Managing and Understanding Data

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10 de septiembre, 2018

Contents
R data structures 1
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Exploring and understanding data 2

Exploring the structure of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Show some registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring numeric variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Table with information about mileage and price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Some descriptive graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Visualizing numeric variables - boxplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Measuring spread - quartiles and the five-number summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Measuring spread - variance and standard deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

References 9
• Primera toma de contacto con un informe dinámico donde se muestra algunas de sus
caracteristicas.
• Son diferentes trozos de un libro.
• Se lee un archivo csv

2018-09-10
By the end of this notes, you will understand:
• The basic R data structures and how to use them to store and extract data
• How to get data into R from a variety of source formats
• Common methods for understanding and visualizing complex data

R data structures
The R data structures used most frequently in machine learning are vectors, factors, lists, arrays, and data
frames.
To find out more about machine learning see (Andrieu et al. 2003; Goldberg and Holland 1988).

Vectors

The fundamental R data structure is the vector, which stores an ordered set of values called elements. A
vector can contain any number of elements. However, all the elements must be of the same type; for instance,
a vector cannot contain both numbers and text.

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There are several vector types commonly used in machine learning:integer(numbers without decimals),
numeric (numbers with decimals), character (text data), or logical (TRUE or FALSE values). There are
also two special values: NULL, which is used to indicate the absence of any value, and NA, which indicates a
missing value.
...
...
...
Create vectors of data for three medical patients:
# create vectors of data for three medical patients
subject_name <- c("John Doe", "Jane Doe", "Steve Graves")
temperature <- c(98.1, 98.6, 101.4)
flu_status <- c(FALSE, FALSE, TRUE)

Access the second element in body temperature vector:

# access the second element in body temperature vector
temperature[2]

## [1] 98.6
Examples of accessing items in vector include items in the range 2 to 3.
## examples of accessing items in vector
# include items in the range 2 to 3
temperature[2:3]

## [1] 98.6 101.4

Exclude item 2 using the minus sign
# exclude item 2 using the minus sign
temperature[-2]

## [1] 98.1 101.4

Use a vector to indicate whether to include item
# use a vector to indicate whether to include item
temperature[c(TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)]

## [1] 98.1 98.6

Exploring and understanding data

After collecting data and loading it into R data structures, the next step in the machine learning process
involves examining the data in detail. It is during this step that you will begin to explore the data’s features
and examples, and realize the peculiarities that make your data unique. The better you understand your data,
the better you will be able to match a machine learning model to your learning problem. The best way to
understand the process of data exploration is by example. In this section, we will explore the [Link]
dataset, which contains actual data about used cars recently advertised for sale on a popular U.S. website.
...
...
...

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Since the dataset is stored in CSV form, we can use the [Link]() function to load the data into an R
data frame:
##### Exploring and understanding data --------------------

## data exploration example using used car data

usedcars <- [Link](file1, stringsAsFactors = FALSE)

Exploring the structure of data

One of the first questions to ask in your investigation should be about how data is organized. If you are
fortunate, your source will provide a data dictionary, a document that describes the data’s features. In our
case, the used car data does not come with this documentation, so we’ll need to create our own.
# get structure of used car data
str(usedcars)

## '[Link]': 150 obs. of 6 variables:

## $ year : int 2011 2011 2011 2011 2012 2010 2011 2010 2011 2010 ...
## $ model : chr "SEL" "SEL" "SEL" "SEL" ...
## $ price : int 21992 20995 19995 17809 17500 17495 17000 16995 16995 16995 ...
## $ mileage : int 7413 10926 7351 11613 8367 25125 27393 21026 32655 36116 ...
## $ color : chr "Yellow" "Gray" "Silver" "Gray" ...
## $ transmission: chr "AUTO" "AUTO" "AUTO" "AUTO" ...

Show some registers

# Table of 6 first registers

kable(head(usedcars), caption = "6 first registers of data")

Table 1: 6 first registers of data

year model price mileage color transmission

2011 SEL 21992 7413 Yellow AUTO
2011 SEL 20995 10926 Gray AUTO
2011 SEL 19995 7351 Silver AUTO
2011 SEL 17809 11613 Gray AUTO
2012 SE 17500 8367 White AUTO
2010 SEL 17495 25125 Silver AUTO

Exploring numeric variables

## Exploring numeric variables -----

# summarize numeric variables

summary(usedcars$year)

## Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.

## 2000 2008 2009 2009 2010 2012

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summary(usedcars[c("price", "mileage")])

## price mileage
## Min. : 3800 Min. : 4867
## 1st Qu.:10995 1st Qu.: 27200
## Median :13592 Median : 36385
## Mean :12962 Mean : 44261
## 3rd Qu.:14904 3rd Qu.: 55125
## Max. :21992 Max. :151479
# calculate the mean income
(36000 + 44000 + 56000) / 3

## [1] 45333.33
mean(c(36000, 44000, 56000))

## [1] 45333.33
# the median income
median(c(36000, 44000, 56000))

## [1] 44000
# the min/max of used car prices
range(usedcars$price)

## [1] 3800 21992

# the difference of the range
diff(range(usedcars$price))

## [1] 18192
# IQR for used car prices
IQR(usedcars$price)

## [1] 3909.5
# use quantile to calculate five-number summary
quantile(usedcars$price)

## 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

## 3800.0 10995.0 13591.5 14904.5 21992.0
# the 99th percentile
quantile(usedcars$price, probs = c(0.01, 0.99))

## 1% 99%
## 5428.69 20505.00
# quintiles
quantile(usedcars$price, seq(from = 0, to = 1, by = 0.20))

## 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

## 3800.0 10759.4 12993.8 13992.0 14999.0 21992.0

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Table with information about mileage and price

mileage<-summary(usedcars$mileage)
price<-summary(usedcars$price)
kable(rbind(mileage,price), caption= "Descriptive statistic: mileage and price")

Table 2: Descriptive statistic: mileage and price

Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.

mileage 4867 27200.25 36385.0 44260.65 55124.5 151479
price 3800 10995.00 13591.5 12961.93 14904.5 21992

Some descriptive graphics

par(mfrow=c(2,2))
hist(usedcars$mileage, xlab="Mileage", main="Histogram of mileage",col="grey85")
hist(usedcars$price, xlab="Price", main="Histogram of price",col="grey85")
usedcars$transmission <- factor(usedcars$transmission)
plot(usedcars$mileage, usedcars$price, pch=16,
col=usedcars$transmission,xlab="Mileage", ylab="Price")
legend("topright", pch=16, c("AUTO","MANUAL"), col=1:2, cex=0.5)

Visualizing numeric variables - boxplots

# boxplot of used car prices and mileage

boxplot(usedcars$price, main="Boxplot of Used Car Prices",ylab="Price ($)")

boxplot(usedcars$mileage, main="Boxplot of Used Car Mileage",

ylab="Odometer (mi.)")

# histograms of used car prices and mileage

hist(usedcars$price, main = "Histogram of Used Car Prices",
xlab = "Price ($)")
hist(usedcars$mileage, main = "Histogram of Used Car Mileage",
xlab = "Odometer (mi.)")
# variance and standard deviation of the used car data
var(usedcars$price)

## [1] 9749892
sd(usedcars$price)

## [1] 3122.482
var(usedcars$mileage)

## [1] 728033954
sd(usedcars$mileage)

## [1] 26982.1

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 Histogram of mileage Histogram of price
20 40 60

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Frequency

Frequency

20
0

0 50000 100000 150000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000

Mileage Price

AUTO
MANUAL
15000
Price

5000

0 50000 100000 150000

Mileage

Figure 1: Descriptive graphics

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 Boxplot of Used Car Prices
15000
Price ($)

5000

Figure 2: Boxplot of prices

Boxplot of Used Car Mileage

Odometer (mi.)

100000
0

Figure 3: Boxplot of Mileage

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 50
40 Histogram of Used Car Prices
Frequency

30
20
10
0

5000 10000 15000 20000

Price ($)

Figure 4: Histogram of Used Car Prices

Histogram of Used Car Mileage

20 40 60
Frequency

0 50000 100000 150000

Odometer (mi.)

Figure 5: Histogram of mileage

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Measuring spread - quartiles and the five-number summary

The five-number summary is a set of five statistics that roughly depict the spread of a dataset. All five of
the statistics are included in the output of the summary() function. Written in order, they are:
1. Minimum (Min.)
2. First quartile, or Q1 (1st Qu.)
3. Median, or Q2 (Median)
4. Third quartile, or Q3 (3rd Qu.)
5. Maximum (Max.)

Measuring spread - variance and standard deviation

In order to calculate the standard deviation, we must first obtain the variance, which is defined as the
average of the squared differences between each value and the mean value. In mathematical notation, the
variance of a set of n values of x is defined by the following formula. The Greek letter mu (µ) (similar in
appearance to an m) denotes the mean of the values, and the variance itself is denoted by the Greek letter
sigma (σ) squared (similar to a b turned sideways):

n
1X
V ar(X) = σ 2 = (xi − µ)2
n i=1

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance, and is denoted by sigma as shown in the following
formula:
v
u n
u1 X
StdDev(X) = σ = t (xi − µ)2
n i=1

Note. For more details on using mathematical expressions in Latex (R Markdown) see [Link]
com/learn/Mathematical_expressions.

Addenda

All these these methods should be used to analyze data and solve problems like the ozone layer (1986) or
socioeconomic problems like the precarious work (2000).
The main goal is to accomplish long-term growth as stated in Doppelhofer, Miller, and others (2004).

References
Andrieu, Christophe, Nando De Freitas, Arnaud Doucet, and Michael I Jordan. 2003. “An Introduction to
Mcmc for Machine Learning.” Machine Learning 50 (1-2). Springer: 5–43.
Beck, Ulrich. 2000. Un Nuevo Mundo Feliz: La Precariedad Del Trabajo En La Era de La Globalización.
Doppelhofer, Gernot, Ronald I Miller, and others. 2004. “Determinants of Long-Term Growth: A Bayesian
Averaging of Classical Estimates (Bace) Approach.” The American Economic Review 94 (4). American

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Economic Association: 813–35.
Goldberg, David E, and John H Holland. 1988. “Genetic Algorithms and Machine Learning.” Machine
Learning 3 (2). Springer: 95–99.
López Zavala, A, and others. 1986. “Capa de Ozono.” In Congreso Nacional de Ingeniería Sanitaria Y
Ambiental, 5, 304–8. SMISAAC.

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