Viscosity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to being deformed by either shear stress
or extensional stress. It is commonly perceived as "thickness", or resistance to flow.
Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a
measure of fluid friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while vegetable
oil is "thick" having a higher viscosity. All real fluids (except superfluids) have some
resistance to stress, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an
ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.[1] The study of viscosity is known as rheology.

Viscosity coefficients

When looking at a value for viscosity, the number that one most often sees is the
coefficient of viscosity. There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on
the nature of applied stress and nature of the fluid. They are introduced in the main books
on hydrodynamics[3][4] and rheology.[5]

 Dynamic viscosity determines the dynamics of an incompressible Newtonian

fluid;
 Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density for a
Newtonian fluid;
 Volume viscosity determines the dynamics of a compressible Newtonian fluid;
 Bulk viscosity is the same as volume viscosity
 Shear viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is a shear
stress (valid for non-Newtonian fluids);
 Extensional viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is an
extensional stress (valid for non-Newtonian fluids).

Shear viscosity and dynamic viscosity are much better known than the others. That is why
they are often referred to as simply viscosity. Simply put, this quantity is the ratio
between the pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid, in the lateral or horizontal
direction, to the change in velocity of the fluid as you move down in the fluid (this is
what is referred to as a velocity gradient). For example, at "room temperature", water has
a nominal viscosity of 1.0 × 10-3 Pa∙s and motor oil has a nominal apparent viscosity of
250 × 10-3 Pa∙s.[6]

Extensional viscosity is widely used for characterizing polymers.

Volume viscosity is essential for Acoustics in fluids, see Stokes' law (sound
attenuation) [7]
Isaac Newton postulated that, for straight, parallel and uniform flow, the shear stress, τ,
between layers is proportional to the velocity gradient, ∂u/∂y, in the direction
perpendicular to the layers.

Here, the constant η is known as the coefficient of viscosity, the viscosity, the dynamic
viscosity, or the Newtonian viscosity. Many fluids, such as water and most gases, satisfy
Newton's criterion and are known as Newtonian fluids. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a
more complicated relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient than simple
linearity.

Viscosity Measurement

Dynamic viscosity is measured with various types of viscometer. Close temperature

control of the fluid is essential to accurate measurements, particularly in materials like
lubricants, whose viscosity can double with a change of only 5 °C. For some fluids, it is a
constant over a wide range of shear rates. These are Newtonian fluids.

Units of Measure

[edit] Viscosity (dynamic/absolute viscosity)

Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The IUPAC symbol for
viscosity is the Greek symbol eta (η), and dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to
using the Greek symbol mu (μ). The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal-
second (Pa·s), which is identical to 1 kg·m−1·s−1. If a fluid with a viscosity of one Pa·s is
placed between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one
pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer between the plates in one
second

Density
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For other uses, see Density (disambiguation).

In physics, density is mass (m) per unit volume (V) — the ratio of the amount of matter
in an object compared to its volume. A small, heavy object, such as a rock or a lump of
lead, is denser than a larger object of the same mass, such as a piece of cork or foam.
In the common case of a homogeneous substance, density is expressed as:

where, in SI Units:

ρ (rho) is the density of the substance, measured in kg·m–3

m is the mass of the substance, measured in kg
V is the volume of the substance, measured in m3

In some cases the density is expressed as a specific gravity or relative or specific density,
in which case it is expressed in multiples of the density of some other standard material,
usually water or air.

Common units

SI units for density are:

 kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)

 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) (1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3.)

In U.S. customary units or Imperial units, the units of density include:

 ounces per cubic inch (oz/in3)

 pounds per cubic inch (lb/in3)
 pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
 pounds per cubic yard (lb/yd3)
 pounds per gallon (for U.S. or imperial gallons) (lb/gal)
 pounds per U.S. bushel (lb/bu)
 slugs per cubic foot.

What is ultrasonic velocity?

Answer

Ultrasound is sound above the range of human hearing, Sonic(20 to 20,000Hz) Human
Hearing Range Sub-Sonic(<20Hz) Ultrasonic(>20,000Hz) Ultrasonic velocity is the
speed in which sound propogates in a certain material. It depends on material density &
elasticity. Velocity is constant for a given material.
Refractive index
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The refractive index (or index of refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much
the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves) is reduced inside the medium.
For example, typical glass has a refractive index of 1.5, which means that light travels at
1 / 1.5 = 0.67 times the speed in air or vacuum. Two common properties of glass and
other transparent materials are directly related to their refractive index. First, light rays
change direction when they cross the interface from air to the material, an effect that is
used in lenses and glasses. Second, light reflects partially from surfaces that have a
refractive index different from that of their surroundings

Definition

The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio of the phase velocity c of a
wave phenomenon such as light or sound in a reference medium to the phase velocity vp
in the medium itself:

It is most commonly used in the context of light with vacuum as a reference medium,
although historically other reference media (e.g. air at a standardized pressure and
temperature) have been common. It is usually given the symbol n. In the case of light, it
equals

where εr is the material's relative permittivity, and μr is its relative permeability. For most
materials, μr is very close to 1 at optical frequencies, therefore n is approximately .
Contrary to a widespread misconception, n may be less than 1, for example for x-rays.[1].
This has practical technical applications, such as effective mirrors for x-rays based on
total external reflection.

Adiabatic Compressibility
The speed of sound in a gas depends on the "springiness" of the gas. That is, it depends
on how the volume of the gas responds to changes in pressure. We have already seen one
measure of this response, called the isothermal compressibility,
 (1)
Equation one gives a parameter that determines how the gas responds to changes in
pressure if the temperature remains constant.

Sir Isaac Newton assumed that the speed of sound was an isothermal process and used
the parameter defined by Equation 1 to calculate the speed of sound in a gas. His answer
did not agree with experiment.

It turns out that sound transmission in a gas is an adiabatic process rather than an
isothermal process. The sound wave causes oscillations in pressure but the oscillations
are fast enough that heat can not move from compressed regions to rarified regions in
order to keep the temperature constant. Before the heat can be conducted away from the
compressed regions the compression has moved on so that sound propagation is
adiabatic.

We define the adiabatic compressibility as,

(2)

We can calculate the adiabatic compressibility in terms of

quantities that we already know (using the Euler cyclic rule
twice, once the normal way and once in reverse).

Compressibility
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Material Properties
(Redirected from Adiabatic compressibility)
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This article is about thermodynamics and fluid Specific heat
mechanics. For other uses, see Compression.

In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, Compressibility

compressibility is a measure of the relative
volume change of a fluid or solid as a response
to a pressure (or mean stress) change. Thermal
expansion

edit
where V is volume and p is pressure. The above statement is incomplete, because for any
object or system the magnitude of the compressibility depends strongly on whether the
process is adiabatic or isothermal. Accordingly we define the isothermal compressibility
as:

where the subscript T indicates that the partial differential is to be taken at constant
temperature. The adiabatic compressibility as:

where S is entropy. For a solid, the distinction between the two is usually negligible.

The inverse of the compressibility is called the bulk modulus, often denoted K
(sometimes B). That page also contains some examples for different materials.