United International University
Optics
Md. Asaduzzaman Asad
Institute of Natural Sciences
Physical Optics
Theories of Light
Interference of Light
Diffraction of Light
Polarization of Light
Theories of Light
Corpuscular Theory of Light
Wave Theory of Light
Electromagnetic Theory of Light
Quantum Theory of Light
Corpuscular Theory of Light
Corpuscular Theory of Light can explain
I. Rectilinear propagation
II. Reflection
III. Refraction
IV. Color and Polarization
Corpuscular Theory
Isaac Newton
Light is made up of streams of small
particles called corpuscles.
Opticks, 1704
Corpuscles
Small particles which make up light,
emit light in all directions
and has minute mass
If they have mass, how can they travel straight
horizontally under the influence of Earth’s
gravity?
The particles actually is in projectile
motion and follows the path of a
parabola!
So, why do we see light in a straight path?
x
THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT
from
NEWTON
to
HUYGHENS
Wave Theory
Only four properties of light; rectilinear
propagation, reflection, refraction, and
dispersion are explained satisfactorily by
Newton’s particle theory.
All properties of light; rectilinear
propagation, reflection, refraction, partial
reflection-partial refraction, diffraction are
explained by Huygens’ wave theory.
A luminous body is a source of disturbance.
This disturbance propagates through a
Hypothetical medium is called Ether.
Light wave is a transverse wave
Color of the light is determined by the
Frequency (or wave length) of light wave.
Brightness of light is determined by the
amplitude of light wave.
Brightness(or Intensity) (amplitude)2
Electromagnetic (EM) Theory
of Light
Maxwell showed that Moving electric charge
produces magnetic field and a changing magnetic
field produces an electric field. Hertz produced
an electromagnetic disturbance using an
oscillating electric circuit and this disturbance
can travel like wave. This disturbance is called
electromagnetic wave.
Electric field
E
Magnetic field
H
The light wave is
comprised of an electric
field and a magnetic
field.
The magnetic field, H is
always perpendicular to the
electric field.
Phase
these two waves are in phase
Phase
1/2 l difference = 180 deg
these two waves are out of phase
Superposition
A1+A2
A1
A2
Add amplitudes for waves that are
in phase
A1
Superposition
A1-A2
A2
Subtract amplitudes for waves that are
out of phase by 180 deg
Superposition
Total destructive interference
A1
A1-A2=0
A2
A1 = A2 but the waves are out of phase by 180 deg.
Quantum Theory of Light.
Modern invention of Physics
Photoelectric effect
Photons
De Broglie Waves
Uncertainty Principle
Photoelectric Effect
Experiments showed that light directed onto a metal
surface causes the surface to emit electrons.
This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
3 features of photoelectric effect:
• The electron is always emitted at once even
under a faint light.
• A bright light causes more electrons to be emitted
than the faint light, but the average kinetic energy of
the electrons is the same.
• The higher the light frequency, the more kinetic
energy the electrons have.
Photons
The electromagnetic theory of light could not explain
the experimental results concerning photoelectric
effect.
In 1905 Albert Einstein created the quantum theory of
light.
Einstein proposed that light consists of small
separate bursts of energy called photons.
In 1900 Max Planck proposed that hot objects contribute
energy in separate units, called quanta, to the light they
produce.
Photons
E=hf
E = quantum energy, f = frequency, h= Planck’s constant
h = 6.63 10-34 Joule second (J s)
Einstein suggested that some minimum energy (w)
is needed to pull an electron away from a metal.
If the quantum energy E < w, no electron comes out.
hf = KE + w
Photons have properties of particles: localized in a small
region of space, have energy and momentum, and interact
with other particles (like billiard balls).
Interference
Of
Light
Phase
these two waves are in phase
Phase
1/2 l difference = 180 deg
these two waves are out of phase
Superposition
A1+A2
A1
A2
Add amplitudes for waves that
are in phase
A1
Superposition
A1-A2
A2
Subtract amplitudes for waves that are
out of phase by 180 deg
Superposition
Total destructive interference
A1
A1-A2=0
A2
A1 = A2 but the waves are out of phase by 180 deg.
Interference of Light
When two beams of light cross each other
both the beams are acting simultaneously
and a modified intensity is obtained. The
resultant intensity will be either large or
less than that which would be given by one
beam alone. This modification of intensity
due to superposition of two or more beams
of light is known as interference of light.
1. Constructive interference: When two
beams of light of same frequency but of
different amplitude superposition in phase
phase, the resultant intensity of two beams
reinforce each other . This interference is
called constructive interference.
2. Destructive interference: When two light
beams with the same frequency super-
position in out of phase i.e. phase
difference or 180˚, then the resultant
intensity neutralize each other. This
interference of light is called destructive
interference.
Mutual Coherence
Two waves are said to be mutually coherent
when the phase difference between the two
waves does not change over time. (i.e. the crest of
the first wave is always a fixed distance from the
crest of the second wave)
When the phase difference between two waves
varies over time, the waves are said to be
mutually incoherent.
Young’s Double Slit
single light source
Young’s Double Slit
I
screen
single light source
Double slits Calculation
S1
O
*L a
S2
P
L is a source of light. S1 S
and S2 are two parallel slits
equidistant from the souce
L. Distance between S1 and
S2 is a. Screen is at a
distance from the sources
is S.
Double slits Calculation
O is point on the screen equidistant from
the sources hence O will be bright fringe.
P is a point on the screen represents mth
bright fringe. Suppose OP = ym
Young’s Double Slit Calculation
d
Slit separation = a
sin =
d
y
a
y
tan =
s s
d y ay
= d = this is the distance
a s s
d 2 ay
2 = this is the distance converted to phase
l ls
Young’s double slit
Maxima occur whenever
lS
ym = m , m = 1,2,3
a
y – position on screen
m – counter
l – wavelength
s – distance from aperture to screen
a – slit separation
Substituting m = m+1;(m+1) bright fringe)
lS
ym+1 = (m + 1)
a
lS
ym+1 - ym = =
a
β is fringe width
When path difference is
l
= 2m - 1
ay
S 2
Corresponding dark fringes will be
occurred.
y
Young’s double
m= 3
slit interference m= 2
pattern for m= 1
monochromatic m=0
light m=-1
m=-2
ml s
y= , m = 0, 1, 2... m=-3
a
Young’s double-
slit interference
pattern for
white light
Young’s Double Slit
Intensity behavior
y1 = E 0 sin t
y 2 = E 0 sint +
y = E0 sin t + E0 sint +
Young’s Double Slit
y = E0 sin t + E0 sint +
We know
A+ B A- B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
y = 2 E 0 cos sin t +
2 2
Where amplitude
A = 2E0 cos / 2
Intensity
I = A 2
= 4 E 0 cos
2 2
2
= 4 I 0 cos 2
2
Ex-1. Given an aperture with a 0.1 mm slit
spacing, a wavelength of 5000A, and a
screen held at a distance of 2 m. What is
the separation between maxima?
What is the separation for 4000A light?
EX-2. A double slit of 0.5mm separation is
illuminated by light of blue cadmium. How
far behind the slit must one go to obtain
fringes that are 0.1cm apart? Wave length
of blue cadmium is 4800A.
Ex-3. In a two slit interference pattern at a
point we observe 10th order maxima for l=
7000A. What order will be visible here if the
source of light is replaced by light of l=
5000A?
Huygen’s Principle
1. Each point on a wave front is the
source of a spherical wavelet that
spreads out at the wave speed.
2. At a later time, the shape of the wave
front is the line tangent to all the
wavelets.
Huygens Principle:
Displacement of Fringes
P
O
S1
P0
S2
It is clear from the Fig. that light waves
travel from S1 to P
S1P-e through air medium and
e through plate medium.
Total time t is required for the journey
S1P - e e
t= +
c v
1 ec
t = ( S1 P - e + )
c v
1
t = ( S1 P + ( - 1)e)
c
So that effective path or optical path in air
ct = ( S1P + ( - 1)e)
Similarly effective path in air from S1 to P0
ct = (S1P0 + ( -1)e)
Since
(S1P0 + ( -1)e) S2 P0
The central bright fringe at zero order will
not form at p0.
Suppose central bright fringe is formed O
( - 1)e) = S 2O - S1O
( S1O + ( - 1)e) = S 2O
If
P0O = y0
Then the geometrical path difference is
y0 a
S 2O - S1O =
S
y0 a
= ( - 1)e
S
( - 1)eS
y0 =
a
By finding the displacement of fringe y0
e or µ of thin film can be calculated.
Ex-4. On placing a thin shit of mica of thick-
ness 12×10-5cm in path of one of the inter-
fering beam. The central fringe shits a
distance equal to the width of the bright
Fringe. Calculate the refractive index of
Mica. l = 6000A
Newton’s Rings
Experimental Arrangement
Theory:
Newton’s rings by reflected light:
Suppose the radius of curvature of the
lens is R and the air film is of thickness t
at a distance of OQ = rn from the point of
contact O. Here, interference is due to
reflected light. Therefore, for the bright
rings
2t cos = (2n – 1)l/2.............(1)
where n = 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
Here, is small, therefore
cos = 1
For air, = 1
2t = (2n – 1)l/2……………(2)
For the dark rings
2t cos = nl
O
Q
t R
O P
rn rn
t
or 2t = nl...(iii)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...... etc.
From the fig.
R = r + (R - t)
2
n
2 2
t 2
or, R = r + R (1 - )
2
n
2 2
R
2
t t
or, R = rn + R (1 - 2 + 2 )
2 2 2
R R
Since t
2
is very small, we can
R neglect the term
R = r + R - 2 Rt
2
n
2 2
2
rn
or, t =
2R
Substituting the value of t in
equations (ii) and (iii).
For bright rings rn2 =(2n- 1)lR/2
For dark rings
rn2 = nlR
rn = (nlR)
when n = 0, the radius of the dark ring is
zero and the radius of the bright ring
is(lR)/2.
Therefore, the centre is dark. Alternately,
dark and bright rings are produced.
If Dn is the diameter of the dark ring
Dn = 2rn = 2 (nl R)
For the central dark ring
n=0
D = 2 (nl R) = 0
This corresponds to the centre of the
Newton’s rings.
While counting the order of the dark rings
1, 2, 3 etc, the central ring is not counted.
Therefore for the first dark ring
n=1
D1 = 2(l R)
For the second dark ring
n=2
D2 = 2 (2l R)
and for the nth dark ring
Interference of Light
Dn = 2 (nl R)………….(iv)
Similarly diameter of Dn+p th ring
Dn+p = 2 ((n+p)l R)……..(v)
From Equation (iv) and (v)
D 2 n+ p - D 2 n
l=
4 pR
Ex-5. A plano – convex lens of radius 3
m is placed on an optically flat glass
plate and is illuminated by
monochromatic light. The radius of the
8th dark ring is 3.6 mm. Calculate the
wavelength of light used.
Ex-6. In Newton’s rings experiment the
diameter of certain order of dark ring is
measured to be double that of second
ring. What is the order of the ring?
EX-7. In a Newton’s ring experiment radii of
the nth and (n+5)th dark rings were found
to be 6mm and 8mm respectively. Calculate
the wavelength light used, if radius of
curvature of the planoconvex lens is 10m.
