Forouzan imp points
->The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node) to the next
->The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
->The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to thedestination
host.
->The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
->The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization
->The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
->The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user
->The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
->The physical addresses change from hop to hop,but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
->To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals
->Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous [Link] data have discrete
states and take discrete values
->Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number ofvalues in a range; digital signals
can have only a limited number of values.
->In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals
->Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
Change over a long span oftime means low frequency.
->If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is [Link] a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is
infinite.
->Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0.
->If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the
composite signal is nonperiodic, the decompositiongives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
->The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
->A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth
->Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves the shape of the digital signal is possible only ifwe
have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide bandwidth
->In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster,
we need more bandwidth
->If the available channel is a bandpass channel~ we cannotsend the digital signal directly to the channel; we
need to convert the digital signal to an analog signal before transmission
->Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.
->f=1/T or T=1/f T->Period and f->Frequency
->Wavelength =propagation speed x period=propagation speed/Frequency
->Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then B =fh - fl
->A digital signal has n levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number
of bits from the formula
Number of bits per level =log2 n (base2) ex n=8 =>log2 8 =3
->Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration
->attenuation (loss of power) / amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as (db)=
