Defence saence-Joumal, Vol 45, No.

4, October 1995, W-315-324 e 1995, DFSIDOC

REVIEW PAPER

Solid-state

Laser

Rangefinders

A Review

N. Instruments Research &

Mansharamani Establishment, Dehradun-248 008

Development

ABSTRACT
Describes the development of solid-state laser rangefinders, during the last thirty years. The laser rangefinders using solid-st3te laser materials operating in visible, near and [Link] spectrum of light are in use. Considering the cost, efficiency, atmospheric transmission and detection capability, neodymium laser rengefinders. operating in near-infrared region are still the state-of-the-art and are more in use as compared to rangefinders using other solid-state materials. The neodymium laser rangefinders in different configurations and use, developed in this Establishment are also described. The neodymium and diode lasers with improved detection capability in multiple pulse operation with pulse correlation techniques are under development to make these rangefinders eyesafe.
NOMENCLA TURE

~ x

At AI B Bo e F G ~ H,s Id k N PI Pb Ps R RL ~ T T, 1:

Receiver lens aperture Target area Amplifier bandwidth Bandwidth of laser receiver Electron charge Noise factor of ~mplifier Amplifier gain lrradiance over detector response Spectral irradiance at laser wavelength Detector dark current Boltzman constant ,rms noise level of receiver output Laser transmitter power Background power in the laser receiver Laser peak power received at detector Range of target Detector load resistance Peak level of signal at receiver output Absolute temperature (OK) Transmittance of receiver optics Transmittance of transmitter optics Laser beam divergence (rads) Receiver directivity ( rads) Responsivity of detector' (A/W)

a as p
I.

Laser wavelength Tramsmittance of receiver optical filter outside its passband Atmospheric attenuation Atmospheric backscatter coefficient, and Target reflectivity.
INTRODUCTION

With the..development of first ruby laser1by Maiman and subseqtlent generation of giant pulse by Hellwarth2 using Q-switching technique, the first ruby laser rangefinder weighing 90 Ibs was developed- and demonostrated3 in 1961. This rangefinder had.a rotating prism Q-switched transmitter operating at 0.6943,tl wavelength and a photomultiplier tube with $-20 response in laser receiver to range a non-cooperative
, target up to maximum range of 10 km,

(1, B

Since 1961, much development work has taken place in ranging techniques, i.e. , operating at various wavelengths in visible, near- and mid-infrared using various types of laser materials, different pumping configurations, and various types of Q-switching and improved detection techniques. The range achievable is 20 km for ground targets and 150 km for air targets4. Till now, the laser rangefinders manufactured or in .

Rcceived 15 February 1993, revised 08 August 1994

315

DEFSCI J, VOL45, NO 4, ocrOBER

1995

common use employ neodymium laser material doped in yttrium aluminium garnet (Y AG) or in silicate or phosphate glass operating at 1.064)l or 1.054)l. The detectors used in a laser receiver are silicon avalanche photodiode for near-infrared lasers. With the dev,-lopment of InGaAs avalanche detectors5.6,much development work has been reported recently on eyesafe laser rangefinders using laser materials7 operating at mid-infrared region. 2. BASIC PRINCIPLE A laser rangefinder, like ~icrowave radar works on the principle of time measurements of an optical-pulse travelling from the observation point to th~ target of interest and back. Since optical frequencies are 104 to 106 times higher than microw~ve frequencies, it has become possible for a compact transmitter giving a beamwidth or angular resolution of 10-4 rads to measure the ranges of target for ground-to-ground role. Since laser energy can be confined in a pulse duratio,n of 10-9s, a higher order of target range resolution can be achieved. But, the range compatibility of a laser rangefinder is limited due to higher background and high signal attenuation in the atmosphere at the optical wavelengths, i.e. due to absorption and scattering. The resolution is also limited due to the changes in the index of refraction along the optical path. Further, the drawback of a laser rangefinder is a potential eye hazard at higher energy densities and low generation efficiency. 2.1 Range Equation For diffuse laser target of reflectivity p normal to laser beam, the echo power received at detector is:

systems work are common to all, the difference between various instruments lie in the fine details of the optical design .and of the electronic circuitry The optical elements of a ranging system are shown in Fig. 1. Generally, the rangefinders have three optical channels, i.e. transmitter, receiver and sights. For near-visible laser rangefinders, the receiver and the sighting axes are combined through a beam splitter .

DETECTDR I

>-~:: =~~=~
TRANSMITTED PULSE
TRANSMITTER

~1[~ -\

BEAM EXPANDING TELESCOPE

BEAM

-~

"-

J
:!

"

SIGHTINGTELESCOPE

Figure

I. Optical

elements or a ranging

system,

For

targets

less than

the beam size, the power

received is:

4Pt~Tr~pA,
~ ."

e-2aR

3. DESCRIPTION The majority of laserrangefinders in operation, use an optically-pumped solid-state laser as the source of transmitted power. The principles upon which these 316

Transmitter and receiver beams are combined using polarisation to separate the transmitted and received beams. Sometimes, all the three beams are combined using polarisation to separate the transmitted and received beams and a beam splitter to separate out the sighting channel. The beam divergence of laser be-~m from resonator is reduced to 0.5 to 1 mrads using beam expanding telescope. The field view of the receiver channel is determined by the ratio of the detector active area to the effective focal length of the receiver objective lens. The size of the transmitting beam and its image at detector is made equal or about 20 to 30 per cent smaller than the size of ac~ive area so as to cater for bore sighting inaccuracy between the three channels.

MANSHARAMANI:

LASER RANGEFINDERS

Figure rangefinder operator,

shows

the

block

diagram

of

laser an

electronics. electronic

Upon

a command are switched

from

supplies

on. and

through a high voltage converter, energy storage condenser is charged to the required voltage. The aiming mark of the graticule is aligned to a point at the target and on pressing the laser fire switch, the laser pulse is transmitted within a few [Link] or few technique pulse energy falls
0;
E oX 1Z ... u u: ... ... O u
Z

milliseconds depending upon the Q-switching adopted. A portion of the transmitted

on a photodetector giving reference pulse to a range counter. The echo received on a sensitive detector placed at the focus of the receiving pulse to the ranging counter. lens gives a stop accuracy The. ranging

~ => Z ... 1-

WAVELENGTH

(j!m)

Figure 3. Transm~ion characteristics of visible and near-infrared spectra of optical energy in atmosphere under normal visible conditions.

FIgure 2. Block diagram

or a laser rangefinder

electronics.

depends on clock frequency of the counter and the laser transmit tel pulsewidth; time variable gain on detector or amplifier is used to avoid damage of detector due to backscatter or false echo due to secondary reflections. Minimum blocking range or last echo logic is used to avoid ranges due to small objects in the path of the laser beam. 3.1 Atmospheric Transmission In the range equation, the received power decreases by the factor [Link] 0" is atmosheric attenuation factor and can be [Link] two components a=O"s +aa'

which arises from scattering" and abs?rption by the atmosphere. In the -visible and near-infrared, the atmospheiic attenuation is entirely due to scattering, which bec<?mes increasiI:tgly severe as the wavelength is decreased. Thus, there is considerable advantage in using as long a wavelength as possible to. reduce scattering. However, for some wavelength into the infrare"d, molecular absorption, particularly .from H2O and CO2 becomes important. The performance of a rangefinder at the wavelength depends upon statistical knowledge of the distribution of temperature and humidity of the atmosphere. Figure 3 shows the transmission characteristics8 of visible and near-infrared spectra of optical energy in atmosphere under normal visible conditions. The various factors affecting laser transmission and background noise in the atmosphere are well discussed by Zuev9. 3.2 Target Returns Generally the beam divergence of a laser range finder is controlled to fill the targets for ranging. The returns
317

DEF SCI J, VOL'45, NO 4, OcrOBER

1~5

from the target depend on the reflectivity and cosine of angle of incidence and ob~y. Lambert's law. The diffuse reflectivities of rQugh targets depend on the constitution of wavelength and to a lesser extent on the angle of incidence. They vary widely, values of a few per cent are often assumed. Smooth surfaces often show a marked variation with the angle of incidence. Targets have better reflectivity in visible and near-infrared. Generally for natural and extended targets it is taken as 0.4, while for military targets it is taken as 0.1 for wavelengths near-infrared. Target reflectance characteristics and reflection of various metals and natural targets are discussed by Jelalianlo in the book titled the 'Laser Radar Systems'. 3.3 Laser Receiver The maximum range capability of a laser rangefinder depends on receiving lens apertu(e , transmission of laser filter, quantum efficiency of detector and noise. For visible and near-infrared laser, the detector used is photomultiplier tube with 5-20 response or a silicon avalanche photodiode. A field-stop aperture or detector active area and receiver lens focal length is chosen such that directivity of the receiver is 20-30 per cent more than the directivity of laser beam to keep the background noise minimum. The peak signal-to-rms noise ratio in a laser receiver 11,when ranging a target in the Earth atmosphere is given by ~
N where

The Sun irradiance H at a point outside the Earth's atmosphere is CXI H= J H).d). (} = 1345 Wm-2 at aphelion = 739 Wm-2 over detector response. The spectral at 6943 Ao = at1.06jL = at2.06jL = irradiance at sea level i~ H~ 0.12Wm-2A-1 0.06Wm-2A-1 0.01 Wm-2A-1

Therefore, while working at higher wavelength, not only the background radiation due to the Sun is less, but its contribution due to backscatter from atmospheric particles will also be less. For pulse laser rangefinder, direct detection techniques, i.e., detection of intensity and variation of the inter~:.y of light on photodetector are used. The amplifiers used have bandwidth of 15 to 40 MHz depending upon the pulsewidth with lower cut-off frequency at 0.1 MHz. For continuous wave and frequency stable lasers optical heterodyne detection techniques12 are used. In this, optical signal is mixed with a stable coherent optical local oscillator by a beam splitting mirror or other optical summing devices as shown in Fig. 4.

B2PR L G2 s
(2eB(BPb+ld)RLd+2kFTB)

2eBBPt-RLG1

;-' = Noise due to background illuminated of target by Sun ;

2eBld RL 02 = Noise due to detector dark current. ,2FkTB = Noise due to amplifying system. (H)sBo + HsX)a2Ar~ ~ (1s(l-e-20~
Pb =

4 If the noise preamplifier

pe-~OR+ dark

4(1 current and

due to detector then,

noise is much smaller than the background

noise due to sunlight ~

BP;

2eBBPb

For less background noise, Pb' the detector should have high quantum efficiency at laser wavelength and the laser receiver should be highly directive with narrow bandwidth Boo
318

Both are then directed towards the input of a photodetector where mixing action takes place between the signal and the local oscillator fields. Optical mixing has become practical because the narrow emission with the intermediate frequency in the microwave region or lower is well within the bandwidth of fast photodetectors, the photomixing is called optical heterodyne. For this purpose, the laser frequency

MANSHARAMANI:

LASER RANGEFINDE~

should be by Kene13. described highly stable. One such laser radar has been .

speed and resonator length. This type of Q-switching

the alignment
be placed

is not
exactly

very
at

critical,

3.4 Laser Sources The majority of laser rangefinders being manufactured use an optically-pumped solid-st&te laser source14 the sourCe of transmitting power. The laser as materials commonly used are ruby-O.6943.u, Nd:silicate glass-l.06.u, Nd:phosphate glass-l.054.u, Nd:YAG-l.064.u. Now with the deyelopment of InGaAs-avalanche photodiode, laser rangefinders ;in mid-infrared, i.e. Nd: Y AG .Raman ~hifted-l.540.u, Er:Glass laser-l.535.u, Er:YLF-l.730.u,Ho:YLF-2.06.u, CrTm:Ho: Y AG-2.060.u, have been Teported7,lS. The laser materials are pumped16 by xenon flash lamp. The laser materials are ill the form of a rod, but recently slab geometries with laser diode pumping are under development ~d may find 'application in high repetition17 rate laser rangefinders. The optical energy of the flash lamp is coupled to the laser material using elliptical gold-plated reflectors, silver or dielectrically-coated glass elliptical reflectors,with laser rod and flash lamp placed at foci. BaSO4 diffuse refleCtor on Samarium filters with sensitiser ions in ~lose pumping chamber developed18 by Kigre, Ifc, USA, absorbs one micron and unwanted UV radiation while traIlsmitting and reinfo!cing at the wavelength corresponding to the neodymium pump bands, when used improves operating efficiency of laser materials . l1le laser resonators are formed by a partially reflecting dielectric mirror, or resonant reflector at one end and TIR prism, [Link] cube prism or total reflecting dielectric mirror at the other end. The part of flash lamp energy stored in laser material as population inversion is released in a single giant pulse by Q-sWitching techniques for solid-state lasers19used are mainly rotating prism, electrooptics, and passive Q-switching. In rotating prism Q-switching techniques3,20TIR prism used as total reflector of lase~ resonat~r is mounted on a shaft of permanent magnet DC high speed or 400 Hz hysteresis synchronous motor. The TIR prism position and flashing of lamp is synchronised in such a way that when all the energy from the flash lamp is absorbed by the1aser material, TIR prism gets aligned to a partial mirror at the instant of optimum population inversion to generate a single giant pulse whose duration is 30 to 50 ns, depending upon laser material gain, motor

only

TIR

edge

resonator

~. Here,.70 to 80 per cent of the stored energy is released in a well collimated beam with divergence between 2 to 3 mrads", .In electrooptics Q-switching, polariser, lithium neobate or polariser, lithium neobate and quarter wave plate in a laser resonator forms electrooptics shutter . This electrooptics shutter is kept closed till the flash lamp energy is absorbed and optimum population inversion in the laser material is achieved. In this type of Q-switching, the laser output is available either from partial reflector or from pol arising beam splitter. If TIR prisms form both ends of the resonator, a quarter wave plate is used. In this type of Q-switching, 5 to 20 ns pulses are obtained depending upon the mode of operation, i.e. , cavity dumping mode or pulse reflection mode. This type of Q-switching is complex and costly for rangefinders, but in this type of Q-switch'ing, precise time-control for the generation of pulse is easily achievable. The passive Q-switching is mainly used in compact or hand-held laser rangefindersI4,21,22the type of material consists of an organic reverse bleachable infrared dye dissolved in organic solvent or dispersed in acetate sheet. Recently, LiF:F2 colour centre laser crystal13and tetravalent chromium-doped solid-state as passive;Q-switching elements for Nd:Y AG lasers have been reported24. In this type of Q-switching, pulse is very sharp with pulse duration of 4 t,") 10 ns resulting in high peak power with low-energy loss in passive Q-switched element.
3.5 Laser Electronics

The laser electronics for laser range finders can be divided into three heads:
3.5.1 Power Supply and Flash Lamp Driving <--'ircuit

The power supply mainly consists of high vo!i ::,ge flyback converto~ for charging of energy storage condenser with voltage sensing circuit to switch off the converter as soon as the required electrical energy is stored on condenser with over voltage protection, :1: 5 V switching or series regulator with over voltage protection and 10 to 12 V or :1: 5 V supply protected from electromagnetic interference for amplifier and low-level detection circuit. 319

DEF SCI J, VOL 45, NO 4, OcrOBER

1995

The flash lamp driving circuits of energy storage condenser and inductor or pulse forming network26 to match with the lamp impedance for optimum flash output and duration to match with absorption band and mean fluorescence life-time27 of laser material. For high repetition rate operation of flash lamp, the flash lamp is operated in simmer mode, while for single pul~~ operation shunt or series trigger modes are used for producing initial ionisation in the lamp. These circuits are well shielded and placed close to flash lamp to avoid radiative interference on detection circuits. 3.5.2 Low-Level Detection Cir:cuits Detection electronics mainly consist of a photomultiplier tube or silicon avalanche photodiode with its bias circuits, and trans-impedance amplifier . The gain of the amplifier or silicon avalanche photodiode multiplication is varied with time with minimum gain as the time of laser pulse transmission and maximum after 10 to 20 JlS to avoid false echo or backscatter from atomsphere which may damage the detector. Temperature compensation in bias circuit is introduced since breakdown voltage of silicon avalanche photodiode varies with temperature, and hence varies the gain which is maximum near avalanche breakdown.
3.5.3 Timing Circuits and Ranging Electronics

4.1 Porlable Laser Rangefinder Figure 5 shows a ruby laser rangefinder a tripod,.It energy consists of a transreceiver electronics storage condenser bank, and counting Q-switching mounted on

unit with detection Rotating prism

and a power supply unit with

has been ust..j with three plate sapphire

Figure 5. Ruby I

r rangefinder .

resonant reflector as partial mirror. The divergence of laser has been reduced to 0.5 mrads by using beam expanding telescope. A photomultiplier tube RCA type 7265 with $-20 response has been used in laser receiver having common axis with sighting telescope of magnification )(7 and field of view 7. Figure 6 shows Nd:glass laser rangefinder with built-in power source, i.e. , Ni-Cd batteries. The objective lens of aiming sight also acts as receiver lens. A cube beam splitter is incorporated in the sight to separate laser echo which is focused on the detector after. passing through interference filter. It can measure

The ranging counter measures the time of travel of laser pulse from the observation point to the target and back. The accuracy of range of t;-ne inte~al depends on clock frequency and pulse rise time. For range accuracy of :t 5 m, the clock frequency used is 30 MHz. For better accuracy, the rise time of the pulse should be fast or laser pulsewidth should be narrow and fast detection circuits are to be used. The range counter generally consists of crystal-controlled oscillator, gates and decade or binary counter with numeric display. Further, it has facilities for minimum blocking range, multiple target discrimination or last echo logic depending upon its use in a particular environment. 4. RANGING SYSTEM Starting with ruby laser rangefinders developed at the Instruments Research & Development Establishment (IRDE), Dehradun, in early seventies, the various other types of rangfinders developed till now are as follows :
320

Figure 6. Nd:Glass laser rangefinder .

MANSHARAMANI:

LASER RANGEFINDERS,

target range up to 10 km in clear visibility conditions with an accuracy of :t 10 m. The range counter can measure two target ranges in the same line of sight with a resolution of 30 m. Goniometer can give target bearing in 360 azimuth and 30 in elevation with an accuracy of :t 2 min. 4.2 Laser Rangermders for Armoured Vehicle Figures 7, 8 and 9 show Nd:glass laser rangefinder developed in various configurations to be used With the gunner's sight of an armoured vehicle. Figure 7 shows the production model of laser rangefinder, where the laser trans-receiver unit is mounted on mantlet of tank with gunner's and

This unit has been coupled to the sighting axis of gunner's sight by a special beam splitter. Due to backscatter, silicon avalanche photodiode is biased after laser transmission, and the minimum blocking range is 6OOm. Figure 9 shows the laser rangefinder with receiver and aiming sight on same axis, while laser transmission on separate axis. The laser echo from the target is collected by the objective lens of sighting telescope incorporating a cube beam splitter which transmits the visible portion of light to graticule, and eyepiece for sighting of target and laser aiming purpose. The laser

Figure 9. Laser rangef"mders with receiver common to sigbting-axis. Figun 7. Laser rangefioder with separate 1ransmitter, receiver and sighting channels.

commander's control units alongwith digital range display mounted inside the turret. The ranging counter has minimum blocking range variable from 400 to 4(XX) and can measure range of two targets intercepted m by a laser beam. Figure 8 shows the laser trans-receiver having common lens for transmitter collimator and receiver. The transmitted beam is sent through the central portion of the lens while the received beam is sent to the detector through a special beam splitter with a hole in the centre.

echo in near-infrared (1.054Jl) is reflected by this beam splitter and after passing through interference filter is focused on silicon avalanche photodiode (APD) biased at low voltage. This bias voltage is increased to a value just below breakdown voltage in 20 JlS from laser transmission to provide time variable gain for laser echo from targ<?tat different-ranges. The minimum blocking range for this rangefinder can be kept at 200 m. All these rangefinders have minimum pulse energy of 40 mJ in a pulse duration of 30 ns. 4.3 Hand-held Laser Rangermder Figure 10 shows the hand-held laser rangefinder developed by IRDE using Nd:YAG laser material with passive Q-switching with minimum pulse energy of 15 mJ in a pulse duration of 8 ns. This rangefinder measures a range of extended targets up to 10 km in clear condjtions. This rangefinder has a bracket and can be coupled to night sight. 4.4 High Repetition Rate Laser Rangermder

Flgun 8. Laser rangefinder with common receiver and transmitter axis.

Figure 11 shows Nd:Y AG laser rangefinder with pulse repetition rate of 10 pulses per second for ranging
321

DEF SCI J, VOL 45, NO 4, ocrOBER

1995

Figure 10. Nd:YAG hand-heldlaser rangefinder .

military aircraft targets up to 8 km range in clear visible conditions. It uses [Link] Q-switching with a transmitter energy of 60 mJ, a beam of divergence device. of various of 2 mrad. This unit has aligning with radar, IR or TV tracking Table rangefinders 1 gives the developed aid and can be coupled

5. CONCLUSION
The compact Nd: y AG laser rangefinders ranging up to 4 km with range accuracy :t 2.5 m under clear visible conditions have been with pulse energy as low as 2-3 mJ , For [Link] laser reported21.22.

specifications

at IRDE.

Table I. Specifications or laser rangefinders Details Laser material Output energy (mJmin) Pulsewidth (nscc) Type of Q-switching Beam divergence (mrad) Receiver bandwidth ( A 0) Detector directivity (mrad) Receiver aperture (mm) Maximum range (kIn)
:t 10 Accuracy(m) Sight x7 (a) Magnification r (b)Fieldofview 25 Weight (kg) a-+70 Operating temperature (OC) :t 10 :!: 10 :!: 10

Portable ruby 70 50
rotating prism 1 Nd:glass (silicate) 40

Arrnoured Vehicle
Nd:glass (phosphate) 40

Hand-held Nd:YAG
15

High rep rate Nd:YAG 60

30
rotating prism 1

30 rotating prism 1

9 passive
1.5

electrooptics 2
100

50
2

100

100

100

50 0.2-15

50

39 0.4-4

45 0.2-10

70 0.4-10
:t:5

0.4-10

x7 7 8 -20-+50

.x7 6.5
12 -~+50

3 -30-50 -20-

II + 50

322

MANSHARAMANI:

LASER RANGEFINDERS

rangefinders which are under development as eyesafe laser to replace Nd: Y AG working in near-infrared, the detection efficiency of InGaAs avalanche photodiode at high temperature is less than silicon avalanche photodiodes, and these detectors are much costlier as compared to silicon detectors. Therefore, considering all these factors, Nd: Y AG laser rangefinders will be still in operation, further due to their compactness and low-cost value. As suggested in a pape~ , multi-pulse operation of Nd:Y AG lasers in compact size alongwith pulse correlation technique will make them less hazardous, as their pulse power can be reduced; and at the same time it Will keep them immune from electrooptics countermeasure. REFERENCES Maiman, T .H. Stimulated optical radiation in ruby. Nature, 1960,187,493-94.

published by Consultant Bureau, New York, LOndon, 1982.

Jelalian, A. V. Laser radar system. Pub Artech House, Boston, LOndon, 1992, pp. 213-78. Electro optics hand book,1968, RCA EOH-10. Forrester, P.A. & Hulme, K.F. Review-Iaser rangefinders. Opt. Qua. Elec. , 1981, 13, 253-93. Kene,T.J.; Koylovsky, W.J.; Byer, R.L. &Byvik, C.E. Coherent laser radar at 1.06 jim using Nd: y AG lasers. Optical Letter, 1987, 12(5), 239-41. lasers for ranging applications. Proceeding SPIE advances in laser engineering find applications, 1980,247, pp. 116-23.

11. 12.

13.

14. Schlecht, R.G. &Paul, J.L. Advances in miniature

15

Hellwarth, R. W. Advances in quantum electronics, Columbia University Press, New York, 1961, pp. 334-41. Benson, R.C. & Mirarchi, M.R. The spinning reflector technique for ruby laser pulse control. IEEE Trans. Mili. Elec. , 1964, MIL-8(1), 13-21. Harney, R.C. Comparison of techniques for long-range laser ranging. SPIE, 1987, 783, Laser Radar, 11,91-100. Webb, P .P .Planar InGaAs APD for eyesafe laser range finding applications. Process SPIE, Vol. 1419, eyesafe laser, components, systems and applications, 1991, 17-23. Olsen, G.H.; Ackley, D.A.; Hladky, J.; Spadaforasa, J.; Woodriff, K.; Langeand, M. & Vanorasdel, B. High performance,lnGaAs, PIN and APD dete("tors for '1.54 m eyesafe rangefinding. SPIE, Vol. 1419, eyesafe laser components, systems and applications, 1991, pp. 24-31. Daly, J.G. Mid-infrared laser applications. SPIE, Vol. 1419,eyesafe laser components, systems and applications, 1991, pp. 94-99. Eppers, W. Atmospheric transmission. Handbook of lasers, 1977, pp. 39~59, CRC Press Inc. Univ. Ohio, USA. Zuev, V .E. Laser beams in the atmosphere

Keeter, H.S.; Gudmundson, G.A. & Wooddoll, M.A. SIRE (sight integrated ranging equipment) an eyesafe laser ra~gefinder armoured vehicle fire control systems. SPIE eyesafe laser components, systems and applications, 1991, 1419, 84-93. Mansharamani., N. & Rampal, V.V. Some consideration for optical pumping of solid-state lasers. Presented at the symposium on science and technology of infrared and laser held at Defence Science Laboratory, New Delhi, 1970. Mansharamani, N. Diode-pumped neodymium lasers-presentstatus and future prospects. Journal of Optics, 1989,18(3),68-70. Single and double lamp solid-state laser pumping chambers and lasers cavity filters. Product catalogue of M/s Kigre Inc. , 100 Marshland Road, Hilton Head Island, S.C. 29926 USA. Bhattacharyya, A.N.; Rampal, ..V.V. & Mansharamani, N. Q-switching techniques for solid-state lasers operating at room temperature. I. Sci. Ind. Res., 1968,27(10),380-85. . Arecchi, F.T.; Potenza, G. & SoDa, A. Transient phenomena in Q-switched lasers. Experimental and theoretical analysis. IL Nuovo Cimento, 1964, 34(6), 1458-72. Gunger, R.C. & Stenton, W.C. Mini laser rangefinder. SPIE, Vol. 633, laser radar technology and applications, 1986, 97-104. Vukas, B. New family of miniaturised laser devices, SPIE 1310, signal and image processing system performance evaluation, 1990, pp. 215-21. 323

16

17

18

19

20

21

8,

22.

DEF SCI J, VOL '45,NO 4, OcrOBER 1995

23.

Cheu, J.; Fu, I.K. & Lee, S.P. LiF:F2 as a high repetition rate Nd:Y AG laser passive modulator , Applied Optics, 1990, 29(8), 2669-74. Andrauskas, D.M. & Kennedy, C. Tetravalent chromium solid-state passive Q-switch for Nd:YAG lasers system. OSA proceedings ~n advance solid-state lasers, Vol.10. Proceedings of the Topical Meeting, Hilton Head Sc. USA, 18-20, Opt. Soc. Arne., 1991,393-97. Latshaw, D. Optimal design of convertor circuits for portable laser rangefinder. Thesis submitted for partial fulfillment of ~he requirement for the degree of master of science in engineering,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 1969. 26. Markiewiez, J .P .& Emmitt, J .L. Design of flash lamp driving circuits. IEEE, I. Qua. Elec. , 1966, QE.o2(11),707. Aanenson, V .0. Threshold/energy and efficiency of optical solid maser as a function of pump light pulse duration. Zeitschrift for angewandte Physik, 1965, 25, 249-54. Mansharamani, N.; Prasad, G.R.; Vasan, N.S.; Sheel, T.K. & Rawat, G.S. Double pulse operation of a passive Q-switched N d :y A G laser . Presented at Twentieth Symposium of the Optical Society of India, held in April 16-18, 1992 at Sameer, Bombay.

24

27

28.

25.

324