five-hundred-year history, the port city of Amsterdam has house, a museum, an art gallery, and enjoying classical music are re-
served as a hub for many far-ranging networks of the VOC (Dutch East presentative experiences of ‘high culture’. ‘Everyday culture’, despite
India Company), of a colonial empire and of modern global trade net- minute differentiations, shares similar connotation with ‘popular cul-
works; the historical buildings and urban forms that have been created ture’ and ‘mass culture’, involving aspects of social life most actively
over this time have attracted some eighteen million tourists every year. involved in by the majority of the public, including interactions be-
A very different popular city image of ‘history, heretics, and whores’ tween people going about their everyday activities (Delaney, 2007).
formed in the late 60s attracted the interest of many younger travelers The terminology of ‘high culture’ and ‘everyday culture’ can be used to
(Dahles, 1998). Almost all city guides to Amsterdam mention the in- guide the discussion of cultural dimensions proposed by the city of
terweaving of various stories that comprise the city's attractiveness Amsterdam (2004), typifying Amsterdam's profile.
(Ashworth & Tunbridge, 2000). Yet, since the end of the 20th century, According to the city of Amsterdam (2004), sixteen dimensions are
Amsterdam has been facing an ever more serious problem of ‘over- used to create a profile of Amsterdam. These dimensions are selected
tourism’ and the concomitant issue of losing competitiveness as a based on image research among various target groups, with visitors
tourist destination (City of Amsterdam, 2004; Timmerman, 2017). By being the most important group; specialist literature on city marketing
the 1970s as Amsterdam's tourism became ever more associated with and establishment factors; interviews on the unique and distinguishing
cheap drink, commercial sex, and legality of drugs (Kavaratzis & elements of Amsterdam; numerous statements on Amsterdam, from
Ashworth, 2007). The De Wallen district of Amsterdam, once actively policy documents to television programmes, from travel guides to
promoted along these lines to enhance the global image of Amsterdam promotional material to newspaper reports. Among the sixteen di-
as a progressive city, is now seen as an obstacle to the desired city mensions, ‘city of canals’, ‘sex, drugs, R&R', ‘architecture’, ‘artistic city’,
image rendered in current marketing campaigns. Its image and asso- ‘nightlife’, ‘shopping city’, and ‘city of events' are seven culture-related
ciation with soft drug use and prostitution hinder current city mar- dimensions. ‘City of canals', ‘architecture’ and ‘artistic city’ promote the
keting efforts (Neuts, Devos, & Dirckx, 2014). To deal with ‘over- high culture of Amsterdam, while ‘sex, drugs, R&R', ‘nightlife’, ‘shop-
tourism’ and retune the image of touristic Amsterdam, the city has ping city’, and ‘city of events' promote everyday culture. Again, based
endeavored to take measures to reduce the ‘over tourism’ caused mainly on their nature and connotations, we classify these dimensions within
by budget travelers. Measures taken include imposing restrictions on the domain of either ‘high’ or ‘everyday’ culture. In the domain of ‘high
the number of beer bicycles and Segways, enforcing higher tourist taxes culture’, ‘city of canals' represents the history of Amsterdam; ‘archi-
and stricter Airbnb rules, and remaking the Red-light district by con- tecture’ and ‘artistic city’ represents the art of the city. In the domain of
centrating brothels in an ever-smaller area (Aalbers & Deinema, 2012; ‘everyday culture’, ‘sex, drugs, R&R' and ‘city of events' represent spe-
City of Amsterdam, 2009; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2007; Licheva, cial activities that visitors can participate in; ‘night life’ and ‘shopping
2018). Apart from reducing the number of budget travelers, Amsterdam city’ represent the local flavor of Amsterdam. Hence, four subgroups of
Marketing also focuses on attracting higher-paying cultural tourists to ‘history’, ‘art’, ‘local flavor', and ‘special activities' are proposed. In
this city (Aalbers & Sabat, 2012; Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2007). By addition, a fifth subgroup of ‘nature’ is added to the domain of ‘ev-
reducing the number and increasing the quality of tourists, the city can eryday culture’ considering the existence of natural attractions avail-
keep the welfare of residents, the benefits of visitors and business able not in the city but in the surrounding region. Hence, the ‘high-
partners in a good balance for sustainable urban development (City of culture-motivated’ excursion is divided into subgroups of ‘history’ and
Amsterdam, 2016). Cruise tourists are higher-paying cultural tourists as ‘art’. The ‘everyday-culture-motivated’ excursion is divided into ‘local
they spend much of their expenditures on cultural products, i.e. shore flavor', ‘nature’, and ‘special activities'. Passengers who choose to ex-
excursions. As Amsterdam is a city annually receiving some 350,000 plore ‘local flavor', ‘nature’, and ‘special activities' are less interested in
cruise tourists, increasing tourists' satisfaction with shore excursions traditional high cultural attractions such as historical sites, monuments,
makes cruise tourists more willing to recommend the city to other museums, and art galleries, however they are more interested in
tourists and ensures future long-term cooperation with more cruise learning about what people think and do in the visited area and in
companies. In this way, satisfying cruise tourists more effectively by soaking up the atmosphere (Binkhorst, 2007). They are culture-moti-
finding out problems in marketing and promotion can help the city vated tourists in a broader and democratic sense. All the shore excur-
develop in a sustainable manner. sions offered by cruise companies for passengers who planned to visit
Amsterdam are extracted from the websites of cruise companies who
3.2. Typology of shore excursion with respect to cultural motivations collaborate with the city of Amsterdam and are classified accordingly
(see Table A).
To rigorously and systematically provide a context for the following
discussion of a discrepancy between the focus of marketers and moti- 3.3. Scrutinizing marketers' focus through online information
vations of passengers in relation to culture, based on McKercher's
‘centrality of cultural motives’, the up-to-date definition of ‘culture’, Since Amsterdam Marketing is mainly responsible for product pro-
inclusion of ‘high’ and ‘everyday’ culture and the cultural dimensions motion and distribution, to understand marketers' focus on various
typifying the city of Amsterdam, we propose a typology of shore ex- types of shore excursions, the authors studied the details of every type
cursion regarding passengers' cultural motivations in order to classify of tour, including the most used keywords in the online information and
all the current excursion products in Amsterdam. Doing so will allow us the organization of every shore excursion available on the cruise
to discuss the corresponding relationship between cultural motivations websites, the duration, schedule, attractions to be visited and the
and satisfaction with shore excursions. The typology of shore excursions touring route. Based on this examination, and the cultural motivation
includes two main types of ‘high-culture-motivated’ excursion and types defined in Section 3.2, the hypothesis can be proposed accord-
‘everyday-culture-motivated’ excursion, emphasizing that the motiva- ingly.
tion to seek ‘everyday culture’ should not be neglected, but rather
should be valued as an alternative cultural motive driving the choice- 3.3.1. Online information as a main tourism marketing tool
making process. A tourist can be motivated by both ‘high culture’ and Before analyzing the online information, the reason why online
‘everyday culture’, with either one being central. ‘High culture’ refers to information is chosen as an interface to comprehend the focus of
the German notion ‘Kultur', including the arts such as music and lit- tourism marketers needs elaboration. Information and communication
erature, and all other symbolic cultural products, and a style of thought technologies (ICT) have a considerable and increasing impact on sev-
that appeal more to the well-educated portion of European society eral aspects of tourism. From supply of products to information search

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processes and consumption patterns, tourism experiences and their Table 2

preparation are assumed to be deeply influenced and progressively Most used keywords in the online information of shore excursions.
transformed by advances in ICT (Buhalis, 1998; Buhalis, 2003; Buhalis Keywords Frequency Keywords Frequency
& Law, 2008; Chung, Lee, Lee, & Koo, 2015; Hanna & Millar, 1997;
Jacobsen & Munar, 2012; Law, Leung, & Buhalis, 2009; Law, Qi, & Canal(s) 237 church(es) 42
Walking 113 local 41
Buhalis, 2010). ICT and the Internet are employed for practical pre-
House(s) 107 sights 39
departure purposes such as travel planning, booking, and payment of Museum 106 life 39
tourism products (Hyde, 2008). Gradually, many tourists have become Guide 90 view 38
less dependent on intermediaries such as traditional travel agencies and Famous 88 short 38
tour operators. One may even say that the information age has resulted Time 84 market 38
Most 81 building(s) 38
in the advancement of a new type of empowered individual: the ICT-
Boat 76 bridge(s) 38
skilled tourist (Jacobsen & Munar, 2012). Research by the Travel In- Anne Frank 66 unique 37
dustry Association of America found that about two thirds (64%) of Enjoy 64 history 36
online travelers use search engines for travel planning (TIA, 2005). A Flowers 63 Red-light 35
World 61 cheese 34
series of reports by Internet research firm Hitwise have documented the
Century 61 streets 33
significance of search engines in terms of generating upstream traffic to Van Gogh 54 square 33
tourism websites (Hopkins, 2008; Prescott, 2006). ICT is increasingly Coach 51 district 33
becoming critical for the competitive operations of the tourism and Explore 47 historic 32
hospitality organizations as well as for managing the distribution and Beautiful 44 free 32
Windmills 44 admire 32
marketing of organizations on a global scale (Law et al., 2009). ICT's
Experience 43 village 31
role of providing tourism marketing intelligence has interested many Excursion 43 discover 30
researchers (Pudliner, 2007; Pühringer & Taylor, 2008; Waldhör &
Rind, 2008). Del Chiappa and Baggio (2015) underline the crucial and Source: Authors.
central role played by the technological manifestations of tourism firms
within a particular tourism destination in shaping the tourist system's Table 3
characteristics. From the customers' side, ICT helps to meet demands for The most used keywords in each type of shore excursion.
timely and accurate information; from the tourism managers' side, ICT Type A1- Type A2- Art Type B1- Local Type B2- Type B3- Special
works cooperatively to help managers deliver quality service to their History flavor Nature Activities
customers and to enhance operational efficiency and control costs.
Canal(s) museum boat Flowers Red-light
Sigala (2016) has also proposed a holistic framework for tourism firms
House(s) van Gogh experience
to exploit the two features of Web 2.0 – customer intelligence and social Anne Frank art local
networks – for actively engaging customers with new service develop- Century life
ment processes. ICT, hence, is becoming one of the dominant marketing Church(es) market
tools in tourism. Destination Management Organizations (DMOs), as a Building(s) cheese
Bridge(s) windmills
part of web-based marketing services, invest considerable amounts of
History
time and money in the development of websites to provide tourists with Streets
various travel information such as images of sightseeing and cultural or Square
historical attractions to entice them to the destination (Hunter, 2016). Historic
Due to the close collaboration between Amsterdam Marketing, tour
Source: Authors.
operators, and cruise lines, also the dominant role of Amsterdam
Marketing in product promotion and distribution, the contents of online
3.3.3. Analysis of the Structure of Shore Excursions
tourism information on cruise company websites represent the main
In order to acquire a more detailed understanding of tour operations
focus of marketers regarding their perception of what tourists are
in different types of excursions, the structure of every shore excursion
looking for and what sort of cultural resources should be promoted (Pan
available on the cruise websites has been studied. The duration, the
& Fesenmaier, 2002).
schedule, the attractions to be visited in the tours and the touring routes
are examined. Regarding the ‘high-culture-motivated’ excursions, they
3.3.2. Analysis of most used keywords
are usually approximately a half-day long, are composed of one main
The most frequently appearing keywords in online information
cultural attraction where passengers have free time to visit, and offer a
about shore excursions represent the key elements cultural resources
general tour of the historical city center on foot or in a coach, passing
marketers think can identify Amsterdam and can be used to promote
the Mint Tower, the Royal Palace, the Weeping Tower, Dam Square, the
cultural products to cruise tourists. Information introducing shore ex-
New Church, and the Portuguese Synagogue. The main attractions in
cursions provided on the websites of a total of 27 cruise companies that
Type A1 are mostly historical monuments and sites, while in Type A2
selected Amsterdam as one of the ports of call in 2017 was collected.
they are museums exhibiting artworks and artifacts. Regarding the
3119 words were identified. Table 2 presents the top 42 most used
‘everyday-culture-motivated’ excursions, they are also approximately a
unique words after deleting those commonly used ‘stop words’ such as
half-day long, composed of a series of minor attractions located within a
‘travel’, ‘tourism’ and ‘Amsterdam’. As shown in Table 2, tourism
district or a town/city, and they include one hour of free time in be-
marketers are focusing their attention on cultural attractions (canal,
tween to have meals and walk around. For this kind of excursion, Type
church, building, street, bridge, square, museum, etc.); general activ-
B1 and B2 are mostly operated out of Amsterdam, for instance, in
ities (experience, guide, coach, excursion, walking, etc.); symbolic
Zaandam, Adam, Delft, and Den Haag. Minor attractions include some
Dutch elements (flower, windmill, cheese, boat); tourists' subjective
historical monuments, small local museums, and windmills. Type B3 is
feelings and general motivations (beautiful, unique, free, admire, ex-
an exception, which is a tour exploring the history and contemporary
plore, enjoy, discover, etc.). Table 3 shows the most used keywords in
life within the De Wallen area.
each type of shore excursion. Based on Table 3, Type A1 focuses on
historical sites and monuments, Type A2 on museums and artworks of
famous artists, Type B1 on typical Dutch elements and general activ-
ities, Type B2 on natural scenery and Type B3 on special activities.

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3.4. Hypothesis Table 4

Mean score of satisfaction.
Considering the tourists' cultural motivations, interpreted in Section Type A1 A2 B1 B2 B3
3.2, and the analysis results in Section 3.3, reveals a discrepancy be-
tween the marketing around cultural activities and passengers' ex- Mean score 3.9946 4.3000 2.5833 4.0000 4.6250
pectations regarding Type B1, which leads to the hypothesis of this
Source: Authors.
research. On the five-hour Delft and Den Haag tour for instance, pas-
sengers are scheduled to visit Delft Blue Pottery, the New Church, and
the ANOVA test was adopted to see if there are significant differences
the Town Hall in Delft, and the Houses of Parliament, the Peace Palace,
between groups. The F value is 6.314 with a p-value of 0.000 (< 0.05),
the seaside resort of Scheveningen in Den Haag, with approximately
which means there were significant differences between groups. Table 4
two hours spent on the drive to Delft and back from Den Haag. In be-
shows the mean score of satisfaction on each type. Table 5 demonstrates
tween the visits to the cultural attractions, there is only one hour left for
that the mean score of satisfaction on Type B1 is statistically sig-
passengers to take a short walk with their guide and enjoy some free
nificantly lower than all other types, meaning that passengers are most
time. Concerning the selection of cultural attractions, quite a few at-
disappointed with the ‘local flavor' experience. Therefore, the hypoth-
tractions do not permit engagement with local everyday life; tourists
esis is supported. The discrepancy between tourists' motivation and tour
only encounter the life of historic and contemporary elites without
operation does result in passengers' dissatisfaction with ‘local flavor'
getting a sense of local identity. Concerning the schedule design, most
experience. Marketers need to refine their focus accordingly.
of the time during the tour is spent on visiting cultural attractions and
transport between locations, therefore, most of the typical Dutch ele-
ments described with the keywords in the shore excursion of Type B1 5. Discussion
can only be seen during the tour, not experienced. Tourists motivated to
explore local flavor in the destination are often a new type of consumer The ‘local flavor' experience as a newly emerging pursuit of cultural
– a ‘prosumer', who prefer self-service rather than service (Rieder & tourists, differing from the traditional experience of high culture, can be
Voß, 2010). This segment of tourists is more willing to take part ac- seen as an evidence of the growing significance of intangible culture in
tively and directly in production and service-delivery processes so as to cultural tourism products (Richards & Wilson, 2014). Tourists' emphasis
bring their initiatives into full play (Ritzer & Jurgenson, 2010). The on visited destinations shifts from traditional forms of culture to new,
discrepancy between tourists' motivation and tour operation may result more diffuse resources, including shifts away from built heritage, mu-
in passengers' dissatisfaction with this type of cultural experience. seums, monuments, beaches and mountains to image, identity, life-
Hence, the hypothesis is proposed: passengers who have experienced styles, atmosphere, narratives, creativity, and media. Culture resources
the excursion Type B1 are least satisfied with the experience. also face a shift away from cultural heritage and art to creative in-
dustries and lifestyles (Richards & Wilson, 2014). Increasingly, cultural
3.5. Data collection and process regarding passenger satisfaction tourists want to become part of the local community and have direct
contact with the everyday lives of others (Richards & Wilson, 2007).
In order to testify the hypothesis, the authors designed a ques- This tendency stems from tourists' interest in breaking through the
tionnaire to collect information about passenger satisfaction with each comfortable ‘bubble’ of modern tourism, as they are not merely satisfied
type of shore excursion. Among the options in the question about ac- with the diluted, contrived, and prefabricated experience of visiting
tivities passengers participated in were 14 selected excursions. They traditional tourist attractions (Boorstin, 1964). Wang's emphasis on the
were not presented in a categorized order, but rather in random order growing importance of ‘existential authenticity’ also predicts tourists'
to ensure that interviewees did not have any preconceptions when willingness to cast off their previous role of passive consumers fol-
choosing the answers. The question was set to allow multiple choices lowing a series of staged experiences (Wang, 1999). As Binkhorst notes,
considering the high possibility that a passenger might participate in in the past, cultural tourism seemed to consist of collecting ‘must-see
more than one activity. The passengers who were interviewed all de- sights', which acted as badges of cultural consumption. Now it seems
clared that they had finished touring Amsterdam. Paper questionnaires that existential elements of cultural consumption, such as ‘soaking up
were handed over to and collected from tourists face-to-face inside and the atmosphere’ are enough (Binkhorst, 2007). Consequently, produ-
outside the Passenger Terminal Amsterdam (PTA) in July, August 2017 cers need to learn to engage consumers in the process of designing,
and July 2018. Of 324 questionnaires distributed, 228 valid ones were distributing and performing the experiences themselves, to the extent
collected, providing a response rate of 70.2%. that they become ‘prosumers' (Richards & Wilson, 2014). As demon-
Regarding the hypothesis, the aim of the statistical analysis is to strated in the example of culturally based creative tourism supply in
determine which shore excursion is associated with the lowest degree of French cities, a city should no longer be seen as just a machine for
satisfaction, which can indicate that a certain type of excursion most living, but a landscape for enjoying, experiencing and tasting (Prentice
disappoints tourists. First, the mean score of satisfaction degree in & Andersen, 2007).
different types is adopted to make a comparison. Second, the ANOVA In the case of Amsterdam, two solutions are proposed in regard to
test was adopted to assess whether there exist significant differences cruise tourists' pursuit of ‘local flavor' experiences. First, concerning the
between the mean scores given by five groups. The threshold prob- options of cultural attractions available in shore excursions, marketers
ability value p was 0.05 in the ANOVA test. When the resulting p-value should invite more local museums introducing the tradition of Dutch
was < 0.05, the assumption did not hold, meaning there exist sig- local life into collaborative networks and promote them together with
nificant differences between the mean scores. Third, a post hoc test was local festivals and local cuisines in the region to facilitate the ‘local
employed to examine where the significant differences existed more flavor' experience tourists are looking for. The tour operators, cruise
precisely using the Bonferroni Procedure. The threshold probability lines and other tourism service providers cooperating with Amsterdam
value p (two-tailed) in the post hoc test was also 0.05. If a p-value was Marketing are mainly international companies. The real obstacle for the
not < 0.05, it indicated that there were no statistically significant dif- sustainable development of tourism destinations is often that in the
ferences between means. tourism supply chain, control remains with the big companies charged
to market the destination. A big international company cares more
4. Results about a fast return on investment and less about consequences for the
local socio-economic environment or the building of culture identity
Concerning passengers' satisfaction with the five experience types, (Ammirato, Felicetti, & Della Gala, 2014). It is the DMOs' job to manage

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Table 5
Significant mean differences between satisfactions on each group.
Pairs of Types A1&A2 A1&B1 A1&B3 A2&B1 A2&B3 B1&B3 B1&B2
Post Hoc Test

Mean Difference – 1.41123 – 1.71667 – 2.04167 1.41667

Sig. – 0.002 – 0.000 – 0.000 0.009

‘–’ Indicates that the mean difference is not significant.

Source: Authors.

the service supply chain, coordinate all the service providers and invite personalized services can be realized with a cloud-based infrastructure
more local partners into networks for the aim of branding the city with (Lamsfus, Martín, Alzua-Sorzabal, & Torres-Manzanera, 2015) and the
local identity and providing tourist experiences of higher quality. The assistance of Big Data. In this way, the ICT can help DMOs and all the
goal is to ensure sustainable development of the destination and serve tourism enterprises build a dynamic platform enabling different stake-
the common interest of all the shareholders in the service supply chain holders to exchange data, promote service integration, more precisely
as they all collaborate to develop this destination, aiming at delivering predict what a visitor wants through historical data (pattern analysis)
a competitive offer of tourism services. Therefore, inviting more local and to formulate distinctive services and a dynamic recommender
museums into the network of tourism organizations can lead to a win- system (Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015), thereby enhancing customers'
win situation. Second, concerning the scheduling of excursions, mar- experience in a larger social and physical context and improving their
keters can help tour operators develop tourism packages in a more satisfaction level (Hoarau & Kline, 2014).
flexible manner. On the websites of Holland America Line, Disney
Cruise Line, and Regent Seven Seas Cruises, an excursion involving
touring Amsterdam in a private vehicle is already offered. Passengers in 6. Limitations and conclusion
small groups could hire a van or a minibus to explore the city for a half-
day at their own pace with a driver and English-speaking guide, orga- As indicated by many researchers, DMOs' main tasks involve for-
nizing their time ashore according to their priorities. Marketers in mulating strategies, coordinating stakeholders, developing products,
Amsterdam could promote this kind of package to more cruise lines so and marketing (Heath & Wall, 1991; Presenza et al., 2005; Ritchie &
as to engage tourists in the process of designing their own excursion, a Crouch, 2003; Sainaghi, 2006; Volgger & Pechlaner, 2014). The quality
process of prosumption. Since customers who participate in the speci- of the tourists' experience depends on the fulfillment of these tasks.
fication and realization of the service are likely to perceive a less ne- Amsterdam Marketing, as a key sector of DMOs in Amsterdam, now
gative discrepancy between expectation and realization, and thus focusing on attracting high-spending cultural tourists, sees cruise
greater satisfaction (Raaij & Pruyn, 1998), this prosumption mode can tourists as one of their main target groups. Since tourists' motivation is
help increase cruise tourists' level of satisfaction with the excursion. determinant of their satisfaction level with the destination, in order to
To bring these two solutions into operation effectively and effi- maintain this segment of tourists, marketers need to better gauge pas-
ciently, DMOs should employ ICT as a powerful tool, first, to build a sengers' traveling motivations. That will allow them to correct their
regional network for small and medium-sized local enterprises, in- marketing focus and promote and distribute appropriate cultural pro-
cluding the local museums, local festival organizers, local restaurants, ducts to better satisfy this group. Since different travelers are motivated
and local travel agencies, etc., to facilitate cooperative marketing; to travel for different reasons, we propose a typology of cultural ex-
second, to establish a better destination management system for the perience based on tourists' cultural motivations in order to categorize
communication between customers and tourism enterprises, through shore excursions available in Amsterdam. Based on this categorization,
profiling customers, providing personalized information, and custo- every type of excursion has been scrutinized via online information on
mizing service according to passengers' personal demands and instant the cruise company websites, representing the marketers' focus. Based
feedback. Compared with big international companies, small and on the examination of every type of cultural experience and the moti-
medium-sized local enterprises do not possess either the resources or vations that lead tourists to choose a particular type, a hypothesis is
organizational capabilities to easily survive on their own in the globa- proposed regarding the discrepancy between marketing around shore
lized tourism business environment. Regional networking and clus- excursions and passengers' cultural demands, and its consequence for
tering can provide them with opportunities to better operate in a passengers' satisfaction level. According to satisfaction scores resulting
competitive tourism environment. Through ICT, DMOs can provide the from the collected data through a survey at PTA, the hypothesis is
network within which small local businesses can benefit from the in- confirmed. This result emphasizes the existence of such a discrepancy
formation flow that enhances market visibility and global positioning and its negative impact on passengers' traveling experience. The au-
(Ammirato et al., 2014), increasing sales, revenues, profits, and com- thors argue that marketers could invite more local partners into the
petitive advantage (Zaidan, 2017). ICT can also bring smartness into tourist supply chain to counteract the dominance of other international
tourism destinations. For instance, tourism portal websites can be de- companies in the chain, augmenting the identity of local culture and the
veloped for visitors to directly access and communicate with individual quality of ‘local flavor' experience; they could also invite cruise tourists
operators (Ammirato et al., 2014; Buhalis & Amaranggana, 2015). The to participate in the process of developing cultural products, to respect
latest technological advances, such as virtual tourist communities, their initiative and promote this form of activity. ICT could be em-
mobile devices or virtual life, enable tourism enterprises and consumers ployed by DMOs as a powerful tool for regional networking and es-
to enhance experiences together so that tourists can gain richer ex- tablishing destination management systems. Regional networking can
perience within their actual physical setting (Neuhofer, Buhalis, & offer small and medium-sized enterprises opportunities to facilitate
Ladkin, 2014). Buhalis and Amaranggana (2015) discovered that cooperative marketing in a competitive tourism environment, ex-
tourists expect to, before a trip, make more informed decisions by ploiting their synergies and the complementarities between their out-
having access to all the related real-time information and during a trip, puts. ICT-based destination management systems can establish a flex-
to have personalized service as well as a real-time feedback loop. After a ible and profitable communication bridge to customize service
trip, they want to relive their experience in a decent feedback system according to passengers' personal expectations and instant feedback.
which allows them to review their holistic tourism experience. These Drawing on the existing literature, this research proposes a typology
to build a framework for revealing the dissatisfaction of cruise tourists

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Technologies in Tourism, 3, 320–328. as a visiting researcher in the Delft University of
Park, D.-B., & Yoon, Y.-S. (2009). Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: A Korean Technology in the Netherlands from 2016 to 2018. Her
case study. Tourism Management, 30(1), 99–108. research interests are city (re)branding, place making and
Plog, S. C. (1974). Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity. Cornell Hotel and cultural identity perception through spatial narration of
Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55–58. urban landscape.
Prentice, R., & Andersen, V. (2007). Creative tourism supply: Creating culturally empa-
thetic destinations. In J. Wilson, & G. Richards (Eds.). Tourism, creativity and devel-
opment (pp. 111–128). Routledge.
Prentice, R. C., Witt, S. F., & Hamer, C. (1998). Tourism as experience: The case of
heritage parks. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 1–24.
Prescott, L. (2006). Hitwise US travel report.
Presenza, A., Sheehan, L., & Ritchie, J. B. (2005). Towards a model of the roles and
activities of destination management organizations. Journal of Hospitality, Tourism
and Leisure Science, 3(1), 1–16. Carola Hein is Professor and Head, History of Architecture
Pudliner, B. A. (2007). Alternative literature and tourist experience: Travel and tourist and Urban Planning Chair at Delft University of
weblogs. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 5(1), 46–59. Technology. She has published widely in the field of ar-
Pühringer, S., & Taylor, A. (2008). A practitioner's report on blogs as a potential source of chitectural, urban and planning history and has tied his-
destination marketing intelligence. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(2), 177–187. torical analysis to contemporary development. Her books
Raaij, W. F. V., & Pruyn, A. T. H. (1998). Customer control and evaluation of service include: The Routledge Planning History Handbook (2018),
validity and reliability. Psychology and Marketing, 15(8), 811–832. Uzō Nishiyama, Reflections on Urban, Regional and National
Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness. Vol. 1. Pion. Space (2017), History, Urbanism, Resilience (2016), Port
Richards, G. (1996). Production and consumption of European cultural tourism. Annals of Cities (2011), Brussels: Perspectives on a European Capital
Tourism Research, 23(2), 261–283. (2007), European Brussels. (2006), The Capital of Europe
Richards, G. (2001). Cultural attractions and European Tourism. CABI Pub. (2004), Rebuilding Urban Japan after 1945 (2003), and
Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2003). Today's youth travellers, tomorrows global nomads: New Cities, Autonomy and Decentralisation in Japan. (2006),
horizons in independent youth and student travel: A report for the International Student Hauptstadt Berlin 1957–58 (1991).
Travel Confederation (ISTC) and the Association of Tourism and Leisure Education
(ATLAS). International Student Travel Confederation.
Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2007). The creative turn in regeneration: Creative spaces,
Tong Zhang is a Professor and the vice dean of the
spectacles and tourism in cities. Tourism, Culture and Regeneration, 12–24.
Department of Architecture, Southeast University, China.
Richards, G., & Wilson, J. (2014). Tourism development trajectories: From culture to
His research interests are Eco-city planning, theories and
creativity. In G. Richards, & J. Wilson (Eds.). Tourism, creativity and development (pp.
methods of green building design, the placeness and lo-
1–33). Routledge.
cality study of built environment in the process of moder-
Rid, W., Ezeuduji, I. O., & Pröbstl-Haider, U. (2014). Segmentation by motivation for
nization and globalization.
rural tourism activities in the Gambia. Tourism Management, 40, 102–116.
Rieder, K., & Voß, G. G. (2010). The working customer–an emerging new type of con-
sumer. Psychology of Everyday Activity, 3(2), 2–10.
Ritchie, J. B., & Crouch, G. I. (2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable tourism
perspective. Cabi.
Ritzer, G., & Jurgenson, N. (2010). Production, consumption, prosumption: The nature of
capitalism in the age of the digital ‘prosumer. Journal of Consumer Culture, 10(1),
13–36.
Ross, E. L. D., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1991). Sightseeing tourists' motivation and satisfaction.
Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), 226–237.

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