1.
3 Energy and Equilibria
● Energy exists in a variety of forms and it can be changed from one form to another
but cannot be created or destroyed.
● The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy in a system and the ability
to do work.
First Law Of Thermodynamics
● The law states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed: it can only
change form.
● This means that the total energy in any system, including the entire universe, is
constant. This is known as the law of conservation of energy.
● Although the total amount of energy in a system does not change, the amount of
available energy does.
● The available energy is reduced through inefficient energy conversions.
Second Law Of Thermodynamics
● The law states that energy goes from a concentrated form (e.g. the Sun) into a
dispersed form (ultimately heat); the availability of energy to do work therefore
decreases and the systems becomes increasingly disordered.
● Entropy refers to the spreading out or dispersal of energy or disorder in a system.
● As less energy becomes available, entropy increases.
The Nature Of Equilibria
● Open systems tend to have a state of balance among the components of a system-
they are in a state of equilibrium.
● Equilibrium allows systems to return to an original state following disturbance.
● Two types of equilibrium are there:
1. Steady-State
■ A steady-state equilibrium should be understood as the common
property of most open systems in nature.
■ A steady-state equilibrium is the condition of an open system in
which there are not changes over the longer term, but in which
there may be oscillations in the very short term.
2. Static
■ In static equilibrium, there are no inputs and outputs of matter or
energy and no change in the system over time.
■ No natural systems are in static equilibrium because all have inputs
and outputs of energy and matter.
● Stable: the system returns to the same equilibrium after disturbances.
● Unstable: system returns to a new equilibrium after disturbances.
Positive And Negative Feedback
● Feedback refers to the return of part of the output from a system as input, so as to
affect succeeding outputs.
● There are two types of feedback:
1. Negative feedback tends to reduce, neutralize, or counteract any deviation
from an equilibrium, and promotes stability.
■ Predator-prey relationships
2. Positive feedback amplifies or increases change; it leads to exponential
deviation away from an equilibrium.
■ The exponential phase of population growth
● A system may contain both negative and positive feedback loops resulting in
different effects within the system.
Tipping Point
● A tipping point is a critical threshold when even a small change can have dramatic
effects and cause a disproportionately large response in the overall system.
● A tipping point is the minimum amount of change within a system that will
destabilize it, causing it to reach a new equilibrium or stable state.
● Systems at threat from tipping points include:
○ Antarctic sea ecosystems ○ West African
○ Arctic sea-ice monsoon
○ Greenland ice sheet ○ Amazon rainforest
○ West Antarctic ice sheet ○ boreal forest.
○ El-Niño-Southern ○ thermohaline
Oscillation (ENSO) circulation (THC)
Reliance And Diversity In Systems
● The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such
tipping points and maintain stability.
● Resilience is the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance.
● High resilience = return to equilibrium ● Low resilience = enter a new
state/equilibrium ● Resilience is usually good but can be bad.
● Resilience of a system will depend on its structure:
○ The more diverse/complex an ecosystem, the more resilient it tends to be
(more interactions between species).
○ The greater the genetic diversity within a species, the greater resilience.
○ Species that can shift geographic ranges are more resilient.
○ The climate affects resilience.
○ The faster the rate at which a species can reproduce means recovery is faster.
r-strategists (fast reproductive rate) can recolonize the system better than
K-strategists (slow reproducers).
○ Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages
and diversity.
