1.

Basic Programming
Computer
Science An Interdisciplinary Approach
Concepts
R O B ER T S ED G EW IC K
1.1–1.2 KEVIN W A YNE
1. Basic Programming Concepts
• Why programming?
• Program development
• Built-in data types
• Type conversion
You need to know how to program
in order to be able to tell a computer what you want it to do.

Naive ideal: Natural language instructions.

“Please simulate the motion of N heavenly bodies,

subject to Newton’s laws of motion and gravity.”

Prepackaged solutions (apps) are great when what they do is what you want.

Programming enables you to make a computer do anything you want. well, almost anything (stay tuned)

first programmer first computer

Ada Lovelace Analytical

Engine
3
Programming: telling a computer what to do

Programming
• Is not just for experts.
• Is a natural, satisfying and creative experience.
• Enables accomplishments not otherwise possible.
• The path to a new world of intellectual endeavor.

Challenges
• Need to learn what computers can do.
• Need to learn a programming language. Telling a computer what to do

“ Instead of imagining that our main task is to instruct a

computer what to do, let us concentrate rather on explaining
to human beings what we want a computer to do. ”

− Don Knuth
4
Telling a computer what to do

Machine language Natural language High-level language

• Easy for computer. • Easy for human. • Some difficulty for both.
• Error-prone for human. • Error-prone for computer. • An acceptable tradeoff.

for (int t = 0; t < 2000; t++)

10: 8A00 RA ← mem[00] {
11: 8B01 RB ← mem[01] a[0] = a[11] ^ a[9];
12: 1CAB RC ← RA + RB [Link](a[0]);
13: 9C02 mem[02] ← RC for (int i = 11; i > 0; i--) a[i] =
Police Squad Helps Dog Bite Victim. a[i-1];
14: 0000 halt
}
Adding two numbers (see TOY lecture)

Actual newspaper headlines Simulating an LFSR (see Prologue lecture)

—Rich Pattis

But which high-level language?

Naive ideal: A single programming language for all purposes.

5
Our Choice: Java

Java features
• Widely used.
• Widely available.
• Continuously under development since early 1990s.
• Embraces full set of modern abstractions.
• Variety of automatic checks for mistakes in programs. James Gosling

millions of developers
Java economy billions of devices

• Mars rover.
• Cell phones.
• Blu-ray Disc.
• Web servers.
• Medical devices.
• Supercomputing.
•…
6
Our Choice: Java

Java features
• Widely used.
• Widely available.
• Continuously under development since early 1990s.
• Embraces full set of modern abstractions.
• Variety of automatic checks for mistakes in programs.
Facts of life “ There are only two kinds of
• N o language is perfect. programming languages: those

• You need to start with some language. people always [gripe] about and
those nobody uses.”

Our approach − Bjarne Stroustrup

• Use a minimal subset of Java.

• Develop general programming skills that are applicable to many languages.
It’s not about the language!
8
A rich subset of the Java language vocabulary

built-in operations on String object Math

types numeric types operations assignment oriented methods

int + + = static [Link]()

long - "" class [Link]()
double length() flow control public [Link]()
System
char / charAt() if private [Link]() methods
String % compareTo() else new [Link]() [Link]()
boolean ++ matches() for final [Link]() [Link]()
-- while toString() [Link]() [Link]()
boolean main()
punctuation comparisons [Link]()
operations
our Std methods
{ < true arrays [Link]()
[Link] ()
} <= false a[] [Link]
[Link] ()
( > ! length type conversion methods
StdDraw. ()
) >= && new [Link]() StdAudio. ()
, == ||
[Link]() StdRandom. ()
; !=

Your programs will primarily consist of these plus identifiers (names) that you make up.
8
Anatomy of your first program

program name

main()method
text file named
[Link] public class HelloWorld
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
[Link]("Hello, World");
}
}

body of main()
(a single statement)

9
Anatomy of your next several programs

program name

main()method
text file named
[Link] public class MyProgram
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
...

}
}

body of main()
(a sequence of statements)

10
Pop quiz on "your first program"

Q. Use common sense to cope with the following error messages.

% javac [Link]
% java MyProgram
Main method not public.

% javac [Link]
[Link][Link] invalid method declaration; return type required public
static main(String[] args)
^

11
Pop quiz on "your first program"

Q. Use common sense to cope with the following error messages.

% javac [Link]
% java MyProgram
Main method not public.

A. Must have forgotten “public”. public static void main(String[] args)

% javac [Link]
[Link][Link] invalid method declaration; return type required public
static main(String[] args)
^

A. Check HelloWorld. Aha! Forgot “void”. public static void main(String[] args)

12
Three versions of the same program.

public class HelloWorld

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
[Link]("Hello, World");
}
}

/*************************************************************************
* Compilation: javac [Link]
* Execution: java HelloWorld
*
* Prints "Hello, World". By tradition, this is everyone's first program.
*
* % java HelloWorld
* Hello, World
*
*************************************************************************/

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

[Link]("Hello, World");
}
}

public class HelloWorld { public static void main(String[] args) { [Link]("Hello, World"); } }

Lesson: Fonts, color, comments, and extra space are not relevant in Java
language. 14
Note on program style
Different styles are appropriate in different contexts.
• Integrated development environment
• Booksite
• Book
• Your code 6 Elements of Prog ramming

Program 1.1.1Hello, World

Enforcing consistent style can public class HelloWorld

{
public static void main(String[] args)

• Stifle creativity.
{
[Link]("Hello, World");
[Link]();
}
}

• Confuse style with language. This code is a Java program that accomplishes a simple task. It is traditionally a beginner’s first
program. The box below shows what happens when you compile and execute the program. The
terminal application gives a command prompt ( % in this book) and executes the commands
that you type ( javac and then java in the example below). The result in this case is that the
program prints a message in the terminal window (the third line).

% javac [Link]

Emphasizing consistent style can

% java HelloWorld
Hello, World

• Make it easier to spot errors. PROGRAM 1.1.1 IS AN EXAMPLE OF a complete Java program. Its name is HelloWorld ,
which means that its code resides in a file named [Link] (by convention in
Java). The program’s sole action is to print a message back to the terminal win-

• Make it easier for others to read and use code.

dow. For continuity, we will use some standard Java terms to describe the program,
but we will not define them until later in the book: PROGRAM 1.1.1 consists of a single
class named HelloWorld that has a single method named mai n() . This method uses
two other methods named [Link]() and [Link] n() to do the
job. (When referring to a method in the text, we use () after the name to

• Enable development environment to provide visual cues.

distinguish it from other kinds of names.) Until SECTION 2.1, where we learn about
classes that define multiple methods, all of our classes will have this same structure.
For the time being, you can think of “class” as meaning “program.”
The first line of a method specifies its name and other information; the rest is
a sequence of statements enclosed in braces and each followed by a semicolon. For
the time being, you can think of “programming” as meaning “specifying a class

Bottom line for you: Listen to the person assigning your grade.
or your boss! 15
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
1. Basic Programming Concepts
• Why programming?
• Program development
• Built-in data types
• Type conversion
Program development in Java
is a three-step process, with feedback

1. EDIT your program

• Create it by typing on your computer's keyboard.
• Result: a text file such as [Link].
EDIT
2. COMPILE it to create an executable file
• Use the Java compiler
• Result: a Java bytecode file such as [Link]
• Mistake? Go back to 1. to fix and recompile. COMPILE RUN
not a legal Java program

3. RUN your program

• Use the Java runtime.
• Result: your program’s output.
• Mistake? Go back to 1. to fix, recompile, and run.
a legal Java program that does the wrong thing

17
Software for program development

Any creative process involves cyclic refinement/development.

EDIT
COMPOSE

COMPILE RUN
REHEARSE PLAY

A significant difference with programs: We can use our computers to facilitate the process.

Program development environment: Software for editing, compiling and running programs.

Two time-tested options: (Stay tuned for details).

Virtual terminals Integrated development environment

• Same for many languages and systems. •Often language- or system-specific.
• Effective even for beginners. •Can be helpful to beginners.
Bottom line: Extremely simple and concise. Bottom line: Variety of useful tools.
18
Program development environments: a very short history

Historical context is important in computer science.

• We regularly use old software.
• We regularly emulate old hardware.
• We depend upon old concepts and designs.

Widely-used methods for program development

• switches and lights 1960

• punched cards/compiler/runtime 1970

• editor/compiler/runtime/terminal
• editor/compiler/runtime/virtual terminal 1980

• integrated development environment 1990

2000

19
Program development with switches and lights

Circa 1970: Use switches to input binary program code and data, lights to read output.

PDP-8, circa 1 9 7 0 lights

switches

Stay tuned for details [lectures on the "TOY machine"].

20
Program development with punched cards and line printers

Mid 1970s: Use punched cards to input program code and data, line printer for output.

IBM System 360, circa 1 9 7 5

A s k your parents about the "computer center" for details.

22
Program development with timesharing terminals

Late 1970s: Use terminal for editing program, reading output, and controlling computer.

VAX 11/780 circa 1 9 7 7

VT-100 terminal

Timesharing allowed many users to share the same computer.

22
 Program development with personal computers (one approach)

1 9 8 0 s to present day: Use multiple virtual terminals to interact with computer.

• Edit your program using any text editor in a virtual terminal.
• Compile it by typing javac [Link] another virtual terminal.
• Run it by typing java HelloWorld

virtual terminal to compile,

virtual terminal for editor run and examine output

invoke Java compiler at command line

invoke Java runtime at command line

virtual TV set

23
 Program development with personal computers (another approach)

1 9 8 0 s to present day: Use a customized application for program development tasks.

• Edit your program using the built-in text editor.
• Compile it by clicking the “compile” button.
• Run it by clicking the “run” button or using the pseudo-command line.

“Integrated Development
Environment” (IDE)

“run” button
[Link]
“compile” button

pseudo-command line

24
Software for program development: tradeoffs

Virtual terminals IDE

Pros Pros
• Approach works with any language. • Easy-to-use language-specific tools.
• Useful beyond programming. • System-independent (in principle).
• Used by professionals. • Used by professionals.
• Has withstood the test of time. • Can be helpful to beginners.

Cons Cons
• Good enough for long programs? • Overkill for short programs?
• Dealing with independent applications. • Big application to learn and maintain.
• Working at too low a level? • Often language- or system-specific.

This course: Used in lectures/book. Recommended for assignments.

25
Lessons from short history

Every computer has a program development environment that allows us to

• EDIT programs.
• COMPILE them to create an executable file.
• RUN them and examine the output.

Two approaches that have served for decades and are still
effective:
• multiple virtual terminals.

Macbook Air 2 0 1 4

Apple Macintosh 1 9 8 4
IBM PC 1 9 9 0 s
Wintel ultrabooks 2 0 1 0 s
Xerox Alto 1 9 7 8
26
Image sources
[Link]
File:Koji_Uehara_2_on_June_15,_2013.jpg
[Link]
[Link]
1. Basic Programming Concepts
• Why programming?
• Program development
• Built-in data types
• Type conversion
Built-in data types

A data type is a set of values and a set of operations on those values.

type set of values examples of values examples of operations

'A'
char characters compare
'@'
"Hello World"
String sequences of characters concatenate
"CS is fun"

17
int integers add, subtract, multiply, divide
12345

3.1415
double floating-point numbers add, subtract, multiply, divide
6.022e23

true
boolean truth values and, or, not
false

Java's built-in data types

29
Pop quiz on data types

Q. What is a data type?

30
Pop quiz on data types

Q. What is a data type?

A. A set of values and a set of operations on those values.

31
Basic Definitions

A variable is a name that refers to a value.

A literal is a programming-language representation of a value.
A declaration statement associates a variable with a type.

An assignment statement associates a value with a variable.

variables

int a;
declaration statements
int b;
assignment statements
a = 1234;
b = 99;
int c = a + b;
combined declaration
and assignment statement

literals

32
Variables, literals, declarations, and assignments example: exchange values

public class Exchange

A trace is a table of variable values after each statement.
{
public static void main(String[] args) a b t
{
undeclared undeclared undeclared
int a = 1234;
int b = 99; int int a = 1234; 1234 undeclared undeclared

t = a; int b = 99; 1234 99 undeclared

a = b; This code exchanges

the values of a and b. int t = a; 1234 99 1234
b = t;
a = b; 99 99 1234
}
b = t; 99 1234 1234
}

Q. What does this program do?

A. N o way for us to confirm that it does the exchange! (Need output, stay tuned).
33
Data type for computing with strings: String

Stringdata type

values sequences of characters

typical literals "Hello, " "1 " " " Important note:

operation concatenate Character interpretation depends on context!

operator +
character

Ex 1: plus signs "1234" + " + " + "99"

Examples of Stringoperations (concatenation)
operator operator
expression value
"Hi, " + "Bob" "Hi, Bob"
white white
"1" + " 2 " + "1" "1 2 1" space space

"1234" + " + " + "99" "1234 + 99" Ex 2: spaces "1234" + " + " + "99"
"1234" + "99" "123499"
space
characters

Typical use: Input and output.

34
Example of computing with strings: subdivisions of a ruler

public class Ruler

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ all + ops are concatenation
String ruler1 = "1";
String ruler2 = ruler1 + " 2 " + ruler1; String 121312141213121
ruler3 = ruler2 + " 3 " + ruler2; String ruler4
= ruler3 + " 4 " + ruler3;
[Link](ruler4);
} % java Ruler
} 121312141213121

ruler1 ruler2 ruler3 ruler4

undeclared undeclared undeclared undeclared

ruler1 = "1"; 1 undeclared undeclared undeclared

ruler2 = ruler1 + " 2 " + ruler1; 1 121 undeclared undeclared

ruler3 = ruler2 + " 3 " + ruler2; 1 121 1213121 undeclared

ruler4 = ruler3 + " 4 " + ruler3; 121312141213121

35
Input and output
is necessary for us to provide data to our programs and to learn the result of computations.

command-line
Humans prefer to work with strings. arguments

Programs work more efficiently with numbers.

Output
standard output
• [Link]() method prints the given string.
• Java automatically converts numbers to strings for output. Bird's eye view of a Java program

Command-line input
• Strings you type after the program name are available as args[0], args[1], ... at run time.
• Q. How do we give an integer as command-line input?
• A. Need to call system method [Link]() to convert the strings to integers.

Stay tuned for many more options for input and output, and more details on type conversion.
36
Input and output warmup: exchange values

public class Exchange

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
% java Exchange 5 2
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b
2
= [Link](args[1]); int t = a; 5
a = b;
b = t; % java Exchange 1234 99
[Link](a); 99
[Link](b); 1234
}

} Java automatically converts intvalues to Stringfor output

Q. What does this program do?

A. Reads two integers from the command line, then prints them out in the opposite order.
38
Data type for computing with integers: int

intdata type

values integers between −2 3 1 and 2 3 1 − 1

typical literals 1234 99 0 1000000 Important note:

operations add subtract multiply divide remainder Only 2 3 2 different intvalues.

operator + − / %
not quite the same as integers

Examples of intoperations

expression value comment Precedence

5+3 8 expression value comment
5-3 2 3 5-2 13 has precedence
5 3 15 3+5/2 5 /has precedence
5/3 1 drop fractional part 3-5-2 -4 left associative
5%3 2 remainder
(3-5)-2 -4 better style
1/0 runtime error

Typical usage: Math calculations; specifying programs (stay tuned).

38
Example of computing with integers and strings, with type conversion

public class IntOps

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ % java IntOps 5 2
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b 5+2=7
= [Link](args[1]); int sum = 5 2 = 10
a + b; 5/2=2
int prod = a b; int 5% 2=1
quot = a / b; int
rem = a % b; % java IntOps 1234 99
1234 + 99 = 1333
[Link](a + " + " + b + " = " + sum);
1234 99 = 122166
[Link](a + " " + b + " = " + prod);
1234 / 99 = 12
[Link](a + " / " + b + " = " + quot);
1234 % 99 = 46
[Link](a + " % " + b + " = " + rem);
} Note: 1 2 3 4 = 1 2 *9 9 + 4 6
} Java automatically converts intvalues to Stringfor concatenation

39
Data type for computing with floating point numbers: double

doubledata type

values real numbers

6.022 10 23
typical literals 3.14159 2.0 1.4142135623730951 6.022e23
Typical double values are approximations
operations add subtract multiply divide remainder
Examples:
operator − /
% no doublevalue for π.
√
+ no doublevalue for 2
Examples of doubleoperations no doublevalue for 1/3.
expression value
3.141 + .03 3.171
Special values
3.141 - .03 3.111
expression value
6.02e23/2 3.01e23
1.0 / 0.0 Infinity
5.0 / 3.0 1.6666666666666667
10.0 % 3.141 0.577 [Link](-1.0) NaN

[Link](2.0) 1.4142135623730951
"not a number"

Typical use: Scientific calculations.

40
Other built-in numeric types

shortdata type longdata type

values integers between −2 1 5 and 2 1 5 − 1 values integers between −2 6 3 and 2 6 3 − 1

operations [ same as int ] operations [ same as int ]

floatdata type

values real numbers

operations [ same as double ]

Why different numeric types?

• Tradeoff between memory use and range for integers.
• Tradeoff between memory use and precision for real numbers.

short
int, float
long, double
41
Excerpts from Java’s Math Library

public class Math

double abs(double a) absolute value of a

double max(double a, double b) maximum of aand b also defined for
int, long, and float
double min(double a, double b) minimum of aand b

double sin(double theta) sine function

double cos(double theta) cosine function inverse functions also available:
asin(), acos(), and atan()
double tan(double theta) tangent function
Degrees in radians. Use toDegrees() and toRadians()) to convert.

double exp(double a) exponential (ea)

double log(double a) natural log (loge a, or ln a)
double pow(double a, double b) raise a to the bth power (ab)

long round(double a) round to the nearest integer

double random() random number in [0. 1)
double sqrt(double a) square root of a

double E value of e (constant)

You can discard your
double PI value of π (constant) calculator now (please).
43
Example of computing with floating point numbers: quadratic equation
, 2
—b ± b —4c
From algebra: the roots of x2 + bx + c are
2

public class Quadratic

{ % java Quadratic –3.0 2.0
public static void main(String[] args) 2.0 x2 — 3x + 2
{ 1.0

// Parse coefficients from command-line. % java Quadratic –1.0 –1.0

double b = [Link](args[0]); 1.618033988749895 x2 x 1
double c = [Link](args[1]); -0.6180339887498949

// Calculate roots of x x + b x + c. double % java Quadratic 1.0 1.0

discriminant = b b - 4.0 c; double d = NaN
x2 + x + 1
[Link](discriminant); double root1 = NaN
(-b + d) / 2.0; double root2 = (-b - d) /
2.0; % java Quadratic 1.0 hello
[Link]: hello
// Print them out.
[Link](root1); % java Quadratic 1.0
[Link](root2); [Link]
}
}
Need two arguments.
(Fact of life: Not all error messages are crystal clear.)
43
Data type for computing with true and false: boolean

booleandata type Truth-table definitions

values true false a !a a b a && b a || b

literals true false true false false false false false

false true false true false true
operations and or not
true false false true
operator && || ! true true true true

Recall first lecture

Proof a b !a && b a && !b (!a && b) || (a && !b)
Q. aXOR b?
false false false false false
A. (!a && b) || (a && !b)
false true true false true

true false false true true

true true false false false

Typical usage: Control logic and flow of a program (stay tuned).

44
Comparison operators

Fundamental operations that are defined for each primitive type allow us to compare values.
• Operands: two expressions of the same type.
• Result: a value of type boolean.

operator meaning true false

== equal 2 == 2 2 == 3
!= not equal 3 != 2 2 != 2
< less than 2 < 13 2<2
<= less than or equal 2 <= 2 3 <= 2
> greater than 13 > 2 2 < 13
>= greater than or equal 3 >= 2 2 >= 3

Typical double values are

Examples non-negative discriminant? ( b b - 4.0 a c ) >= 0.0 approximations so beware
of = = comparisons
beginning of a century? ( year % 100 ) == 0

legal month? ( month >= 1 ) && ( month <= 12 )

45
Example of computing with booleans: leap year test

Q. Is a given year a leap year?

A. Yes if either (i) divisible by 4 0 0 or (ii) divisible by 4 but not 100.

public class LeapYear

{
public static void main(String[] args)
% java LeapYear 2016
{
int year = [Link](args[0]); true
boolean isLeapYear;
% java LeapYear 1993
false
// divisible by 4 but not 100
isLeapYear = (year % 4 == 0) && (year % 100 != 0);
% java LeapYear 1900
false
// or divisible by 400
isLeapYear = isLeapYear || (year % 400 == 0);
% java LeapYear 2000
true
[Link](isLeapYear);
}
}

46
Image sources

[Link]
1. Basic Programming Concepts
• Why programming?
• Program development
• Built-in data types
• Type conversion
Type checking

Types of variables involved in data-type operations always must match the definitions.

The Java compiler is your friend : it checks for type errors in your code.

public class BadCode

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
String s = "123" 2;
}
}

% javac [Link]
[Link][Link] operator cannot be applied to [Link],int String
s = "123" 2;
^
1 error

When appropriate, we often convert a value from one type to another to make types match.
49
Type conversion with built-in types

Type conversion is an essential aspect of programming.

expression type value

Automatic
• Convert number to string for "+". "x: " + 99

11 0.25
String

double
"x: 99"

2.75
• Make numeric types match if no loss of precision.

[Link]("123") int 123

Explicitly defined for function call.
[Link](2.71828) long 3

Cast for values that belong to multiple types. (int) 2.71828 int 2
• Ex: small integers can be short, intor long. (int) [Link](2.71828) int 3

• Ex: doublevalues can be truncated to intvalues. 11 (int) 0.25 int 0

Type conversion can give counterintuitive results

Pay attention to the type of your data.
but gets easier to understand with practice
50
Pop quiz on type conversion

Q. Give the type and value of each of the following expressions.

a. (7/2) 2.0

b. ( 7 / 2.0 ) 2

c. "2" + 2

d. 2.0 + "2"

51
Pop quiz on type conversion

Q. Give the type and value of each of the following expressions.

a. (7/2) 2.0 6.0, a double(7/2 is 3, an int)

b. ( 7 / 2.0 ) 2 7.0, a double

c. "2" + 2 22, a String

d. 2.0 + "2" 2.02, a String

52
An instructive story about type conversion

Why different numeric types?

• Tradeoff between memory use and range for integers.
• Tradeoff between memory use and precision for floating-point.
short int,
float long,
double

A conversion may be impossible.

• Example: (short) 70000.
• Short values must be between −2 1 5 and 2 1 5 − 1 = 3 2 7 6 7 .

What to do with an impossible conversion?

• Approach 1: Avoid doing it in the first place.
• Approach 2 (Java): Live with a well-defined result.
• Approach 3: Crash.
First launch of Ariane 5, 1 9 9 6
53
Example of type conversion put to good use: pseudo-random integers

System method [Link]()returns a pseudo-random doublevalue in [0, 1).

Problem: Given N, generate a pseudo-random integer between 0 and N − 1.

public class RandomInt

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int N = [Link](args[0]); Stringto int(system method)
double r = [Link]();
int t = (int) (r N);

doubleto int(cast) intto double(automatic)

% java RandomInt 6
[Link](t);
3
}
} % java RandomInt 6
0

% java RandomInt 10000

3184

54
Summary

A data type is a set of values and a set of operations on those values.

Commonly-used built-in data types in Java

• String, for computing with sequence of characters, for input and output.
• int, for computing with integers, for math calculations in programs.
• double, for computing with floating point numbers, typically for science and math apps.
• boolean, for computing with true and false, for decision making in programs.

In Java you must:

•Declare the types of your variables.
•Convert from one type to another when necessary.
•Identify and resolve type errors in order to compile your code.
Pay attention to the type of your data.

The Java compiler is your friend : it will help you identify and fix type errors in your code.
55
2. Conditionals and loops
2. Conditionals & Loops
• Conditionals: the if statement
• Loops: the while statement
• An alternative: the for loop
• Nesting
• Debugging
 Context: basic building blocks for programming

any program you might want to write

objects

functions and modules

graphics, sound, and image I/O

arrays

conditionals and loops

conditionals and loops

Math text I/O

primitive data types assignment statements This lecture:

to infinity and beyond!
Previous lecture:
equivalent to a calculator

3
Conditionals and Loops

Control flow
• The sequence of statements that are actually executed in a program.
• Conditionals and loops enable us to choreograph control flow.

true boolean 1
statement 1

false

statement 2 statement 1

boolean 2 true statement 2

statement 3

false

statement 4
statement 3

straight-line control flow control flow with conditionals and a loop

[ previous lecture ] [this lecture]
4
The if statement

Execute certain statements depending on the values of certain variables.

• Evaluate a booleanexpression.
• If true, execute a statement.
• The elseoption: If false, execute a different statement.

Example: if (x > y) max = x;

Example: if (x < 0) x = -x;
else max = y;

true x<0? false true x>y? false

x = -x; max = x; max = y;

Replaces x with the absolute value of x Computes the maximum of x and y

5
Example of if statement use: simulate a coin flip

public class Flip

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
if ([Link]() < 0.5)
[Link]("Heads");
else
[Link]("Tails"); % java Flip
} Heads
}
% java Flip
Heads

% java Flip
Tails

% java Flip
Heads

6
Example of if statementuse: 2-sort

Q. What does this program do?

public class TwoSort

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b
= [Link](args[1]); if (b < a)

{ % java TwoSort 1234 99

int t = a; a alternatives for if and else 99
= b; can be a sequence of 1234
statements, enclosed in braces
b = t;
} % java TwoSort 99 1234
[Link](a); 99
[Link](b); 1234
}
}

A. Reads two integers from the command line, then prints them out in numerical order.
7
Pop quiz on if statements

Q. Add code to this program that puts a, b, and c in numerical

order.

public class ThreeSort

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b
= [Link](args[1]); int c = % java ThreeSort 1234 99 1
[Link](args[2]);
1
99
1234

% java ThreeSort 99 1 1234

1
99
[Link](a); 1234
[Link](b);
[Link](c);
}
}

8
Pop quiz on if statements

Q. Add code to this program that puts a, b, and c in numerical

order.

public class ThreeSort

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b
= [Link](args[1]); int c = % java ThreeSort 1234 99 1
[Link](args[2]); if (b < a)
1
{ int t = a; a = b; b = t; } if (c
A. 99
< a)
makes a smaller 1234
{ int t = a; a = c; c = t; } if (c than b
< b)
makes a smaller % java ThreeSort 99 1 1234
{ int t = b; b = c; c = t; } than both b and c 1
[Link](a);
makes b smaller 99
[Link](b); than c 1234
[Link](c);

}
}

9
Example of if statement use: error checks

public class IntOps

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ % java IntOps 5 2
int a = [Link](args[0]); int b 5+2=7
= [Link](args[1]); int sum = 5 2 = 10
a + b; 5/2=2
int prod = a b; 5%2=1
[Link](a + " + " + b + " = " + sum);
[Link](a + " " + b + " = " + prod); % java IntOps 5 0
5+0=5
if (b == 0) [Link]("Division by zero");
5 0=0
else [Link](a + " / " + b + " = " + a / b); Division by zero
if (b == 0) [Link]("Division by zero"); Division by zero
else [Link](a + " % " + b + " = " + a % b);
}
}

Good programming practice. Use conditionals to check for and avoid runtime errors.
10
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] [[Link]]
Computer 2. Conditionals and loops
Science
An Interdisciplinary Approach

R O B ER T S ED G EW IC K
KEVIN W A YNE
2. Conditionals & Loops
• Conditionals: the if statement
• Loops: the while statement
• An alternative: the for loop
• Nesting
• Debugging
The while loop

Execute certain statements repeatedly until certain conditions are met.

• Evaluate a booleanexpression. i = 0;
• If true, execute a sequence of statements.
• Repeat. v = 1;

i <= n ? false
Example:
int i = 0;
int v = 1; true

while (i <= n)
[Link](v);
{
[Link](v); i
= i + 1; i = i + 1;

v= 2 v;
} v=2 v;

Prints the powers of two from 2 0 to 2 n .

[stay tuned for a trace]
3
Example of while loop use: print powers of two
A trace is a table of variable values after each statement.

public class PowersOfTwo i v i <= n

{ 0 1 true
public static void main(String[] args)
1 2 true
{
int n = [Link](args[0]); int i 2 4 true
= 0;
3 8 true
int v = 1; while
4 16 true
(i <= n)
{ 5 32 true
[Link](v); i
6 64 true
= i + 1; % java PowersOfTwo 6
7 128 false 1
v= 2 v;
2
} 4
} 8
16
}
32
64

Prints the powers of two from 2 0 to 2 n .

4
Pop quiz on while loops

Q. Anything wrong with the following code?

public class PQwhile

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int n = [Link](args[0]); int i
= 0;
int v = 1; while
(i <= n)
[Link](v); i
= i + 1;
v= 2 v;
}
}

5
Pop quiz on while loops

Q. Anything wrong with the following code?

public class PQwhile

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{ Q. What does it do (without the braces)?
int n = [Link](args[0]); int i
= 0;
int v = 1; while A. Goes into an infinite loop.
(i <= n)
{ [Link](v); i
= i + 1; % java PQwhile 6
1
v=2 v; } 1
} challenge: figure out
1
} how to stop it
1 on your computer
1
1
1
A. Yes! Needs braces. 1
1
1
6
Example of while loop use: implement [Link]()

Goal. Implement square root function. % java Sqrt 60481729.0

7777.0
% java Sqrt 2.0
1.4142136

Newton-Raphson method to compute √ c

• Initialize t0 = c. if t = c/t then t2 = c

• Repeat until ti = c/ti (up to desired precision):

Set ti+1 to be the average of ti and c /ti.

i ti 2/ti average
0 2 1 1.5
1 1.5 1.3333333 1.4166667
2 1.4166667 1.4117647 1.4142157
3 1.4142157 1.4142114 1.4142136
4 1.4142136 1.4142136
computing the square root of 2 to seven places
7
Example of while loop use: implement [Link]()

Newton-Raphson method to compute √ c

• Initialize t0 = c.
Scientists studied
computation well before
• Repeat until ti = c/ti (up to desired precision): the onset of the computer.

Set ti+1 to be the average of ti and c /ti.

Isaac Newton
1642- 1727

public class Sqrt

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double EPS = 1E-15; error tolerance (15 places) % java Sqrt 60481729.0
7777.0
double c = [Link](args[0]); double
t = c;
% java Sqrt 2.0
while ([Link](t - c/t) > t EPS) t = 1.41421356237309
(c/t + t) / 2.0; 5
[Link](t);
}
}

8
Newton-Raphson method

Explanation (some math omitted)

• Goal: find root of function f(x) (value of x for which f(x) = 0). use f(x) = x 2 − c for √ c

• Start with estimate t0.

• Draw line tangent to curve at x = ti .
• Set ti+1 to be x-coordinate where line hits x-axis. y = f (x)

• Repeat until desired precision.

root: f (x) = 0

ti+ 3 ti+ 2 ti+ 1 ti

9
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
2. Conditionals & Loops
• Conditionals: the if statement
• Loops: the while statement
• An alternative: the for loop
• Nesting
• Debugging
The for loop

An alternative repetition structure. Why? Can provide code that is more compact and understandable.

• Evaluate an initialization statement.

• Evaluate a bo o l e a n expression.
• If true, execute a sequence of statements,
then execute an increment statement.
• Repeat.

Example: initialization statement Every forloop has an equivalent whileloop:

int v = 1; int v = 1;
for ( int i = 0; i <= n; i++ ) int i = 0;
{ boolean expression while ( i <= n; )
[Link]( i + " " + v ); v = 2 {
v; [Link]( i + " " + v ); v = 2
increment statement v;
}
i++;
Prints the powers of two from 2 0 to 2 n }

12
Examples of for loop use
sum i
int sum = 0; 1 1
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++) sum
3 2
+= i; trace at end of loop for N = 4
6 3
[Link](sum);
10 4
Compute sum (1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + N)
product i

long product = 1; 1 1
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++) 2 2
product = i; 6 3
[Link](product); 24 4
2nk
Compute N! = 1 * 2 * 3 * . . . * N k
U
0 0
1 1.57079632...
for (int k = 0; k <= N; k++) [Link](k + " "
2 3.14159265...
+ 2 [Link] k/N);
3 4.71238898...
Print a table of function values 4 6.28318530...

int v = 1; 2
while (v <= N/2) 4 trace at end of loop for N = 2 3
v = 2 v; 8
[Link](v); 16

Print largest power of 2 less than or equal to N

13
Example of for loop use: subdivisions of a ruler

Create subdivisions of a ruler to 1/N inches.

• Initialize rulerto one space.
• For each value i from 1 to N: 121312141213121
sandwich i between two copies of ruler.
i ruler
1 " 1"
public class Ruler 2 "1 2 1 "
{ 3 "1 2 1 3 1 2 1 "
public static void main(String[] args) 4 "1 2 1 3 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 "
{ End-of-loop trace
int N = [Link](args[0]);
String ruler = " ";
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++) ruler java Ruler 4
= ruler + i + ruler; 121312141213121
[Link](ruler);
}
} % java Ruler 100
Exception in thread "main"
[Link]
Note: Small program can produce huge amount of output.

2 1 0 0 − 1 integers in output (!) 24

Pop quiz on for loops

Q. What does the following program print?

public class PQfor

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int f = 0, g = 1;
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i++)
{
[Link](f); f
= f + g;
g = f - g;
}
}
}

15
Pop quiz on for loops

Q. What does the following program print?

Beginning-of-loop trace
public class PQfor
{ A. i f g
public static void main(String[] args) 0 0 1
{
1 1 0
int f = 0, g = 1;
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i++) 2 1 1
{ 3 2 1
[Link](f); f
4 3 2
= f + g;
5 5 3
g = f - g;
} 6 8 5
} 7 13 8
}
8 21 13
9 34 21
10 55 34

values printed

16
Computer 2. Conditionals and loops
Science
An Interdisciplinary Approach

R O B ER T S ED G EW IC K
KEVIN W A YNE
2. Conditionals & Loops
• Conditionals: the if statement
• Loops: the while statement
• An alternative: the for loop
• Nesting
• Debugging
Nesting conditionals and loops

Nesting
• Any“statement” within a conditional or loop
may itself be a conditional or a loop statement.
• Enables complex control flows.
• Adds to challenge of debugging.

Example:
for (int t = 0; t < trials; t++)
{
int cash = stake;
while (cash > 0 && cash < goal)
if-elsestatement
if ([Link]() < 0.5) cash++;
within a whileloop
else cash--; within a forloop
if (cash == goal) wins++;
}

[ Stay tuned for an explanation of this code. ]

3
Example of nesting conditionals: Tax rate calculation
income rate
0 – $47,450 22%
Goal. Given income, calculate proper tax rate.
$47,450 – $114,649 25%

$114,650 – $174,699 28%

$174,700 – $311,949 33%

$311,950 + 35%

if (income < 47450) rate = 0.22;

else
{ ifstatement
if (income < 114650) rate = 0.25; within an ifstatement
else
{ ifstatement
if (income < 174700) rate = 0.28; within an ifstatement
else within an ifstatement
{
if (income < 311950) rate = 0.33; ifstatement
else rate = 0.35; within an if statement
} within an if statement
} within an ifstatement
}

4
Pop quiz on nested if statements

Q. Anything wrong with the following code?

public class PQif

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double income = [Link](args[0]);
double rate = 0.35;
if (income < 47450) rate = 0.22; if
(income < 114650) rate = 0.25; if
(income < 174700) rate = 0.28; if
(income < 311950) rate = 0.33;
[Link](rate);
}
}

5
Pop quiz on nested if statements

Q. Anything wrong with the following code?

public class PQif

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double income = [Link](args[0]);
double rate = 0.35;
Note. Braces are not needed in this
if (income < 47450) rate = 0.22; else
if (income < 114650) rate = 0.25; else if case, but BE CAREFUL when nesting
(income < 174700) rate = 0.28; else if if-else statements because of
(income < 311950) rate =0.33; potential ambiguity (see Q&A p. 75).
[Link](rate);
}
}

if (income < 311950) rate = 0.33;

A. Yes! Need elseclauses. Without them, code is equivalent to: else rate = 0.35;

6
Gambler's ruin problem

A gambler starts with $stake and places $ 1 fair bets.

• Outcome 1 (loss): Gambler goes broke with $0.
• Outcome 2 (win): Gambler reaches $goal.
One approach: Monte Carlo simulation.
Q. What are the chances of winning? • Use a simulated coin flip.
Q. How many bets until win or loss? • Repeat and compute statistics.
7
Example of nesting conditionals and loops: Simulate gamber's ruin

public class Gambler

{
Gambler's ruin simulation public static void main(String[] args)
{
• Get command-line arguments. int stake = [Link](args[0]); int
goal = [Link](args[1]); int trials =
[Link](args[2]);

int wins = 0;
• Run all the experiments. for (int t = 0; t < trials; t++) forloop
{
int cash = stake; while loop
• Run one experiment. while (cash > 0 && cash < goal) within a for loop
{
if ([Link]() < 0.5) cash++; if statement
• Make one bet. else cash--; within a while loop
} within a for loop
• If goal met, count the win. if (t == goal) wins++;
}
• Print #wins and # trials. [Link](wins + " wins of " + trials);
}
}
% java Gambler 5 25 1000
191 wins of 1000

8
Digression: simulation and analysis

Facts (known via mathematical analysis for centuries) Early scientists were
fascinated by the study
• Probability of winning = stake ÷ goal. of games of chance.
• Expected number of bets = stake × desired gain.
Christiaan Huygens
1629- 1695
stake goal trials

Example
% java Gambler 5 25 1000
• 2 0 % chance of turning $ 5 0 0 into $2500. 500/2500 = 20%
191 wins of 1000
• Expect to make 1 million $ 1 bets. 500*(2500 - 500) = 1,000,000
% java Gambler 5 25 1000
203 wins of 1000

% java Gambler 500 2500 1000

uses about 1 billion coin flips 197 wins of 1000

Remarks
• Computer simulation can help validate mathematical analysis.
• For this problem, mathematical analysis is simpler (if you know the math).
• For more complicated variants, computer simulation may be the best plan of attack.
9
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W IC K / W A Y N E
PA RTI : PRO G RA M M I N G I N JAVA

2. Conditionals & Loops

• Conditionals: the if statement
• Loops: the while statement
• An alternative: the for loop
• Nesting
• Debugging

[Link] [Link] n g
Debugging
is 9 9 % of program development in any programming language, even for experts.

Bug: A mistake in a program. Debugging: The process of eliminating bugs.

EDIT

You will make many mistakes as

you write programs. It's normal.

COMPILE RUN

“ As soon as we started programming, we found out to our surprise that it wasn't as easy to get
programs right as we had thought. I can remember the exact instant when I realized that a large
part of my life from then on was going to be spent in finding mistakes in my own programs. ”

− Maurice Wilkes

Impossible ideal: "Please compile, execute, and debug m y program." Why is this impossible? Stay tuned.

Bottom line: Programming is primarily a process of finding and fixing mistakes.

12
Debugging
is challenging because conditionals and loops dramatically increase the number of possible outcomes.

program structure no loops n conditionals 1 loop

number of possible execution

1 2n no limit
sequences

Most programs contain numerous conditionals and loops, with nesting.

Good news. Conditionals and loops provide structure that helps us understand our programs.

Old and low-level languages have a goto

statement that provides arbitrary structure. “ The quality of programmers is a decreasing
Eliminating gotos was controversial until function of the number of goto statements in
Edsgar Dijkstra published the famous note the programs they produce. ”
"Goto considered harmful " in 1968.
− Edsgar Dijkstra
13
Debugging a program: a running example

3,757,208 = 2  2  2  7  1 3  1 3  3 9 7
Problem: Factor a large integer n.
Application: Cryptography. 9 8 = 2  7 7

17 = 17

Surprising fact: Security of internet commerce 11,111,111,111,111,111 = 2,071,723  5,363,222,357

depends on difficulty of factoring large integers.

public class Factors

{
public static void main(String[] args)
Method {
long n = [Link](args[0])
• Consider each integer i less than n for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
• While i divides n evenly while (n % i == 0)
[Link](i + " ") n =
Print i (it is a factor of n ).
n/i
Replace n with n/i .
}
}
Rationale: } This program has bugs!
1. Any factor of n/i is a factor of n.
2. i may be a factor of n/i.
14
Debugging a program: syntax errors

Is your program a legal Java program?

• Java compiler can help you find out. EDIT

• Find the first compiler error (if any).

• Repeat. COMPILE
Trying to tell a computer what to do

• Result: An executable [Link]

% javac [Link]
[Link][Link] ';' expected public class Factors need to declare
long n = [Link](args[0]) type of i
{
^ public static void main(String[] args)
... {
long n = [Link](args[0]) ;
% javac [Link] [Link][Link]
for ( inti = 0; i < n; i++)
cannot find symbol symbol : variable i
{
location: class FactorsX
for ( i = 0; i < n; i++) while (n % i == 0)
^ [Link](i + " ") ;
... n=n/i ; need terminating
semicolons
}
}
% javac [Link] } This legal program still has bugs!
%
15
Debugging a program: runtime and semantic errors

Does your legal Java program do what you want it to do?

• You need to run it to find out.
EDIT

• Find the first runtime error (if any).

• Fix and repeat. COMPILE RUN

% javac [Link] need to start at 2

public class Facto rs since 0 and 1
% java Factors oops, need argument
{ are not factors
Exception in thread "main"
[Link]: 0 public static void main(String[] args)
at [Link]([Link]) {
long n = [Link](args[0]);
you will see this message!
% java Factors 98 Exception
for ( int i = 2 i < n; i++)
0;
in thread "main" {
[Link]: / by zero at while (n % i == 0)
[Link]([Link]) {[Link](i + " "); n =
n / i;}
% java Factors 98
}
} need braces
2 22222222 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 22222222 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 } This working program still has bugs!

✓
% java Factors 98
2 7 7% 98 = 2 × 7× 7
16
Debugging a program: testing

Does your legal Java program always do what you want it to do?
• You need to test on many types of inputs it to find out.
• Add trace code to find the first error.
• Fix the error.
• Repeat. public class Factors
{
public static void main(String[] args)
% java Factors 98 {
2 7 7% need newline % javac [Link] long n = [Link](args[0]); for
% java Factors 5 ( int i = 2; i < n; i++)
TRACE 2 5 {
% java Factors 5 TRACE 3 5 while (n % i == 0)
??? no output TRACE 4 5
{
% java Factors 6
2
[Link](i + " "); n =
% java Factors 6 TRACE 2 3 n / i;
2 ??? where’s the 3? }
[Link]("TRACE " + i + " " + n);
AHA! Need to print out n
(if it is not 1). }
}
}
17
Debugging a program: testing

Does your legal Java program always do what you want it to do?
• You need to test on many types of inputs it to find out.
• Add trace code to find the first error.
• Fix the error.
• Repeat. public class Factors
{
public static void main(String[] args)
??? {
%$%@$#!! % java Factors 5 long n = [Link](args[0]); for
forgot to recompile TRACE 2 5
( int i = 2; i < N; i++)
TRACE 3 5
TRACE 4 5 {
% javac [Link] while (n % i == 0)
% java Factors 5 {
5 [Link](i + " "); n =
% java Factors 6 n / i;
23
% java Factors 98
}
277 }
% java Factors 3757208 if (n > 1) [Link](n); else
2 2 2 7 13 13 397 [Link]();
}
Note: This working program
} still has a bug (stay tuned).
18
 Debugging a program: performance

Is your working Java program fast enough to solve your problem?

• You need to test it on increasing problem sizes to find out.
• Ma y need to change the algorithm to fix it.
• Repeat.
change the algorithm: no need to check when public class Factors
Method i·i >n since all smaller factors already checked {
public static void main(String[] args)
• Consider each integer i ≤ n/ithan N
less {
long n = [Link](args[0]); for
• While i divides n evenly ( int i = 2; i < =n/i ; i++)N
print i (it is a factor of n ) { implement
replace n with n/i . while (n % i == 0) the change
{
[Link](i + " "); n =
% java Factors 11111111 n / i;
11 73 101 137 }
% java Factors 11111111111
}
21649 513239
% java Factors 11111111111111
if (n > 1) [Link](n); else
11 239 4649 909091 [Link]();
% java Factors 11111111111111111 }
might work,
but way too slow 2071723 5363222357 immediate }
45
Debugging a program: performance analysis

Q. How large an integer can I factor? public class Factors

{
public static void main(String[] args)
% java Factors 9201111169755555703 {
9201111169755555703
long n = [Link](args[0]); for
( int i = 2; i <= n/i; i++)
{
digits in while (n % i == 0)
largest factor i<N i <= N/i
{
3 instant instant [Link](i + " "); n =
n / i;
6 instant instant }
}
9 7 7 seconds instant
if (n > 1) [Link](n); else
12 2 1 hours † instant [Link]();
}
15 2.4 years † 2.7 seconds }
18 2.4 millenia † 9 2 seconds
† estimated, using analytic number theory
experts are still trying to develop
Lesson. Performance matters! better algorithms for this problem

Note. Internet commerce is still secure: it depends on the difficulty of factoring 200-digit integers.
20
Debugging your program: summary

Program development is a four-step process, with feedback.

EDIT your program.

syntax error

runtime error
COMPILE your program to create an executable file. Telling a computer what to do
when you k n ow what you're doing
semantic error

RUN your program to test that it works as you imagined.

performance error

TEST your program on realistic and real input data.

SUBMIT your program for independent testing and approval.

21
 COMPUTER SCIENCE
S E D G E W IC K / W A Y N E
PA RTI : PRO G RA M M I N G I N JAVA

Computer 2. Conditionals & Loops

Science An Interdisciplinary Approach

R O B ER T S ED G EW IC K
1.3 KEVIN W A YNE

http:// [Link]
Computer 3. Arrays
Science
An Interdisciplinary Approach

R O B ER T S ED G EW IC K
KEVIN W A YNE
3. Arrays
• Basic concepts
• Typical array-processing code
• Two-dimensional arrays
Basic building blocks for programming

any program you might want to write

objects

functions and modules

graphics, sound, and image I/O

arrays
Ability to store and process
conditionals and loops huge amounts of data

Math text I/O

primitive data types assignment statements

3
Your first data structure

A data structure is an arrangement of data that enables efficient processing by a program.

An array is an indexed sequence of values of the same type.

Examples. index value

• 5 2 playing cards in a deck. 0 2♥

• 1 0 0 thousand students in an online class. 1 6♠

• 1 billion pixels in a digital image. 2 A♦

• 4 billion nucleotides in a D N A strand. 3 A♥

• 7 3 billion Google queries per year. ...

• 8 6 billion neurons in the brain. 49 3♣
• 5 0 trillion cells in the human body. 50 K♣
• 6.02 × 10 2 3 particles in a mole. 51 4♠

Main purpose. Facilitate storage and manipulation of data.

4
Processing many values of the same type

10 values, without arrays

double a0 = 0.0;
double a1 = 0.0;
double a2 = 0.0; 10 values, with an array 1 million values, with an array
double a3 = 0.0;
double a4 = 0.0;
double[] a; double[] a;
double a5 = 0.0;
a = new double[10]; a = new double[1000000];
double a6 = 0.0;
... ...
double a7 = 0.0;
a[4] = 3.0; a[234567] = 3.0;
double a8 = 0.0;
... ...
double a9 = 0.0;
a[8] = 8.0; a[876543] = 8.0;
... ...
...
a4 = 3.0;
double x = a[4] + a[8]; double x = a[234567] + a[876543];
...
a8 = 8.0;
...
double x = a4 + a8; an easy alternative scales to handle huge amounts of data

tedious and error-prone code

5
Memory representation of an array

An array is an indexed sequence of values of the same type.

A computer's memory is also an indexed sequence of memory locations. stay tuned for many details

• Each primitive type value occupies a fixed number of locations.

• Array values are stored in contiguous locations.
a for simplicity in this lecture, think of a as the memory address of the first location
the actual implementation in Java is just slightly more complicated.

a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4] a[5] a[6] a[7] a[8] a[9]

Critical concepts
• Indices start at 0.
• Given i, the operation of accessing the value a[i]is extremely efficient.
• The assignment b = a makes the names b and a refer to the same array. it does not copy the array,
as with primitive types
(stay tuned for details)

6
Java language support for arrays

Basic support operation typical code

Declare an array double[] a;

Create an array of a given length a = new double[1000];

Refer to an array entry by index a[i] = b[j] + c[k];

Refer to the length of an array [Link];

Initialization options
no need to use a loop like
for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++)
a[i] = 0.0;
operation typical code

Default initialization to 0 for numeric types a = new double[1000];

BUT cost of creating an
array is proportional to
its length.
Declare, create and initialize in one statement double[] a = new double[1000];

Initialize to literal values double[] x = { 0.3, 0.6, 0.1 };

7
Copying an array

To copy an array, create a new array , then copy all the values.

double[] b = new double[[Link]]; for

(int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)
b[i] = a[i];

a i b i

0.3 0.6 0.99 0.01 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.99 0.01 0.5

Important note: The code b = adoes not copy an array (it makes band arefer to the same array).

double[] b = new double[[Link]]; b

= a;

a b

0.3 0.6 0.99 0.01 0.5

8
Programming with arrays: typical examples

Access command-line args in system array For brevity, Nis [Link] [Link] all this code.
int stake = [Link](args[0]); int
goal = [Link](args[1]); int trials = Copy to another array
[Link](args[2]); double[] b = new double[N];
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
b[i] = a[i];

Create an array with N random values

double[] a = new double[N]; Print array values, one per line
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) a[i] for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
= [Link](); [Link](a[i]);

Compute the average of array values Find the maximum of array values
double sum = 0.0; double max = a[0];
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) sum
for (int i = 1; i < N; i++)
+= a[i]; if (a[i] > max) max = a[i];
double average = sum / N;

9
Pop quiz 1 on arrays

Q. What does the following code print?

public class PQarray1

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int[] a = new int[6];
int[] b = new int[[Link]];

b = a;
for (int i = 1; i < [Link]; i++) b[i] =
i;

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

[Link](a[i] + " ");
[Link]();

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

[Link](b[i] + " ");
[Link]();
}
}

10
Pop quiz 1 on arrays

Q. What does the following code print?

public class PQarray1

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int[] a = new int[6];
int[] b = new int[[Link]];

b = a; After this, b and a refer to the same array

for (int i = 1; i < [Link]; i++) b[i] =
i;

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

[Link](a[i] + " ");
[Link]();

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++)

[Link](b[i] + " "); A. % java PQ4_1
[Link](); 012345
}
} 012345

11
Programming with arrays: typical bugs

Array index out of bounds double[] a = new double[10]; for

(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
a[i] = [Link]();

No a[10] (and a[0] unused)

Uninitialized array double[] a;

for (int i = 0; i < 9; i++) a[i]
= [Link]();

Never created the array

Undeclared variable a = new double[10];

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) a[i]
= [Link]();

What type of data does a refer to?

12
Image sources

[Link]
3. Arrays
• Basic concepts
• Examples of array-processing code
• Two-dimensional arrays
Example of array use: create a deck of cards

Define three arrays String[] rank = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10", "J", "Q", "K", "A" };

• Ranks. String[] suit = { "♣", "♦", "♥", "♠" };

• Suits. String[] deck = new String[52];
• Full deck.

Use nested forloops to put all the cards in the deck.

better style to use [Link] and [Link] j

for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) clearer in lecture to use 4 and 1 3 0 1 2 3
for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++)
suit ♣ ♦ ♥ ♠
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];
i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
rank 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ...
deck 2♣ 3♣ 4♣ 5♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 9♣ 10♣ J♣ Q♣ K♣ A♣ 2♦ 3♦ 4♦ 5♦ 6♦ 7♦ 8♦ 9♦ ...

15
Example of array use: create a deck of cards

public class Deck

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
String[] rank = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10", "J", "Q", "K", "A" };
String[] suit = { "♣", "♦", "♥", "♠" };

String[] deck = new String[52]; for no color in Unicode;

(int j = 0; j < 4; j++) artistic license for lecture
for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++)
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];

for (int i = 0; i < 52; i++)

[Link](deck[i] + " ");
[Link]();
} % java Deck
}
2♣ 3♣ 4♣ 5♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 9♣ 10♣ J♣ Q♣ K♣ A♣
2♦ 3♦ 4♦ 5♦ 6♦ 7♦ 8♦ 9♦ 10♦ J♦ Q♦ K♦ A♦
2♥ 3♥ 4♥ 5♥ 6♥ 7♥ 8♥ 9♥ 10♥ J♥ Q♥ K♥ A♥
2♠ 3♠ 4♠ 5♠ 6♠ 7♠ 8♠ 9♠ 10♠ J♠ Q♠ K♠ A♠
%

16
Pop quiz 2 on arrays

Q. What happens if the order of the forloops in Deckis switched?

for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) for (int
for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) j = 0; j < 4; j++)
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j]; deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];

17
Pop quiz 2 on arrays

Q. What happens if the order of the forloops in Deckis switched?

for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) for (int
for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) j = 0; j < 4; j++)
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j]; deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];

A. The array is filled in a different order, but the output is the same. j
0 1 2 3
suit ♣ ♦ ♥ ♠

i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
rank 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A

0 1 2 ... 12 13 14 15 ... 25 26 27 28 ... 38 39 40 41 ... 51

deck 2♣ 3♣ 4♣ ... A♣ 2♦ 3♦ 4♦ ... A♦ 2♥ 3♥ 4♥ ... A♥ 2♠ 3♠ 4♠ ... A♠

NOTE: Error on page 9 2 in 3rd printing of text (see errata list on booksite).
18
Pop quiz 3 on arrays

Q. Change Deckto put the cards in rank order in the array.

% java Deck
2♣ 2♦ 2♥ 2♠ 3♣ 3♦ 3♥ 3♠ 4♣ 4♦ 4♥ 4♠ 5♣ 5♦ 5♥ 5♠ 6♣ 6♦ 6♥ 6♠ 7♣ 7♦ 7♥ 7♠ 8♣ 8♦ 8♥ 8♠ 9♣ 9♦ 9♥ 9♠
10♣ 10♦ 10♥ 10♠ J♣ J♦ J♥ J♠ Q♣ Q♦ Q♥ Q♠ K♣ K♦ K♥ K♠ A♣ A♦ A♥ A♠
%

19
Pop quiz 3 on arrays

Q. Change Deckto put the cards in rank order in the array.

% java Deck
2♣ 2♦ 2♥ 2♠ 3♣ 3♦ 3♥ 3♠ 4♣ 4♦ 4♥ 4♠ 5♣ 5♦ 5♥ 5♠ 6♣ 6♦ 6♥ 6♠ 7♣ 7♦ 7♥ 7♠ 8♣ 8♦ 8♥ 8♠ 9♣ 9♦ 9♥ 9♠
10♣ 10♦ 10♥ 10♠ J♣ J♦ J♥ J♠ Q♣ Q♦ Q♥ Q♠ K♣ K♦ K♥ K♠ A♣ A♦ A♥ A♠
%

A. for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) for (int

j = 0; j < 4; j++)
deck[4 i + j] = rank[i] + suit[j]; j
0 1 2 3
suit ♣ ♦ ♥ ♠

i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

rank 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ...
deck 2♣ 2♦ 2♥ 2♠ 3♣ 3♦ 3♥ 3♠ 4♣ 4♦ 4♥ 4♠ 5♣ ...

20
21
Array application: take a card, any card

Problem: Print a random sequence of N cards.

Algorithm
Take N from the command line and do the following N times
• Calculate a random index r between 0 and 51.
• Print deck[r].

Implementation: Add this code instead of printing deckin Deck.

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) each value between 0 and 5 1 equally likely
{
int r = (int) ([Link]() 52);
[Link](deck[r]);
}

Note: Same method is effective for printing a random sequence from any data collection.
22
Array application: random sequence of cards

public class DrawCards

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int N = [Link](args[0]);

String[] rank = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9","10", "J", "Q", "K", "A" };
String[] suit = { "♣", "♦", "♥", "♠" };

String[] deck = new String[52];

for (int i = 0; i < 13; i++) for (int
% java DrawCards 10
j = 0; j < 4; j++)
6♥ K♦ 10♠ 8♦ 9♦ 9♥ 6♦ 10♠ 3♣ 5♦
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) % java DrawCards 10

{ 2♦ A♠ 5♣ A♣ 10♣ Q♦ K♣ K♠ A♣ A♦
int r = (int) ([Link]() 52);
[Link](deck[r] + " ");
} % java DrawCards 10
[Link](); 6♠ 10♦ 4♥ A♣ K♥ Q♠ K♠ 7♣ 5♦ Q♠
}
}
% java DrawCards 10
A♣ J♣ 5♥ K♥ Q♣ 5♥ 9♦ 9♣ 6♠ K♥

Note: Sample is with replacement (same card can appear multiple times). appears twice
23
Array application: shuffle and deal from a deck of cards

Problem: Print N random cards from a deck.

Algorithm: Shuffle the deck, then deal.

• Consider each card index i from 0 to 51.
• Calculate a random index r between i and 51.
• Exchange deck[i]with deck[r]
• Print the first N cards in the deck.

Implementation for (int i = 0; i < 52; i++)

{ each value
int r = i + (int) ([Link]() (52-i)); between i and 5 1
String t = deck[r]; equally likely
deck[r] = deck[i];
deck[i] = t;
}
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
[Link](deck[i]);
[Link]();

24
Array application: shuffle a deck of 10 cards (trace)
deck
i r
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
{
int r = i + (int) ([Link]() (10-i)); 2♣ 3♣ 4♣ 5♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 9♣ 10♣ J♣
String t = deck[r];
0 7 9♣ 3♣ 4♣ 5♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 2♣ 10♣ J♣
deck[r] = deck[i];
deck[i] = t; 1 3 9♣ 5♣ 4♣ 3♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 2♣ 10♣ J♣
}
2 9 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 3♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 2♣ 10♣ 4♣

Q. Why does this method work? 3 9 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 2♣ 10♣ 3♣

• Uses only exchanges, so the deck after 4 6 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 7♣ 6♣ 2♣ 10♣ 3♣

the shuffle has the same cards as before.
5 9 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 3♣ 6♣ 2♣ 10♣ 7♣
• N −i equally likely values for deck[i].
6 8 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 3♣ 10♣ 2♣ 6♣ 7♣
• Therefore N ×(N −1)×(N −1)... × 2 × 1 = N !
equally likely values for deck[]. 7 9 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 3♣ 10♣ 7♣ 6♣ 2♣

Initial order is immaterial. 8 8 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 3♣ 10♣ 7♣ 6♣ 2♣

9 9 9♣ 5♣ J♣ 4♣ 8♣ 3♣ 10♣ 7♣ 6♣ 2♣

Note: Same method is effective for randomly rearranging any type of data.
25
Array application: shuffle and deal from a deck of cards

public class DealCards

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int N = [Link](args[0]);

String[] rank = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10", "J", "Q", "K", "A" };
String[] suit = { "♣", "♦", "♥", "♠" };

String[] deck = new String[52]; for

(int i = 0; i < 13; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++)
deck[i + 13 j] = rank[i] + suit[j];

for (int i = 0; i < 52; i++)

{
int r = i + (int) ([Link]() (52-i));
String t = deck[r];
deck[r] = deck[i];
deck[i] = t; random poker hand
}

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) % java DealCards 5

[Link](deck[i]); 9♣ Q♥ 6♥ 4♦ 2♠ random bridge hand
[Link]();
}
} % java DealCards 13
3♠ 4♥ 10♦ 6♥ 6♦ 2♠ 9♣ 8♠ A♠ 3♥ 9♠ 5♠ Q♥
26
Coupon collector

Coupon collector problem

• M different types of coupons.
• Collector acquires random coupons, one at a time, each type equally likely.
Q. What is the expected number of coupons needed to acquire a full collection?

Example: Collect all ranks in a random sequence of cards (M =

Sequence

9♣ 5♠ 8♥ 10♦ 2♠ A♠ 10♥ Q♦ 3♠ 9♥ 5♦ 9♣ 7♦ 2♦ 8♣ 6♣ Q♥ K♣ 10♥ A♦ 4♦ J♥

Collection
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A

2♠ 3♠ 4♦ 5♠ 6♣ 7♦ 8♥ 9♣ 10♦ J♥ Q♦ K♣ A♠
2 2 cards needed
to complete
2♦ 5♦ 8♣ 9♥ 10♥ Q♥ A♦ collection

9♣ 10♥
27
Array application: coupon collector

Coupon collector simulation public class Coupon

{
• Generate random intvalues public static void main(String[] args)
{
between 0 and M −1. int M = [Link](args[0]);
• Count number used to generate int cards = 0; // number of cards collected int
distinct = 0; // number of distinct cards
each value at least once.
boolean[] found = new boolean[M];
while (distinct < M)
{
Key to the implementation int r = (int) ([Link]() M);
cards++;
• Create a boolean array of length M. if (!found[r])
(Initially all falseby default.) {
distinct++; % java Coupon 13

• When r generated, check the r th }

found[r] = true; 46

% java Coupon 13
value in the array. } 22

• If true, ignore it (not new). [Link](cards); % java Coupon 13

54
• If false, count it as new distinct }
}
% java Coupon 13
value (and set r th entry to true) 27

28
Array application: coupon collector (trace for M = 6)

found
r distinct cards
0 1 2 3 4 5

F F F F F F 0 0

boolean[] found = new boolean[M]; 2 F F T F F F 1 1

while (distinct < M)
{ 0 T F T F F F 2 2
int r = (int) ([Link]() M);
cards++; 4 T F T F T F 3 3
if (!found[r])
0 T F T F T F 3 4
{
distinct++; 1 T T T F T F 4 5
found[r] = true;
} 2 T T T F T F 4 6
}
5 T T T F T T 5 7

0 T T T F T T 5 8

1 T T T F T T 5 9

3 T T T T T T 6 10

29
Simulation, randomness, and analysis (revisited)

Coupon collector problem

• M different types of coupons.
• Collector acquires random coupons, one at a time, each type equally likely.
Q. What is the expected number of coupons needed to acquire a full collection?
Pierre-Simon Laplace
1749-1827
A. (known via mathematical analysis for centuries) About M ln M + .57721M .

type M expected wait

% java Coupon 4
11
playing card suits 4 8
% java Coupon 13
playing card ranks 13 41 38

baseball cards 1200 9201 % java Coupon 1200

8789
Magic™ cards 12534 125508
% java Coupon 12534
125671
Remarks
• Computer simulation can help validate mathematical analysis.
• Computer simulation can also validate software behavior. Example: Is [Link]()
simulating randomness?
30
Simulation, randomness, and analysis (revisited)

Once simulation is debugged, experimental evidence is easy to obtain.

Analogous code for coupon collector, this lecture
Gambler's ruin simulation, previous lecture
public class CouponCollector
public class Gambler {
{ public static void main(String[] args)
public static void main(String[] args) {
{ int M = [Link](args[0]);
int stake = [Link](args[0]); int goal int trials = [Link](args[1]); int
= [Link](args[1]); int trials = cards = 0;
[Link](args[2]); boolean[] found;

int wins = 0; for (int i = 0; i < trials; i++)

for (int i = 0; i < trials; i++) {
{ int distinct = 0;
int t = stake; found = new boolean[M];
while (t > 0 && t < goal) while (distinct < M)
{ {
if ([Link]() < 0.5) t++; int r = (int) ([Link]() M);
else t--; cards++;
} if (!found[r])
if (t == goal) wins++; {
} distinct++;
[Link](wins + " wins of " + trials); found[r] = true;
} }
} }
}
[Link](cards/trials);
}
}
31
Simulation, randomness, and analysis (revisited)

Coupon collector problem

• M different types of coupons.
• Collector acquires random coupons, one at a time, each type equally likely.
Q. What is the expected number of coupons needed to acquire a full collection?

Predicted by mathematical analysis Observed by computer simulation

type M M ln M + .57721M
% java CouponCollector 4 1000000
playing card suits 4 8 8

% java CouponCollector 13 1000000

playing card ranks 13 41 41
% java CouponCollector 52 100000
playing cards 52 236 236

baseball cards 1200 9201 % java CouponCollector 1200 10000

9176

magic cards 12534 125508 % java CouponCollector 12534 1000

12592
0

Hypothesis. Centuries-old analysis is correct and [Link]()simulates randomness.

32
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
Simon,_marquis_de_Laplace_(1745-1827)_-_Gué[Link]
3. Arrays
• Basic concepts
• Examples of array-processing code
• Two-dimensional arrays
Two-dimensional arrays

A two-dimensional array is a doubly-indexed sequence of values of the same type.

grade

Examples 0 1 2 3 4 5 ...

• Matrices in math calculations. 0

1
A
B
A
B
C
B
B
B
A
A
C
A
• Grades for students in an online class.

student ID
2 C D D B C A

• Outcomes of scientific experiments. 3 A A A A A A

• Transactions for bank customers. 4

5
C
A
C
A A
B C
B
B
A
B
A
• Pixels in a digital image. ...

• Geographic data
• ...

y-coordinate
Main purpose. Facilitate storage and manipulation of data.
x-coordinate 35
Java language support for two-dimensional arrays (basic support)

operation typical code

Declare a two-dimensional array double[][] a;

Create a two-dimensional array of a given length a = new double[1000][1000];

Refer to an array entry by index a[i][j] = b[i][j] c[j][k];

Refer to the number of rows [Link];

Refer to the number of columns can be different

a[i].length;
for each row

Refer to row i a[i] no way to refer

to column j

a[][]

a[0][0] a[0][1] a[0][2] a[0][3] a[0][4] a[0][5] a[0][6] a[0][7] a[0][8] a[0][9]

a[1] a[1][0] a[1][1] a[1][2] a[1][3] a[1][4] a[1][5] a[1][6] a[1][7] a[1][8] a[1][9]

a[2][0] a[2][1] a[2][2] a[2][3] a[2][4] a[2][5] a[2][6] a[2][7] a[2][8] a[2][9]

a 3-by-10 array

36
Java language support for two-dimensional arrays (initialization)

no need to use nested loops like

for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) for (int j
operation typical code = 0; j < 1000; j++)
a[i][j] = 0.0;
Default initialization to 0
a = new double[1000][1000];
for numeric types BUT cost of creating an
array is proportional to
its size.
Declare, create and initialize
double[][] a = new double[1000][1000];
in a single statement

double[][] p=
{
{ .92, .02, .02, .02, .02 },
{ .02, .92, .32, .32, .32 },
Initialize to literal values { .02, .02, .02, .92, .02 },
{ .92, .02, .02, .02, .02 },
{ .47, .02, .47, .02, .02 },
};

37
Application of arrays: vector and matrix calculations

Mathematical abstraction: vector Mathematical abstraction: matrix

Java implementation: 1 D array Java implementation: 2 D array

Vector addition Matrix addition

double[] c = new double[N]; double[][] c = new double[N][N]; for

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
c[i] = a[i] + b[i]; for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) c[i][j] =
a[i][j] + b[i][j];

.70 .20 .10 .80 .30 .50 1.5 .50 .60

.30 .60 .10 + .50 .10 .40 = .80 .70 .50 .30 .60 .10 + .10 .40 .10 = .40 1.0 .20

.50 .10 .40 .10 .30 .40 .60 .40 .80

38
Application of arrays: vector and matrix calculations

Mathematical abstraction: vector Mathematical abstraction: matrix

Java implementation: 1 D array Java implementation: 2 D array

Vector dot product Matrix multiplication

double sum = 0.0; double[][] c = new double[N][N]; for

for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) sum (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
+= a[i] b[i]; for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) for (int
k = 0; k < N; k++)
c[i][j] += a[i][k] b[k][j];
.30 .60 .10 · .50 .10 .40 = .25

i x[i] y[i] x[i] y[i] sum

0 0.3 0.5 0.15 0.15

.70 .20 .10 .80 .30 .50 .59 .32 .41
1 0.6 0.1 0.06 0.21
.30 .60 .10
* .10 .40 .10 = .31 .36 .25
2 0.1 0.4 0.04 0.25 .50 .10 .40 .10 .30 .40 .45 .31 .42

end-of-loop trace
39
Pop quiz 4 on arrays

Q. How many multiplications to multiply two N-by-N matrices?

double[][] c = new double[N][N]; for

(int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) for (int
k = 0; k < N; k++)

c[i][j] += a[i][k] b[k][j];

1. N

2. N2

3. N3

4. N4

40
Pop quiz 4 on arrays

Q. How many multiplications to multiply two N-by-N matrices?

double[][] c = new double[N][N]; for

(int i = 0; i < N; i++)
for (int j = 0; j < N; j++) for (int
k = 0; k < N; k++)

c[i][j] += a[i][k] b[k][j];

1. N

2. N2

3. N3 Nested forloops: N × N × N

4. N4

41
Self-avoiding random walks

A d o g walks around at
random in a city, never
revisiting any intersection.

Q. Does the d o g escape?

escape
Model: a random process in an N-by-N lattice
• Start in the middle.
• Move to a random neighboring intersection
but do not revisit any intersection.
• Outcome 1 (escape): reach edge of lattice.
• Outcome 2 (dead end): no unvisited neighbors.

Q. What are the chances of reaching a dead end? dead end

Approach: Use Monte Carlo simulation, recording visited positions in an N-by-N array.
42
Self-avoiding random walks

43
Application of 2D arrays: self-avoiding random walks

% java SelfAvoidingWalker 10 100000

public class SelfAvoidingWalker 5% dead ends
{
% java SelfAvoidingWalker 20 100000
public static void main(String[] args) 32% dead ends
{
% java SelfAvoidingWalker 30 100000
int N = [Link](args[0]); 58% dead ends
int trials = [Link](args[1]); int
deadEnds = 0; % java SelfAvoidingWalker 40 100000
77% dead ends
for (int t = 0; t < trials; t++)
{ % java SelfAvoidingWalker 50 100000
87% dead ends
boolean[][] a = new boolean[N][N]; int
x = N/2, y = N/2; % java SelfAvoidingWalker 60 100000
93% dead ends
while (x > 0 && x < N-1 && y > 0 && y < N-1) % java SelfAvoidingWalker 70 100000
96% dead ends
{
if (a[x-1][y] && a[x+1][y] && a[x][y-1] && a[x][y+1]) % java SelfAvoidingWalker 80 100000
98% dead ends
{ deadEnds++; break; }
% java SelfAvoidingWalker 90 100000
99% dead ends
a[x][y] = true;
double r = [Link](); % java SelfAvoidingWalker 100 100000
if (r < 0.25) { if (!a[x+1][y]) x++; } 99% dead ends
else if (r < 0.50) { if (!a[x-1][y]) x--; }
else if (r < 0.75) { if (!a[x][y+1]) y++; } 100%

else if (r < 1.00) { if (!a[x][y-1]) y--; }

} 75%

}
[Link](100 deadEnds/trials + "% dead ends"); 50%

}
} 25%

0%
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

44
Simulation, randomness, and analysis (revisited again)

Self-avoiding walk in an N-by-N lattice

• Start in the middle.
• Move to a random neighboring intersection (do not revisit any intersection).
Applications
• Model the behavior of solvents and polymers.
• Model the physics of magnetic materials.
• (many other physical phenomena)
Paul Flory
1910- 1985
Q. What is the probability of reaching a dead end? Nobel Prize 1 9 7 4

Mathematicians and
A. Nobody knows (despite decades of study). physics researchers
cannot solve the problem.
Computational models play
A. 9 9 + % for N > 1 0 0 (clear from simulations). YOU can! an essential role in modern
scientific research.

Remark: Computer simulation is often the only effective way to study a scientific phenomenon.
45
Your first data structure

Arrays: A basic building block in programming

• They enable storage of large amounts of data (values all of the same type).
• With an index, a program can instantly access a given value.
• Efficiency derives from low-level computer hardware organization (stay tuned).

Some applications in this course:

^ digital images N - b o d y simulation

LFSR

digital audio

46
Image sources
[Link]
[Link]