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3. Ecology

4. Environmental Science (Ha and Schleiger)

5. Unit 1: Introduction

6. 2: What Is Science, and How Does It Work?

7. 2.1: What is Science?

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2.1: What is Science?

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2.
o 2: What Is Science, and How Does It Work?

o 2.2: The Scientific Method

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
 Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger
 Yuba College & Butte College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

Like other natural sciences, environmental science gathers knowledge about the natural world.
Science is more than just a body of knowledge, science provides a means to evaluate and create
new knowledge. The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and
mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others.
Science also requires considerable imagination and creativity; a well-designed experiment is
commonly described as elegant or beautiful. Science has considerable practical implications and
some science is dedicated to practical applications, such as the prevention of disease
(figure 2.1.a2.1.𝑎). Other science proceeds largely motivated by curiosity. Whatever its goal,
there is no doubt that science has transformed human existence and will continue to do so.

Figure 2.1.a2.1.𝑎
: Biologists may choose to study Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium that is a normal resident
of our digestive tracts but which is also sometimes responsible for disease outbreaks. In this
micrograph, the bacterium is visualized using a scanning electron microscope and digital
colorization. (credit: Eric Erbe; digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, USDA-ARS)

There are areas of knowledge, however, to which the methods of science cannot be applied.
These include such things as morality, aesthetics, or spirituality. Science cannot investigate these
areas because they are outside the realm of material phenomena, the phenomena of matter and
energy, and cannot be observed and measured.

Evidence, Measurements, and Observations

Scientists use objective evidence over subjective evidence, to reach sound and logical
conclusions. An objective observation is without personal bias and the same by all
individuals. Bias refers to favoring one thing over another, and it can lead to inaccurate results.
Humans are biased by nature, so they cannot be completely objective; the goal is to be as
unbiased as possible. A subjective observation is based on a person’s feelings and beliefs and is
unique to that individual (figure 2.1.b2.1.𝑏).

Figure 2.1.b2.1.𝑏: This is Grand Canyon of the

Yellowstone in Yellowstone National Park. An objective statement about this would be, “The
picture is of a waterfall.” A subjective statement would be, “The picture is beautiful.”

Another way scientists avoid bias is by using quantitative over qualitative measurements
whenever possible. A quantitative measurement is expressed with a specific numerical
value. Qualitative observations are general or relative descriptions. For example, describing a
rock as red or heavy is a qualitative observation. Determining a rock’s color by measuring
wavelengths of reflected light or its density by measuring the proportions of minerals it contains
is quantitative. Numerical values are more precise than general descriptions, and they can be
analyzed using statistical calculations. This is why quantitative measurements are much more
useful to scientists than qualitative observations.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal to know. Curiosity and inquiry are
the driving forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the
way it operates. Two methods of logical thinking are used: inductive reasoning and deductive
reasoning.

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a
general conclusion. This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist
such as a biologist makes observations and records them. The raw data can be supplemented with
drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer
conclusions (inductions) based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating
generalizations inferred from careful observation and the analysis of a large amount of data.
Surveying land use (which areas are forested, agricultural, urban, etc.) across the United States
and then concluding that forested areas are concentrated in the West is an example of descriptive
science.

In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to
inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses a general
principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general principles, a scientist can
extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general principles
are valid. For example, a prediction would be that if the climate is becoming warmer in a region,
the distribution of plants and animals should change. Comparisons have been made between
distributions in the past and the present, and the many changes that have been found are
consistent with a warming climate. Finding the change in distribution is evidence that the climate
change conclusion is a valid one. Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is the type of logic used in
hypothesis-based science (see below).

To summarize, inductive reasoning moves from the specific (an observation) to general
(conclusion), and deductive reasoning moves from the general (a hypothesis or principle) to the
specific (results).

Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study:
descriptive science and hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science aims to
observe, explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science begins with a specific question
or problem and a potential answer or solution that can be tested. The boundary between these
two forms of study is often blurred, because most scientific endeavors combine both approaches.
Observations lead to questions, questions lead to forming a hypothesis as a possible answer to
those questions, and then the hypothesis is tested. Thus, descriptive science and hypothesis-based
science are in continuous dialogue.

Science is also a Social Process

Scientists share their ideas with peers at conferences, seeking guidance and feedback
(figure 2.1.c2.1.𝑐). Research papers and data submitted for publication are rigorously
reviewed by qualified peers, scientists who are experts in the same field. The scientific review
process aims to weed out misinformation, invalid research results, and wild speculation. Thus, it
is slow, cautious, and conservative. Scientists tend to wait until a hypothesis is supported by an
overwhelming amount of evidence from many independent researchers before accepting it as
a scientific theory.
Figure 2.1.c2.1.𝑐: Scientists share information by publishing and attending conferences. The
conference shown here focuses on peanut and mycotoxin (harmful chemicals produced by fungi)
research. Image by Sharon Dowdy (CC-BY-NC).

Characteristics of Scientists
There is nothing mysterious or even particularly unusual about the things that scientists do.
There are many ways to work on scientific problems. They all require common sense. Beyond
that, they all display certain features that are especially - but not uniquely - characteristic of
science.

 Skepticism — Good scientists use highly-critical standards in the judging of evidence.

They approach data, claims, and theories (ideally, even their own!) with healthy doses of
skepticism.
 Tolerance of uncertainty — Scientists often work for years - sometimes for an entire
career - trying to understand one scientific problem. This often involves finding facts
that, for a time, fail to fit into any coherent pattern and that even may support mutually
contradictory explanations. Sometimes, as one listens to scientists vigorously defending
their views, their confidence seems absolute. But deep in their hearts, they know that
their views are based on probabilities and that a new piece of evidence may turn up at any
time and force a major shift in their views.
 Although they certainly have no monopoly on hard work, their willingness to work long
hours and years pursuing a problem is the mark of all good scientists. For science is hard
work.

Attribution

Modified by Melissa Ha from the following sources:

 What is Science? from An Introduction to Geology by Chris Johnson et al. (licensed

under CC-BY-NC-SA)
 The Process of Science from Environmental Biology by Matthew R. Fisher (licensed
under CC-BY)
 Scientific Methods from Biology by John W. Kimball (licensed under CC-BY)

This page titled 2.1: What is Science? is shared under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license and was
authored, remixed, and/or curated by Melissa Ha and Rachel Schleiger (ASCCC Open
Educational Resources Initiative) .

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