2 MAGNETOSTATICS

2.1 Introduction

Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields due to steady electric currents, which includes
dc currents and low-frequency ac currents. In this chapter, the Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s
law are stated and applied.

2.2 Biot-Savart Law

Consider a conductor carrying a steady current I . The moving charges inside the conductor
cause a magnetic field B to be set up in the region around the conductor. The magnetic field
is measured in tesla (T) or gauss (G) units, where 1T  104 G . The direction of the magnetic
field is determined by the right-hand-grip rule: If the figures of the right hand are curled
around the current carrying conductor with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
conventional current I , then the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field.
Consequently for a current moving in a conductor from left to right as shown in figure 2.1,
the magnetic field is out of the board/page at point P , and into the board/page at point P .

dB P

r̂ I

dL
 P
Figure 2.1

Consider the point P having position vector r , measured with respect to the location of an
infinitesimal conductor element dL carrying a current I . According to the Biot-Savart law, the
magnetic field dB at point P due to the current element IdL is given by

  I  dL  rˆ
dB   0  2 (1)
 4  r

where rˆ  r r is a unit vector in the direction of r , and 0 is the permeability of free space
given by
0  4 107 T  m A (2)

In equation (1), the vector dL points in the direction of the conventional current I which
passes through the conductor element of length dL . Since

dL  rˆ  dL rˆ sin   sin  dL

1
where  is the angle between vectors dL and r̂ , the magnitude of dB is given from equation
(1) by
  I  sin 
dB   0  2 dL (3)
 4  r

The total magnetic field B at point P due to the conductor is obtained from equation (1) by
integrating over the entire length of the conductor thus

 I dL  rˆ
B 0 
 4 
 r2
(4)

Consequently, the magnitude of B is

 I sin 
B 0 
 4 
 r2
dL (5)

2.3 Magnetic Field due to a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

Consider a straight current-carrying conductor of length L in which a steady current I flows.

The conductor is placed along the x-axis. The direction of the magnetic field B at a point P ,
located at a perpendicular distance h above the conductor, is out of the board/page (i.e. along
the z-axis) as shown in figure 2.2.

B
P

r
h
r̂  2
1 I
a O b
dx
x
L

Figure 2.2

To determine the magnitude B of the magnetic field at point P due to the entire length of the
conductor, the magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to the current element Idx located at a
distance x from O is first obtained. Then from equation (5), the magnetic field due conductor
is given by

  I  sin 
b
B   0   2 dx (6)
 4   a r

From the diagram sin   h r , and consequently

1 sin 
 (7)
r h

2
Also tan    h x , where the minus    sign is needed since the current-carrying element is
located at a negative value of x. Therefore
h cos
x  h (8)
tan  sin 

Using the quotient rule, we have from equation (8)

dx d  cos 
 h  
d d  sin  


h d cos d sin  
 sin  d  cos d 
sin  
2


h
 sin    sin    cos  cos 
sin 2 


h
sin 
2  sin   cos    h
2 2 1
sin  2

This implies that

h
dx  d (9)
sin 2 

Applying equations (7) and (9) in equation (6) gives

2
 I
B 0 
 4 h 
 sin  d (10)
1
Therefore

  I 
B   0   cos1  cos 2  (11)
 4 h 

For either L   (infinitely long conductor) or h  0 (distances close to a finite/short

conductor), 1  0 and 2   . Equation (11) then becomes

  I 
B   0   cos0  cos  
 4 h 

  I 
  0  1   1 
 4 h 

0 I
 (12)
2 h

3
2.4 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of magnetic field B along a closed path C is equal to
the product 0 I encl where I encl is the steady current enclosed by the closed path,
0  4 107 T  m A is the permeability of free space. That is

 B  dL  0 Iencl (13)
C

where dL is an infinitesimal element of the closed path (which is different from the conductor
element in the Biot-Savart law). Ampere’s law is applicable to current-carrying
configurations having a high degree of symmetry. In applying Ampere’s law, the amperian
loop (closed path) is chosen such that:

1. The magnetic field B has either constant magnitude or is zero along the amperian loop.
2. The magnetic field B is either parallel or perpendicular to the element dL of the
amperian loop, which ensures that either, B  dL  BdL cos0  BdL or
B  dL  BdL cos90  0 respectively.

2.4.1 Magnetic Field due to a Long Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

Suppose a steady current having magnitude I flows upwards along a straight conductor whose
length is infinite. To determine the magnitude of the magnetic field, a circular amperian loop
of radius r is drawn with the conductor passing through the centre of the loop as shown in
figure 2.3 (a) and (b).

(a)

I (b)
B
B
I
r P d dL
r P
B

Figure 2.3

The magnetic field B has the same magnitude on the amperian loop. Also at any given point
P on the loop, the direction of B is the same as that of the element dL of the circular path.
Consequently

B  dL  B dL cos0  BdL (14)

Since for a circular path, dL  rd , the line integral of the magnetic field along the closed path
becomes

4
 2
 B  dL   BdL B  dL Br  d  B  2 r  (15)
0

2
where  dL   rd  2 r is the circumference of the circular amperian loop. The current
0
enclosed by the amperian loop is the same as the current passing through the wire. That is

I encl  I (16)

Ampere’s law [equation (13)] then gives

B  2 r   0 I
Consequently
0 I
B (17)
2 r

which is the same result obtained in equation (12) above using the Biot-Savart law for an
infinite (very long) current-carrying conductor.

2.4.2 Magnetic Field due to a Long Solenoid

Ampere’s law may also be applied to determine the magnetic field inside a long solenoid.
That is a coil having a large number of turns, in which a steady current I flows in each turn.
A rectangular amperian loop of length L and width W is used as shown in figure 2.4.

d L c

B
a b

Figure 2.4

Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is constant and is directed along the central axis of the
solenoid. Its direction is determined by the right-hand-grip rule: If the solenoid is held with
the fingers of the right hand pointing in the direction of the conventional current in the turns
of the solenoid, the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field
outside and close to the solenoid is in the opposite direction and it is zero far from the
solenoid. Thus along sides bc and da of the amperian loop, B  dL  BdL cos90  0 , while along
side dc , B  dL  0dL cos0  0 . Consequently, it is only the length L of the amperian loop
inside the solenoid (i.e. the length ab ) that contributes to the line integral. Then
b b
 B  dL   BdL  B  dL  BL (18)
a a

5
The electric current enclosed by the amperian loop is

I encl  IN (19)

where N is the number of turns of the solenoid enclosed by the amperian loop. Ampere’s law
then gives

BL  o IN

Consequently,
B  o In (20)

where n  N L is the number of turns per unit length.

2.4.3 Magnetic Field due to a Toroid

A toroid is a coil consisting of a wire having N turns wound to form a torus (doughnut) shape
with inner and outer radius a and b respectively as shown in figure 2.5. A current I passes
through the windings of the toroid. The toroid core is normally made of iron material but may
also contain air in which case the permeability of the core is taken to be that of free space 0 .

B
b

r
a

Figure 2.5

The direction of the magnetic field B inside the toroid is determined by applying the right-
hand-grip rule to each turn. It is then clear that the inside the toroid, the field is circular. To
determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point inside the toroid, a circular amperian
loop of radius r is drawn inside the toroid. At any given point P on the amperian loop, the
direction of B is the same as that of the an element dL of the loop and therefore
B  dL  BdL cos0  BdL . Also the magnetic field B is constant along the loop and the line
integral of the magnetic field is then

 B  dL   BdL  B  dL  B  2 r  ar b (21)

where  dL  2 r is the circumference of the amperian loop. The current enclosed by the loop
is
I encl  IN (22)

6
where N is the total number of turns of the toroid. Applying equations (21) and (22) in
Ampere’s law gives

B  2 r   0 IN ar b

Therefore
0 IN
B ar b (23)
2 r

Mid-way between the inner and outer radius of the core, r   a  b  2 , and consequently

0 IN
B r   a  b 2 (24)
 a  b

Note that the magnetic field outside the toroid is zero since and amperian loop drawn outside
the toroid encloses zero net current.

2.5 Magnetic Force

A positive charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B experiences a magnetic force
Fm whose magnitude and direction is given by

Fm  qv  B (25)

A negatively charge particle q experiences a force whose direction is the same as that
experienced by a positive charge moving in the opposite direction. Thus for an electron
(having charge qe ) moving along the positive x-direction in a magnetic field whose direction
ˆ , since the electron is
is into the page/board, we have in Cartesian coordinates, v  iv
negatively charged, and B  k̂B . The force experienced is then

Fm  qe v  B  qe  iv
   
ˆ 
ˆ  kB
 
 
Fm  qe vB iˆ  kˆ   ˆj qe vB (26)

where we have used iˆ  kˆ   ˆj . The electron is therefore deflected downwards and its path as
shown in figure 2.6.

  
y
qe
 x

  
z

Figure 2.6

7
2.5.1 Magnetic Force on a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

When a straight conductor of length L carrying a steady current I is placed in a uniform

magnetic field B , the moving charges inside the conductor experience a magnetic force Fm
according to equation (26). Consequently, the conductor as a whole is acted upon by a
magnetic force given by

Fm  IL  B (27)

where the direction of the vector quantity L is the same as that of the conventional current I in
the conductor and whose magnitude L is the length of the conductor. The magnitude of the
magnetic force experienced by the conductor is then

Fm  ILB sin  (28)

where  is the smaller angle between vectors L and B . The direction of the magnetic force is
determined from equation (27). Alternatively, the right-hand-grip rule may be used: If the
fingers of the right hand are curled from the direction of L towards that of B , the thumb
points in the direction of Fm . Thus for a current I which flows down a straight wire of length
L , in a magnetic field B whose direction is out of the page, L   ĵL and B  k̂B . From
equation (27) we have

  
ˆ   ILB ˆj  kˆ
Fm  I  ˆjL  kB 
And since ˆj  kˆ  iˆ

ˆ
Fm  iILB (29)

The conductor therefore experiences a force in the negative x-direction as shown in figure
2.7.

I
B
y

x
Fm z

Figure 2.7

8
2.5.2 Magnetic Force between two Parallel Conductors

Consider two parallel straight conductors each of length L in which currents I1 and I 2 flow in
the same direction. The conductors are separated by distance r .

I1
I2
x

B2
 B1 z

F12 F21

Figure 2.8

The current I1 in the first conductor produces a magnetic field B1 , which is given from
equation (17), in the region of the second conductor, as

o I1
B1  kˆ (30)
2 r

The second conductor experiences a force F21 due to the interaction between the magnetic
field B1 and the current I 2 flowing through the second conductor. From equations (27) and (30)

  I 
 
F21  I 2L  B1  I 2 ˆjL   kˆ o 1 
 2 r 

F2  

o I1I 2 L ˆj  kˆ 
2 r

 II L
F2  iˆ o 1 2 (31)
2 r

The force F21 is directed towards the first conductor. Similarly, the second conductor produces
a magnetic field B 2 due to the current I 2 flowing through it, which is given, from equation (17)
in the region of the first conductor as

 I
B2  kˆ o 2 (32)
2 r

Subsequently, the first conductor experiences a force F12 due to interaction between the
current flowing through it and the magnetic field B 2 due to the second conductor. Using
equations (27) and (32)

9
   I 
F12  I1L  B2  I1 ˆjL   kˆ o 2 
 2 r 

o I1I 2 L
F12  iˆ (33)
2 r

The force F12 is directed towards the second conductor. The force F12 has the same magnitude
as F21 but acts in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the mutual attractive force between
the two current carrying conductors is then

o I1I 2 L
F  F12  F21  (34)
2 r

And the force per unit length is

F o I1I 2
 (35)
L 2 r

Equation (35) is used to define the Ampere, which is the SI unit of electric current. Thus
when 1A current flows in the same direction in each of two straight conductors which are 1m
apart, an attractive force per unit length of magnitude 2 107 N m exists between the
conductors.

10