COURSE MATERIAL

IV Year B. Tech I- Semester

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AY:2023-24

CAD/CAM
R20A0328

Prepared by:
p [Link]
Asst Professor

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 (Autonomous Institution-UGC, Govt. of India)
Secunderabad-500100, Telangana State, India.
[Link]
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

1. Vision, Mission & Quality Policy

2. Pos, PSOs & PEOs

3. Blooms Taxonomy

4. Course Syllabus

5. Lecture Notes (Unit wise)

a. Objectives and outcomes

b. Notes

c. Presentation Material (PPT Slides/ Videos)

d. Industry applications relevant to the concepts covered

e. Question Bank for Assignments

f. Tutorial Questions

6. Previous Question Papers

[Link]
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)

VISION
❖ To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and
competence in the students, expose them to face the global challenges and become
technology leaders of Indian vision of modern society.

MISSION
❖ To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and
Management.
❖ To impart holistic education to the students to render them as industry ready
engineers.
❖ To ensure synchronization of MRCET ideologies with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.

QUALITY POLICY

❖ To implement best practices in Teaching and Learning process for both UG and PG
courses meticulously.
❖ To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart quality education.

❖ To groom the students to become intellectually creative and professionally

competitive.

❖ To channelize the activities and tune them in heights of commitment and sincerity,
the requisites to claim the never - ending ladder of SUCCESS year after year.

For more information: [Link]

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
[Link]
Department of Mechanical Engineering

VISION

To become an innovative knowledge center in mechanical engineering through state-of-

the-art teaching-learning and research practices, promoting creative thinking
professionals.

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering is dedicated for transforming the students

into highly competent Mechanical engineers to meet the needs of the industry, in a
changing and challenging technical environment, by strongly focusing in the
fundamentals of engineering sciences for achieving excellent results in their professional
pursuits.

Quality Policy

✓ To pursuit global Standards of excellence in all our endeavors namely teaching,

research and continuing education and to remain accountable in our core and
support functions, through processes of self-evaluation and continuous
improvement.

✓ To create a midst of excellence for imparting state of art education, industry-

oriented training research in the field of technical education.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
[Link]
Department of Mechanical Engineering
PROGRAM OUTCOMES
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
[Link]: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
[Link] management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
[Link]
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[Link]-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
 PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO1 Ability to analyze, design and develop Mechanical systems to solve the
Engineering problems by integrating thermal, design and manufacturing Domains.

PSO2 Ability to succeed in competitive examinations or to pursue higher studies or

research.

PSO3 Ability to apply the learned Mechanical Engineering knowledge for the
Development of society and self.

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

The Program Educational Objectives of the program offered by the department are broadly
listed below:

PEO1: PREPARATION

To provide sound foundation in mathematical, scientific and engineering fundamentals

necessary to analyze, formulate and solve engineering problems.

PEO2: CORE COMPETANCE

To provide thorough knowledge in Mechanical Engineering subjects including theoretical

knowledge and practical training for preparing physical models pertaining to Thermodynamics,
Hydraulics, Heat and Mass Transfer, Dynamics of Machinery, Jet Propulsion, Automobile
Engineering, Element Analysis, Production Technology, Mechatronics etc.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the core field with the help of
other inter disciplinary concepts wherever applicable.

PEO4: CAREER DEVELOPMENT

To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning for career development through successful completion
of advanced degrees, professional development courses, industrial training etc.

PEO5: PROFESSIONALISM

To impart technical knowledge, ethical values for professional development of the student to
solve complex problems and to work in multi-disciplinary ambience, whose solutions lead to
significant societal benefits.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
[Link]
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Blooms Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for
their students (learning objectives). The terminology has been updated to include the following
six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning objectives, lessons,
and assessments of a course.

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐ term
memory.
2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing or implementing.
4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to
one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and
attributing.
5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standard through checking and
critiquing.
6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
[Link]
Department of Mechanical Engineering
 B. Tech (MECH) R-20

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

IV Year [Link]. ME- I Sem L/T/P/C
3/-/-/3
(R20A0328) CAD/CAM
Course Objectives:
1. To provide an overview of how computers are being used in design, development of manufacturing
plans and manufacture
2. Understand the Mathematical representations of curves and surfaces used in geometric
construction.
3. Understand the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric
construction.
4. Understand the transformation of 2D and 3D parts
5. Understand the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts

UNIT–I
Introduction: Computers in Industrial Manufacturing, Product cycle, CAD / CAM Hardware, Basic
structure.
Computer Graphics: Display Devices: Cathode Ray Tube, DVST, Raster display, pixel value and lookup
table, estimation of graphical memory, LCD, LED fundamentals. Concept of Coordinate Systems:
Working Coordinate System, Model Coordinate System, Screen Coordinate System. Graphics
exchange standards and Database management systems.

UNIT–II
Curves and Surfaces: Introduction to curve representation, Classification of curves, Line and Curve
generation algorithm: DDA algorithm. Synthetic Curves: Concept of continuity, Cubic Spline: equation,
properties and blending. Bezier Curve: equations, properties; Properties and advantages of B-Splines
and NURBS. Various types of surfaces along with their typical applications.

UNIT–III
Mathematical representation of solids: Geometry and Topology, Comparison of wireframe, surface
and solid models, Properties of solid model, properties of representation schemes, Concept of Half-
spaces, Boolean operations. Schemes: B-rep, CSG, Sweep representation, ASM, Primitive instancing,
Cell Decomposition and Octree encoding

UNIT–IV
Geometric Transformations: Homogeneous representation; Translation, Scaling, Reflection, Rotation,
Shearing in 2D; Orthographic and perspective projections.

UNIT–V
VISUAL REALISM:Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring –
Computer animation

MRCET CAMPUS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. CAD / CAM Theory and Practice / Ibrahim Zeid / TMH Publishers
2. CAD / CAM /A Zimmers&[Link]/PE/PHI Publishers

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. CAD / CAM / CIM / Radhakrishnan and Subramanian / New Age Publishers
2. Principles of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing / Farid Amirouche / Pearson
Edu
3. CAD/CAM: Concepts and Applications/Alavala/ PHI Publishers Computer Numerical
Control Concepts and programming / Warren S Seames / Thomson Publishers
4. CAD / CAM – P N RAO McGraw Hill Publications
Course Outcomes:
1. Understand the applications of computer in the design and manufacturing.
2. Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of curves used in geometric
construction.
3. Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric
construction.
4. Able to get the transformed in 2D and 3D using transformation equations
5. Understand and develop the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D
parts

MRCET CAMPUS
UNIT 1

13
 Fig 1.1: The influence of computers used in manufacturing environment

PRODUCT CYCLE

For any product to be developed, the major areas to be looked into would be designing, manufacturing
and marketing. The synchronization between these processes plays a great role in defining product
success.

Here CAD/CAM revolutionize the process of the traditional design and cut costs of any mechanical part.
CAD/CAM drastically reduces the design time for a new product. This gives it so much edge on the
traditional design process that nowadays, traditional design with pen and paper is almost extinct.
Automobile industry isthe best example of this improved design time and product cycle.

Product life cycle (PLC) Like human beings, products also have a life-cycle. From birth to death, human
beings pass through various stages e.g. birth, growth, maturity, decline and death. A similar life-cycle is
seen in the case of products. The product life cycle goes through multiple phases, involves many
professional disciplines, and requires many skills, tools and processes. Product life cycle (PLC) has to do
with the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial costs and sales measures.
To say that a product has a life cycle is to assert three things:

• Products have a limited life,

• Product sales pass through distinct stages, each posing different challenges,
opportunities, andproblems to the seller,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Products require different marketing, financing, manufacturing, purchasing, and human
resourcestrategies in each life cycle stage.

The Traditional Design Process:

Traditionally, the design process contains the following steps:

1. Recognition of Need
2. Definition of Problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and Optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation

Here is the iteration between step 3 and 4 we analyze, find the fault, then again synthesize, again analyze
anditerate and iterate again until we would be able to get satisfactory result. After we analyze and
optimize the design again if we are not satisfied after evaluation, we again iterate i.e. we again goes to
the synthesis.

After all these steps, we finally make a prototype of the part which we are designing. If that fails or does
notfulfill our needs, the whole process will start again.

This is what traditional design process does. Here CAD/CAM comes into the picture. If we use computer
for theproblem of synthesis like we are designing the things with the help of a computer, all the analysis
and synthesis will be done on computer and the process consumes much lesser time than a traditional
design process.

Fig 1.2: Design Process

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Stage1: Recognizing the fact that there is a need for a new product for intended function. It may also
includethe modification in the existing product.
Stage2: Problem is fully defined in terms of functionality and meeting other requirements such as
ergonomic,performance-data, statutory, etc.

Stage3: The design undergoes synthesis, joining its various elements.

Stage4: Product analysis reveals the weaknesses and thus weaknesses can be considered for
[Link] process is repeated until an acceptable Design achieved.

Stage5: The optimized Design is reviewed from the point of view of expected performance. It can be done
through proto-type modeling and testing against the set standard.

Stage6: Stages 4 and 5 are repeated until acceptable, optimized design is achieved. These stages are
basically iterative in-nature. Iteration depends on the creativeness, ingenuity (skill for devising) and
experience of designers and the software (tools) available.

The process (stage 1 and 2) are human dependent while the stages 3, 4, 5 and 6 (four stages) are
computerbased (CAD)

(A) Geometric modeling: - It implies the existence of a computer graphics screen and some interaction
with thecomputer to generate the geometry and topology of the part.

(B) Engineering analysis: - Communicates with the data base to retrieve the part description and with
the userto obtain the design constraints, boundary conditions, and other details of the analysis.

(C) Evaluation module: - Allows the user to check the correctness, manufacturability, and processing
details ofthe part.

(D) The drafting and documentation module: - Contains some of both the oldest and
newesttechnologies/Computer plotting of engineering drawings.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.3: Design Process

The scope of CAD/CAM in the operations of a manufacturing firm can be analyzed by examining the
variousactivities and functions that must be accomplished in the design and manufacture of a product.

These activities and functions can be referred as the product cycle. A diagram showing the various steps
in the product cycle is presented in Figure. The cycle is driven by customers and markets which demand
the product. It is realistic to think of these as a large collection of diverse industrial and consumer
markets rather than one monolithic market. Depending on the particular customer group, there will be
differences in the way the product cycle is activated in some cases, the design functions are performed
by the customer and the product is manufactured by a different firm. In other cases, design and
manufacturing is accomplished by the same firm. Whatever the case, the product cycle begins with
concept, an idea for a product. This concept is cultivated, refined, analyzed, improved, and translated
into a plan for the product through the design engineering process.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.4: Conventional Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

In the design and production operations of a modern manufacturing firm, the computer has become a
pervasive, useful, and indispensable tool.

It is strategically important and competitively imperative that manufacturing firms and the people who
areemployed by them understand CAD/CAM

Fig 1.5: Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.5: The Product Cycle in a computerized manufacturing environment

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.6: 10 key functions of Computer Integrated Manufacturing

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CAD/CAM HARDWARE

The developments that have fuelled the growth of the CAD/CAM industry are mostly based on the major
developments in microelectronics, which have helped in leapfrogging the capabilities.

The major component of any CAD/CAM system is the basic hardware that goes with the computational
aspect,that is, the computer and the associated peripherals that go with it.

Basic Structure

The computing system in operation can be compared to a human being in to of its operating
[Link] basic configuration of a typical computer system is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig 1.7: Configuration of a typical CAD system

The heart of any computing system is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all the
necessary functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU are
arithmetic and logic operations The CPU communicates with the external world through input/output
devices or, in short, I/O devices. These are similar to the sensory organs by which a human being
maintains contact with the outside environment. These are also collectively called peripheral units.
Through an input device, the user would be able to communicate with the CPU, either to give certain
data or to control the operation of the CPU. The output device is a means through which the CPU gives
the results of the computations.

Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the
necessary data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount
determines the capabilities of a typical computing computing system. The present-day computers work
on a principle called the stored-program concept. It means that the sequence of operations to be carried
out by the CPU is stored in the memory of the computer. The CPU therefore reads an instruction and
executes it and continues doing so until it reaches the end of the program. This stored program is called
software in computer terminology. Since it is the software, which runs any computer, the computer is as
good as the program that is running at anygiven time.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CAD/CAM HARDWARE

The developments that have fuelled the growth of the CAD/CAM industry are mostly based on the major
developments in microelectronics, which have helped in leapfrogging the capabilities.

The major component of any CAD/CAM system is the basic hardware that goes with the computational
aspect,that is, the computer and the associated peripherals that go with it.

Basic Structure

The computing system in operation can be compared to a human being in to of its operating
[Link] basic configuration of a typical computer system is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig 1.7: Configuration of a typical CAD system

The heart of any computing system is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all the
necessary functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU are
arithmetic and logic operations The CPU communicates with the external world through input/output
devices or, in short, I/O devices. These are similar to the sensory organs by which a human being
maintains contact with the outside environment. These are also collectively called peripheral units.
Through an input device, the user would be able to communicate with the CPU, either to give certain
data or to control the operation of the CPU. The output device is a means through which the CPU gives
the results of the computations.

Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the
necessary data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount
determines the capabilities of a typical computing computing system. The present-day computers work
on a principle called the stored-program concept. It means that the sequence of operations to be carried
out by the CPU is stored in the memory of the computer. The CPU therefore reads an instruction and
executes it and continues doing so until it reaches the end of the program. This stored program is called
software in computer terminology. Since

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

it is the software, which runs any computer, the computer is as good as the program that is running at any
given time.

CAD/CAM HARDWARE

The developments that have fuelled the growth of the CAD/CAM industry are mostly based on the major
developments in microelectronics, which have helped in leapfrogging the capabilities.

The major component of any CAD/CAM system is the basic hardware that goes with the computational aspect,
that is, the computer and the associated peripherals that go with it.

Basic Structure

The computing system in operation can be compared to a human being in to of its operating characteristics.
The basic configuration of a typical computer system is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig 1.7: Configuration of a typical CAD system

The heart of any computing system is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all the necessary
functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU are arithmetic and logic
operations The CPU communicates with the external world through input/output devices or, in short, I/O
devices. These are similar to the sensory organs by which a human being maintains contact with the outside
environment. These are also collectively called peripheral units. Through an input device, the user would be
able to communicate with the CPU, either to give certain data or to control the operation of the CPU. The
output device is a means through which the CPU gives the results of the computations.

Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the necessary
data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount determines the
capabilities of a typical computing computing system. The present-day computers work on a principle called
the stored-program concept. It means that the sequence of operations to be carried out by the CPU is stored in
the memory of the computer. The CPU therefore reads an instruction and executes it and continues doing so
until it reaches the end of the program. This stored program is called software in computer terminology. Since

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

it is the software, which runs any computer, the computer is as good as the program that is running at any
given time.

CAD/CAM HARDWARE

The developments that have fuelled the growth of the CAD/CAM industry are mostly based on the major
developments in microelectronics, which have helped in leapfrogging the capabilities.

The major component of any CAD/CAM system is the basic hardware that goes with the computational aspect,
that is, the computer and the associated peripherals that go with it.

Basic Structure

The computing system in operation can be compared to a human being in to of its operating characteristics.
The basic configuration of a typical computer system is shown in Fig. 1.7.

Fig 1.7: Configuration of a typical CAD system

The heart of any computing system is the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is in the CPU that all the necessary
functions of a computer are carried out. The main functions performed in the CPU are arithmetic and logic
operations The CPU communicates with the external world through input/output devices or, in short, I/O
devices. These are similar to the sensory organs by which a human being maintains contact with the outside
environment. These are also collectively called peripheral units. Through an input device, the user would be
able to communicate with the CPU, either to give certain data or to control the operation of the CPU. The
output device is a means through which the CPU gives the results of the computations.

Another important unit of a computer system is the memory unit. These are the areas where the necessary
data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored. The type of memory and its amount determines the
capabilities of a typical computing computing system. The present-day computers work on a principle called
the stored-program concept. It means that the sequence of operations to be carried out by the CPU is stored in
the memory of the computer. The CPU therefore reads an instruction and executes it and continues doing so
until it reaches the end of the program. This stored program is called software in computer terminology. It is

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the software, which runs any computer, the computer is as good as the program that is running at any given
time.

1. Work Station

Fig. 1.9 Design Workstation

• The work station is a visible part of the CAD system which provides interaction between the
operator and the system.

• Among these advantages offered by work station are their availability, portability, the
availability to dedicate them to a single task without affecting other users and their consistency
of time response.

• A work station can be defined as a station of work with its own computing power to support
major software packages, multitasking capabilities demanded by increased usage, complex tasks
and networking potential with other computing environments.

2. Input Devices

o A no. of input devices is available. These devices are used to input two possible types of
information: text and graphics.
o Text-input devices and the alphanumeric keyboards.
o There are two classes of graphics input devices: Locating devices and image input
devices.
o Locating devices, or locators, provide a position or location on the screen.
o These include light pens, mouse, digitizing tablets, joysticks, trackballs, thumbwheels,
touchscreen and touchpads.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 o Locating devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on screen.
Thus, they are also referred to as cursor-control devices.
I. Scanners

Scanners comprise other class of graphics-input device.

• There are four relevant parameters to measure the performance of graphics input
devices. These are resolution, accuracy, repeatability and linearity.
• Some may be more significant to some devices than others.

II. Keyboards

• Keyboards are typically employed to create/edit programs or to perform word

processing functions.
• CAD/CAM systems, information entered through keyboards should be displayed
back to the user on a screen for verification.
III. Digitizing Tablets

• A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating as well as pointing device. It is a

small, low-resolution digitizing board often used in conjunction with a graphics
display.
• The tablet is a flat surface over which a stylus can be moved by the user.
• A tablet’s typical resolution is 200 dots per inch

• The tablet operation is based on sensitizing its surface area to be able to track the
pointing element motion on the surface.
• Several sensing methods and technologies are used in tablets. The most common
sensing technology is electromagnetic, where the pointing element generates an
out of phase magnetic field sensed by wire grid in tablet surface.

Fig. 1.10 Digitizer

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

IV. Mouse

Fig. 1.11 Mouse

• There are two basic types of mouse available mechanical and

optical.

• The mechanical mouse has roller in order to record the mouse motion in X and Y
directions.
• In optical mouse, movements over the surface are measured by a light beam
modulation technique.
• The light source is located at the bottom and the mouse must be in contact with
the surface for screen cursor to follow its movement.

V. Joy sticks & Trackballs

Fig. 1.10 Joy stick & Track ball

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • The joystick works by pushing its stick backwards or forward or to left or
right. The extreme positions of these directions correspond to the four
corners of the screen.
• A trackball is similar in principal to a joystick but allows more precise
fingertip control. The ball rotates freely within its mount.
• Both the joystick and trackball are used to navigate the screen display
cursor. The user of a trackball can learn quickly how to adjust to any
nonlinearity in its performance.

VI. Thumbwheels
• Two thumbwheels are usually required to control the screen cursor, one
for its horizontal position and other for its vertical position. Each position
is indicated onscreen by cross-hair.

COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the help of programming. It
involves computations, creation, and manipulation of data. In other words, computer graphics is a
rendering tool for the generation and manipulation of images.
• Computer is information processing machine. User needs to communicate with computer and the
computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of communication with theuser.
• It displays the information in the form of graphical objects such as pictures, charts, diagram andgraphs.
• Graphical objects convey more information in less time and easily understandable formats for example
statically graph shown in stock exchange.
• In computer graphics picture or graphics objects are presented as a collection of discrete pixels.
• We can control intensity and color of pixel which decide how picture look like.
• The special procedure determines which pixel will provide the best approximation to the desired picture
or graphics object this process is known as Rasterization.
• The process of representing continuous picture or graphics object as a collection of discrete pixels is
called Scan Conversion.

Advantages of computer graphics

• Computer graphics is one of the most effective and commonly used ways of
communication withcomputer.
• It provides tools for producing picture of "real-world" as well as synthetic objects
such as mathematical surfaces in 4D and of data that have no inherent geometry such
as survey result.
• It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible to produce animations with computer graphics.
• With the use of computer graphics we can control the animation by adjusting the speed, portion of

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

picture in view the amount of detail shown and so on.
• It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which user can move objects as well as observes as
perrequirement for example walk throw made by builder to show flat interior and surrounding.
• It provides facility called update dynamics. With this we can change the shape color and
otherproperties of object.

Applications of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which are listed below:
➢ User interface: - Visual object which we observe on screen which communicates with user
isone of the most useful applications of the computer graphics.
➢ Plotting of graphics and chart in industry, business, government and educational
organizations drawing like bars, pie-charts, histogram’s are very useful for quick and good
decision making.
➢ Office automation and desktop publishing: - It is used for creation and dissemination of
information. It is used in in-house creation and printing of documents which contains text,
tables, graphs and other forms of drawn or scanned images or picture.
➢ Computer aided drafting and design: - It uses graphics to design components and system
suchas automobile bodies structures of building etc.
➢ Simulationandanimation:- Useof graphics in
simulationmakesmathematicmodelsand mechanical systems more realistic and
easy to study.
➢ Artandcommerce:-
Therearemanytoolsprovidedbygraphicswhichallowsusedtomaketheir picture animated
and attracted which are used in advertising.
➢ Processcontrol:- Now aday’s automation is usedwhich is graphically displayed on thescreen.
➢ Cartography: - Computer graphics is also used to represent geographic maps, weather
maps,oceanographic charts etc.
➢ Education and training: - Computer graphics can be used to generate models of
physical, financial and economic systems. These models can be used as educational
aids.
➢ Image processing: - It is used to process image by changing property of the image.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Output Devices

➢ CAD/CAM applications require output devices such as displays and hardcopy printers.

DISPLAY DEVICES

• Display devices are also known as output devices.

• Most commonly used output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.

Cathode Ray Tube

The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. The main element of a

video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), shown in the following illustration.

• It is an evacuated glass tube.

• An electron gun at the rear of the tube produce a beam of electrons which is directed towards
thescreen of the tube by a high voltage typically 15000 to 20000 volts
• Innersidescreen is coatedwith phosphorsubstance whichgiveslightwhen it is strokedbyeelectrons.
• Control grid controls velocity of electrons before they hit the phosphor.
The control grid voltage determines how many electrons are actually in the electron beam. The
negative the control voltage is the fewer the electrons that pass through the grid.
• Thus control grid controls Intensity of the spot where beam strikes the screen.
• The focusing system concentrates the electron beam so it convergesto small point when hits
thephosphor coating.
• Deflection system directs beam which decides the point where beam strikes the screen.
• Deflectionsystem of the CRTconsists of two pairs of parallel plates whicharevertical and
horizontaldeflection plates.
• Voltage applied tovertical andhorizontal deflection plates is controlvertical and horizontal

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 deflection respectively.

Fig 1.11: Cathode Ray Tube

There are two techniques used for producing images on the CRT screen:

1. Vector scan/Random scan display.

2. Raster scan display.

Vector scan/Random scan display

Fig 1.12: Architecture of a Vector Scan Display

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.12: Vector Scan/ Raster Scan Display

• Random scan also is known as a vector display.

• Random scan display directly traces out only the desired lines on CRT.
• If we want line between point p1 & p2 then we directly drive the beam deflection circuitry which
focusbeam directly from point p1 to p2
• If we do not want to display line from p1 to p2 and just move then we can blank the beam as we
moveit.
• To move the beam across the CRT, the information about both magnitude and direction is
required. Thisinformation is generated with the help of vector graphics generator.
• Image shows the architecture of vector display. It consists of display controller, CPU, display
buffermemory and CRT.
• Display controller is connected as an I/O peripheral to the CPU.
• Display buffer stores computer produced display list or display program.
• The Program contains point & line plotting commands with end point co-ordinates as well as
characterplotting commands.
• Display controller interprets command and sends digital and point co-ordinates to a vector
generator.
• Vector generator then converts the digital co-ordinate value to analog voltages for beam
deflectioncircuits that displace an electron beam which points on the CRT’s screen.
• In this technique beam is deflected from end point to end point hence this techniques is also
calledrandom scan.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • We know as beam strikes phosphors coated screen it emits light but that light decays after few
milliseconds and therefore it is necessary to repeat through the display list to refresh the screen
at least30 times per second to avoid flicker.
• As display buffer is used to store display list and used to refreshing, it is also called refresh buffer.

Raster Scan

Fig 1.13: Architecture of Raster Display

• It consists of a display controller, CPU, video controller, refreshes buffer, keyboard, mouse, and
CRT.
• The display image is stored in the form of 1’s and 0’s in the refresh buffer.
• The video controller reads this refresh buffer and produces the actual image on screen.
• It will scan one line at a time from top to bottom & then back to the top.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.14: Raster scan CRT

• In this method the horizontal and vertical deflection signals are generated to move the
beam allover the screen in a pattern shown in Image.
• Here beam is swept back & forth from left to the right.
• When beam is moved from left to right it is ON.
• When beam is moved from right to left it is OFF and process of moving beam from right to
left aftercompletion of row is known as Horizontal Retrace.
• When beam is reach at the bottom of the screen. It is made OFF and rapidly retraced back to
the topleft to start again and process of moving back to top is known as Vertical Retrace.
• The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same image. This process is
known asRefreshing of Screen.
• In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics This memory is
calledFrame Buffer.
• Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points
• That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen one row at a time.
• Each screen point referred as pixel or Pel (Picture Element).
• Each pixel can be specified by its row and column Numbers.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Difference between random scan and raster scan
Base of Difference Raster Scan System Random Scan System

Electron Beam The electron beam is swept across The electron beam is directed only to the
the screen, one row at a time, from parts of screen where a picture is to be
top to bottom. drawn.
Resolution Its resolution is poor because raster Its resolution is good because this system
system in contrast produces zigzag produces smooth lines drawings because
lines that are plotted as discrete CRT beam directly follows the line path.
point sets.
Picture Definition Picture definition is stored as a set of Picture definition is stored as a set of line
intensity values for all screen points, drawing instructions in a display file.
called pixels in a refresh buffer area.
Realistic Display The capability of this system to store These systems are designed for line-
intensity values for pixel makes it drawing and can’t display realistic
well suited for the realistic display of shaded scenes.
scenes contain shadow and color
pattern.
Draw an Image Screen points/pixels are used to Mathematical functions are used to
draw an image. draw an image.

Direct-view storage tubes (DVST)

Fig 1.15: Direct-view storage tube

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• In raster scan display we do refreshing of the screen to maintain a screen image.
• DVST gives alternative method for maintaining the screen image.
• DVSTusesthestoragegridwhichstoresthepictureinformationasachargedistributionjustbehindthe
phosphor coated screen.
• DVST consists two electron guns a primary gun and a flood gun.
• A primary gun stores the picture pattern and the floodgun maintains the picture display.
• Aprimary gunemits highspeedelectrons whichstrike on thestorage gridto draw thepicture pattern.
• Aselectronbeamstrikes on the storage gridwithhighspeed, it knocksoutelectronsfromthe storage
grid keeping the net positive charge.
• The knocked out electrons are attracted towards the collector.
• The net positive charge on the storage grid is nothing but the picture pattern.

• Thecontinuous low speedelectronsfromfloodgun pass throughthe control grid and are attracted to
the positive charged area of the storage grid.

• The low speed electrons then penetrate the storage grid and strike the phosphor coating without
affecting the positive charge pattern on the storage grid.
• During this process thecollector just behindthe storage gridsmoothout theflow of floodelectrons.

Advantage of DVST
• Refreshing of CRT is not required.
• Very complex pictures can be displayed at very high resolution without flicker.
• Flat screen.

Disadvantage of DVST
• They do not display color and are available with single level of line intensity.
• For erasing it is necessary toremoval ofcharge on thestorage gridsoerasing and redrawing process
take several second.
• Erasing selective part of the screen cannot be possible.
• Cannot used for dynamic graphics application as on erasing it produce unpleasant flash over entire
screen.
• It has poor contrast as a result of the comparatively low accelerating potential applied to the
flood electrons.
• The performance of DVST is somewhat inferior to the refresh CRT.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Pixel
Pixel is the smallest element of an image. Each pixel correspond to any one value. In an 8-bit gray scale image,
the value of the pixel between 0 and 255. The value of a pixel at any point correspond to the intensity of the
light photons striking at that point. Each pixel store a value proportional to the light intensity at that particular
location.

PEL
A pixel is also known as PEL. You can have more understanding of the pixel from the pictures given below.

In the above picture, there may be thousands of pixels, that together make up this image. We will zoom that
image to the extent that we are able to see some pixels division. It is shown in the image below.

Relation ship with CCD (Charge - Coupled Device) array

We have seen that how an image is formed in the CCD array. So a pixel can also be defined as The smallest
division the CCD array is also known as pixel.

Each division of CCD array contains the value against the intensity of the photon striking to it. This value can
also be called as a pixel.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Calculation of total number of pixels

We have define an image as a two dimensional signal or matrix. Then in that case the number of PEL would be
equal to the number of rows multiply with number of columns.

This can be mathematically represented as below:

Total number of pixels = number of rows ( X ) number of columns

Or we can say that the number of (x,y) coordinate pairs make up the total number of pixels.

We will look in more detail in the tutorial of image types , that how do we calculate the pixels in a color image.

Gray level
The value of the pixel at any point denotes the intensity of image at that location , and that is also known as
gray level.

Pixel value.(0)

Each pixel can have only one value and each value denotes the intensity of light at that point of the image.

We will now look at a very unique value 0. The value 0 means absence of light. It means that 0 denotes dark,
and it further means that when ever a pixel has a value of 0, it means at that point, black color would be formed.

Have a look at this image matrix

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

Now this image matrix has all filled up with 0. All the pixels have a value of 0. If we were to calculate the total
number of pixels form this matrix , this is how we are going to do it.

Total no of pixels = total no. of rows X total no. of columns

= 3 X 3 = 9.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

It means that an image would be formed with 9 pixels, and that image would have a dimension of 3 rows and 3
column and most importantly that image would be black.

The resulting image that would be made would be something like this

Lookup Tables

Video controller often uses a lookup table to allow indirection of display values in frame buffer.

• Allows flexible use of colors without lots of frame-buffer memory.

• Allows change of display without remapping underlying data double buffering.

• Permits simple animation.

• Common sizes: 8 x 12; 8 x 24; 12 x 24.

(a) Monochrome display

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 (b) Color display
Fig. 1.16 Relationship between pixel value and a lookup table

Frame Buffer

The frame buffer is the video memory that is used to hold or map the image displayed on the screen.

The amount of memory required to hold the image depend primarily on the resolution of the screen
image andthe colour depth.

The formula to calculate how much video memory is required at a given resolution and bit depth is
givenbelow.

• Memory in MB = (X-resolution*Y-resolution*Bit per pixel)/(8*1024* 1024)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Fig 1.17: Light twisting shutter effect used in design of most LCD.

• It is generally used in small system such as calculator and portable laptop.

• This non emissive device produce picture by passing polarized light from the surrounding or from an
internal light source through liquid crystal material that can be aligned to either block or transmit
the light.
• The liquid crystal refreshes to fact that these compounds have crystalline arrangement of molecules
then also flows like liquid.
• It consists of twoglass plates eachwithlight polarizer at right angles toeachothersandwich the liquid
crystal material between the plates.
• Rows of horizontal transparent conductors are built into one glass plate, and column of vertical
conductors are put into the other plates.
• The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel position.
• In the ON state polarized light passing through material is twisted so that it will pass through the
opposite polarizer.
• In the OFF state it will reflect back towards source.
• We applied a voltage to the two intersecting conductor to align the molecules so that the light is

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 not twisted.
• This type of flat panel device is referred to as a passive matrix LCD.

• In active matrix LCD transistors are used at each (x, y) grid point.
Transistorcausecr
ystalto changetheirstatequicklyandalsoto controldegreetowhichthestatehas been
changed.
• Transistor can also serve as a memory for the state until it is changed.
• So transistor make cell ON for all time giving brighter display then it would be if it had to be
refreshperiodically

Advantages of LCD
display
• Low cost.
• Low weight.
• Small size
• Low powerconsumption.

LED (Light Emitting Diode)

A Light Emitting Diode is a semiconductor device that emits visible light of a certain color, and is
fundamentally different from conventional light sources such as incandescent, fluorescent, and gas -
discharge lamps, in that an LED:
• uses no gas or filament, has no glass bulb,
• and no failure -prone moving parts
➢ Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or
doped withimpurities to create a p -n, (positive / negative) junction.
➢ Atoms in the n -type material have extra electrons, atoms in the p - type material have electron
holes.
➢ Applying current pushes the atoms toward the junction. When they get close, the n -type atoms
’donate’their extra electrons to the p -type atoms which ‘accept’ them.
➢ A negative charge to the n - side allows current to flow from the ( -) charged area to the ( + )
chargedarea. This is called ‘forward bias’.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ➢ When extra electrons in the n-type material fall into the holes in the p-type material, they
release energy in the form of photons. The material in an LED is selected so that the wavelength
of the photonsfalls within the visible portion of spectrum.
➢ Different materials produce photons at different wavelengths / color.

Advantages

• Comparable in efficacy to CFLs, gaining on fluorescent tubes, and incandescents.

• Fixtures are directional, allowing for more efficient optics.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Quality of White Light LEDs now comparable to CFLs, recent advances assure
betterconsistency in color and CCT.
• Significantly longer ‘Useful’ life
• Light output has improved by 35% / year, while cost has dropped by 20% / year No
infrared,(IR) radiation
• No ultraviolet, (UV) rays
• Mercury free
• Can operate in cold environments
• Can withstand impact and vibrations
• Inherently digital for ease of control
• Instant on
• Growing trend to modularity

CONCEPT OF COORDINATE SYSTEM

A coordinate system is a way of assigning numbers to points. In two dimensions, you need a pair of
numbers to specify a point. The coordinates are often referred to as x and y, although of course, the
names are arbitrary.
More than that, the assignment of pairs of numbers to points is itself arbitrary to a large extent. Points
and objects are real things, but coordinates are just numbers that we assign to them so that we can refer
to them easily and work with them mathematically. We have seen the power of this when we discussed
transforms, which are defined mathematically in terms of coordinates but which have real, useful physical
meanings.

In a 2-D coordinate system the X axis generally points from left to right, and the Y axis generally points
from bottom to top. (Although some windowing systems will have their Y coordinates going from top to
bottom)

In three dimensions, you need three numbers to specify a point. (That's essentially what it means to be
three dimensional.) The third coordinate is often called z. The z-axis is perpendicular to both the x-axis
and the y-axis.

This demo illustrates a 3D coordinate system. The positive directions of the x, y, and z axes are shown as
bigarrows. The x-axis is green, the y-axis is blue, and the z-axis is red.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.18: 3D Axes

When we add the third coordinate, Z, we have a choice as to whether the Z-axis points into the screen or
out ofthe screen:

Right Hand Coordinate

System (RHS)Z is coming out
of the page

Counterclockwise rotations are positive

if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is
positive if we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation
Z->X is positive if we rotate about the Z axis : the
rotation X->Y is positive

Left Hand Coordinate

System (LHS)Z is going into
the page

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Clockwise rotations are positive
if we rotate about the X axis : the rotation Y->Z is positive

f we rotate about the Y axis : the rotation Z->X is positiveif we rotate about the Z axis : the rotation X->Y is
positive

Coordinate System

1. The Model Coordinate System or (world coordinate systems) (MCS).

2. The Working Coordinate System (WCS) or User Coordinate System (UCS).

3. The Screed Coordinate System (or device coordinate system) (SCS).

Model Coordinate System

The model coordinate system is defined as the reference space of the model with respect to which all
themodel geometrical data is stored.

It is a cartesian system which forms the default coordinate system used by a particular software program.

The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be displayed on the computer screen. The origin of the MCS can be
arbitrarily chosen by the user while its orientation is established by the software.

The three default sketch planes of a CAD/CAM system define the three planes of the MCS, and their
intersection point is the MCS origin. When a CAD designer begins sketching, the origin becomes a
corner point of the profile being sketched. The sketch plane defines the orientation of the profile in the
model 3D space.
This is how we attach the MCS to a geometric model. In order for the user to communicate properly
and effectively with a model database, the relationships between the MCS orthogonal (sketch) planes
and themodel views must be understood by the user.

Typically, the software chooses one of two possible orientations of the MCS in space. As shown in Figure
1.18a, the XY plane is the horizontal plane and defines the model top view. The front and right side views
are consequently defined by the XZ and YZ planes, respectively.

Figure 1.18b shows the other possible orientation of the MCS where the XY plane is vertical and defines
the model front view. As a result, the XZ and the YZ planes define the top and the right side views,
respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.19: Possible orientations of MCS in 3D Space

Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as the default WCS (see Section 2.4.2). In both orientations, the
XY plane is the default construction (sketch) plane. If the user utilizes such a plane, the first face of a
model to beconstructed becomes the top or front view, depending on which MCS is used.

The MCS is the only coordinate system that the software recognizes when storing or retrieving graphical
information in or from a model database. Many existing software packages allow the user to input
coordinateinformation in cartesian (x, y, z) and cylindrical (r,θ,z).

This input information is transformed to (x, y, z) coordinates relative to the MCS before being stored in
the database. Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical information relative to the MCS. If the
MCS orientation does not match the desired orientation of the object being modeled, users become
puzzled and confused. Another form of retrieving information is entity verification. Coordinates of points
defining the entity are given relative to MCS by default. However, existing software allows users to obtain
the coordinates relativeto another system (WCS) by using the proper commands or modifiers.

Fig 1.20: Model or World Coordinate System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Working Coordinate System

It is often convenient in the development of geometric models and the input of geometric data to refer
to an auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS. This is usually useful when a desired plane (face)
of construction is not easily defined as one of the MCS orthogonal planes, as in the case of inclined
faces of a model.

The user can define a cartesian coordinate system whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane
of construction. That system is the Working Coordinate System, WCS. It is a convenient user-defined
system thatfacilitates geometric construction.

It can be established at any position and orientation in space that the user desires. While the user
can inputdata in reference to the WCS, the CAD software performs the necessary transformations to
the MCS before storing the data. The ability to use two separate coordinate systems within the same
model database in relation to one another gives the user great flexibility. Some commercial software
refers to the WCS as is; Unigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to it as a sketch plane
(Pro/E and SolidWorks) or construction plane.

A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its XY plane. The first defines the ori-gin, the first
and the second define the X axis, and the third point with the first define the Y axis. The Z axis is
determined as the cross product of the two unit vectors in the directions defined by the lines
connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and the first and the third points (Y axis). We will use
the subscript w to distinguish the WCS axes from those of the MCS. The Xm,Y,„ plane becomes the
active sketch (working) or construction plane if the user defines a WCS. In this case, the WCS and its
corresponding XwY,„ plane override the MCS and the default sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of
fact, the MCS with its default sketch plane is the default WCS with its X„,Y„, plane. All CAD/CAM
software packages provide users with three standard WCSs (sketch planes) that correspond to the
three standard views: Front, Top, and Right sides. The user can define other WCSs or sketch planes.

Fig 1.21: Working or User Coordinate System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Screen Coordinate System

In contrast to the MCS and WCS, the screen coordinate system (SCS) is defined as a 2D device-
dependent coordinate system whose origin is usually located at the lower left corner of the graphics
display, as shown in Figure 2.6. The physical dimensions of a device screen (aspect ratio) and the type of
device (raster) determine the range of the SCS. The SCS is mostly used in view-related clicks such as
definitions of view origin and windowor clicking a view to select it for graphics operations.

Fig 1.21: Typical SCS

• 2D Regular Cartesian Grid

• Origin (0,0) at lower left corner
• Horizontal axis – x
• Vertical axis – y
• Pixels are defined at the grid intersections
• This coordinate system is defined relative to the display window origin

Fig 1.12: Screen Coordinate System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A 1024 1024 display has an SCS with a range of (0,0) to (1024,1024). The center of the screen has
coordinates of (512,512). This SCS is used by the CAD/CAM software to display rel-evant graphics by
converting directly from MCS coordinates to SCS (physical device) coordinates. A normalized SCS can
also be utilized. The range of the SCS can be chosen from (0,0) to (1,1). Such representation can be
translated by device-dependent codes to the appropriate physical device coordinates. The third method
of defining an SCS is by using the drawing size that the user chooses. If a size A drawing is chosen, the
range of the SCS becomes (0,0) to (11,8.5) while size B produces the range (0,0) to (17,11). The
rationale behind this method stems from the conventional drawing board so that the drafting paper is
represented by the device screen.

A transformation operation from MCS coordinates to SCS coordinates is performed by the software
before displaying the model views and graphics. Typically, for a geometric model, there is a data structure
to store itsgeometric data (relative to MCS), and a display file to store its display data (relative to SCS).

Fig 1.23: Coordinate Systems

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.24 Typical component to model.

Fig. 1.25 Coordinate systems.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LINE GENERATION ALGORITHM

A line connects two points. It is a basic element in graphics. To draw a line, you need two points between
whichyou can draw a line. In the following three algorithms, we refer the one point of line as X0, Y0 and
the second point of line as X1, Y1.

• The Cartesian slop-intercept equation for a straight line is “𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦” with ‘𝑦’ representing
slop and ‘𝑦’ as theintercept.
• The two endpoints of the line are given which are say (𝑦1, 𝑦1) and (𝑦2, 𝑦2).

X1 X2

Fig. 1.26: - Line path between endpoint positions.

• We can determine values for the slope m by equation:
𝑦 = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)/(𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
• We can determine values for the intercept b by equation:
𝑦 = 𝑦1 − 𝑦 ∗ 𝑦1
• For thegiveninterval ∆𝑦 along aline, wecancompute thecorresponding𝑦interval ∆𝑦 as:
∆𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ ∆𝑦
• Similarly for ∆𝑦:
∆𝑦 = ∆𝑦/𝑦
• For line with slop |𝑦| < 1, ∆𝑦 can be set proportional to small horizontal deflection voltage and the
corresponding verticaldeflectionvoltageisthensetproportionalto∆𝑦whichiscalculatedfromabove
equation.
• For line with slop |𝑦| > 1, ∆𝑦 can be set proportional to small vertical deflection voltage and the
corresponding horizontal deflection voltage is then set proportional to ∆𝑦 which is calculated from
above equation.
• Forline withslop𝑦 = 1, ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑦 and thehorizontal and vertical deflectionvoltages are equal.

DDA Algorithm
Digital differential analyzer (DDA) is scan conversionline drawing algorithm based on calculating either ∆𝑦
or ∆𝑥 using above equation.

Step 1: Get the input of two end points (X0, Y0)

and (X1, Y1). Step 2: Calculate the difference
between two end points.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 d
x
=
X1
-
X0
d
y
=
Y1
-
Y0
p 3: Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you need to identify the number of steps to put
[Link] dx > dy, then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y coordinate.

if(absolute(dx) >
absolute(dy))Steps =
absolute(dx);
else
Steps = absolute(dy);

Step 4: Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.

Xincrement = dx /
(float) steps;
Yincrement = dy /
(float) steps;

Step 5: Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates accordingly and complete the
drawing ofthe line.

for(int v=0; v < Steps; v++)

{
x=x+
Xincreme
nt;y = y +

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Yincreme
nt;
putpixel (Round(x), Round(y));
}

Advantages of DDA algorithm

• It is fasteralgorithm.
• It is simplealgorithm.

Disadvantage of DDA algorithm

• Floating point arithmetic is time consuming.
• Poor end pointaccuracy.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 1.27 Flow chart for line calculation procedure by DDA algorithm

Example 1.1
Indicate which raster locations would be chosen by DDA algorithm when scan converting a
line from screen coordinate (19, 38) to screen coordinate (38, 52).
∆𝒚 𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏 𝟓𝟐−𝟑𝟖
m= = = = 0.737
∆𝒙 𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏 𝟑𝟖−𝟏𝟗

So, m  1

∆X= 1 and yi+1 = yi + m

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Table 1.1 Calculation of pixel positions by DDA Algorithm
X Y calculated Y rounded
19 38 38
20 38.737 39
21 39.474 39
22 40.211 40
23 40.948 41
24 41.685 42
25 42.422 42
26 43.159 43
27 43.896 44
28 44.633 45
29 45.370 45
30 46.107 46
31 46.844 47
32 47.581 48
33 48.318 48
34 49.055 49
35 49.792 50
36 50.529 51
37 51.266 51
38 52.003 52

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

The Bresenham algorithm is another incremental scan conversion algorithm. The big advantage of this
algorithm is that, it uses only integer calculations. Moving across the x axis in unit intervals and at each
step choose between two different y coordinates.

An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm, developed by Bresenham which scan
converts line using only incremental integer calculations that can be modified to display circles and
other curves.

For example, as shown in the following illustration, from position (2, 3) you need to choose between (3,
3) and (3, 4). You would like the point that is closer to the original line.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

At sample position xk+1, the vertical separations from the mathematical line are labelled as d upper and
dlower.

From the above illustration, the y coordinate on the mathematical line at xk+1 is:

𝑌 = 𝑚(𝑋𝑘 + 1)+ 𝑏

So, dupper and dlower are given as follows:

𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑦 −𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑋𝑘 + 1)+ 𝑏 − 𝑌𝑘

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

and

𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = (𝑦𝑘 + 1)− 𝑦 = 𝑌𝑘 +1 − 𝑚(𝑋𝑘 + 1)− 𝑏

You can use these to make a simple decision about which pixel is closer to the mathematical line. This
simple decision is based on the difference between the two pixel positions. 𝑑

𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1)− 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1

Let us substitute m with dy/dx where dx and dy are the differences between the end-points.

𝑑𝑥(𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟) = 𝑑𝑥(2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥𝑘 + 1)− 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1)

= 2𝑑𝑦 ∙ 𝑥𝑘 − 2𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥(2𝑏 − 1)

= 2𝑑𝑦 ∙ 𝑥𝑘 − 2𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑘 + 𝐶

So, a decision parameter pk for the kth step along a line is given by:

P𝑘 = 𝑑𝑥(𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑑𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟)

= 2𝑑𝑦 ∙ 𝑥𝑘 − 2𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑘 +𝐶

The sign of the decision parameter Pk is the same as that of dlower – dupper.

If Pk is negative, then choose the lower pixel, otherwise choose the upper pixel. Remember, the
coordinate changes occur along the x axis in unit steps, so you can do everything with integer
calculations. At step k+1, the decision parameter is given as:

Pk +1 = 2𝑑𝑦 ∙ 𝑥𝑘+1 −2𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑦𝑘+1 +𝐶

Subtracting Pk from this we get: 𝑝𝑘+1 −𝑝𝑘 = 2𝑑𝑦(𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘) −2𝑑𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)

But, xk+1 is the same as xk+1. So:

Pk +1 = Pk + 2𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑑𝑥(𝑦 𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)

Where, yk+1 – yk is either 0 or 1 depending on the sign of pk.

The first decision parameter p0 is evaluated at (x0, y0) is given as:

𝑝0 = 2𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥 Now, keeping in mind all the above points and calculations, here is the Bresenham
algorithm for slope m < 1:

Step 1: Input the two end-points of line, storing the left end-point in (x0, y0).

Step 2: Plot the point (x0, y0).

Step 3: Calculate the constants dx, dy, 2dy, and (2dy – 2dx) and get the first value for the decision
parameter as:

𝑝0 = 2𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑥

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Step 4: At each xk along the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test:

If pk < 0, the next point to plot is (xk+1, yk) and P𝑘+1 = P𝑘 + 2𝑑𝑦

Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk+1, yk+1) and P𝑘+1 = P𝑘 + 2𝑑𝑦 − 2𝑑𝑥

Step 5: Repeat step 4 (dx – 1) times.

For m > 1, find out whether you need to increment x while incrementing y each time. After solving, the
equation for decision parameter Pk will be very similar, just the x and y in the equation gets
interchanged.

Fig. 1.28 Flow chart for line calculation procedure by Bresenham algorithm

Example 1.2

Indicate which raster locations would be chosen by Bresenham’s algorithm when scan converting a line
from screen coordinate (19, 38) to screen coordinate (38, 52).
∆𝒚 𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏 𝟓𝟐−𝟑𝟖
m= = = = 0.737
∆𝒙 𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏 𝟑𝟖−𝟏𝟗

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 So, m  1

∆X= 1 and yi+1 = yi + m

Table 1.2 Calculation of pixel positions by Bresenham’s Procedure

X P Y
19 P1 = 2∆y - ∆x = 28 – 19 = 9 38
20 P2 = P1 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 9 + 28 -38 = -1 39
21 P3 = P2 + 2∆y = -1 + 28 = 27 39
22 P4 = P3 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 27 + 28 -38 = 17 40
23 P5 = P4 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 17 + 28 -38 = 7 41
24 P6 = P5 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 7 + 28 -38 = -3 42
25 P7 = P6 + 2∆y = -3 + 28 = 25 42
26 P8 = P7 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 25 + 28 -38 = 15 43
27 P9 = P8 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 15 + 28 -38 = 5 44
28 P10 = P9 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 5 + 28 -38 = -5 45
29 P11 = P10 + 2∆y = -5 + 28 = 23 45
30 P12 = P10 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 23 + 28 -38 = 13 46
31 P13 = P12 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 13 + 28 -38 = 3 47
32 P14 = P13 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 3 + 28 -38 = -7 48
33 P15 = P14 + 2∆y = -7 + 28 = 21 48
34 P16 = P15 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 21 + 28 -38 = 11 49
35 P17 = P16 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 1 + 28 -38 = 1 50
36 P18 = P17 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 1 + 28 -38 = -9 51
37 P19 = P18 + 2∆y = -9 + 28 = 19 51
38 P20 = P19 + 2∆y - 2∆x = 19 + 28 -38 = 9 52

CIRCLE GENERATION ALGORITHM

Drawing a circle on the screen is a little complex than drawing a line. There are two
popular algorithms for generating a circle: Bresenham’s Algorithm and Midpoint
Circle Algorithm.

These algorithms are based on the idea of determining the subsequent points
required to draw the circle. Let us discuss the algorithms in detail:

The equation of circle is X2 + Y2 = r2 , where r is radius.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Bresenham’s Algorithm

We cannot display a continuous arc on the raster display. Instead, we have to

choose the nearest pixel position to complete the arc.

From the following illustration, you can see that we have put the pixel at (X, Y)
location and now need to decide where to put the next pixel: at N (X+1, Y) or at S
(X+1, Y-1).

This can be decided by the decision parameter d.

• If d <= 0, then N(X+1, Y) is to be chosen as next pixel.

• If d > 0, then S(X+1, Y-1) is to be chosen as the next pixel.

Algorithm

Step 1: Get the coordinates of the center of the circle and radius, and store them in
x, y, and R respectively. Set P=0 and Q=R.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Step 2: Set decision parameter D = 3 – 2R.

Step 3: Repeat through step-8 while X < Y.

Step 4: Call Draw Circle (X, Y, P, Q).

Step 5: Increment the value of P.

Step 6: If D < 0 then D = D + 4x + 6.

Step 7: Else Set Y = Y + 1, D = D + 4(X-Y) + 10.

Step 8: Call Draw Circle (X, Y, P, Q).

Draw Circle Method(X, Y, P, Q).

Call Putpixel (X + P, Y + Q).

Call Putpixel (X - P, Y + Q).

Call Putpixel (X + P, Y - Q).

Call Putpixel (X - P, Y - Q).

Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y + X).

Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y + X).

Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y - X).

Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y - X).

GRAPHICS EXCHANGE STANDARDS

The need for portability of the geometric model among different hardware platforms has led to the
development of device independent graphics.
Simultaneously standards for the exchange of drawing database among software packages have
been evolved to facilitate the integration of design and manufacturing operations.

Introduction

The heart of any CAD model is the component database. This includes the graphics entities like
points, lines, arcs, circles etc. and the co-ordinate points, which definethe location of these entities.

This geometric data is used in all downstream applications of CAD, which include finite element
modeling and analysis, process planning, estimation, CNC programming, robot programming,
programming of co-ordinate measuring

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

machines, ERP system programming and simulation.

In order to achieve at least a reasonably high level of integration between CAD, analysis and
manufacturing operations, the component database must contain:

i. Shapes of the components (based on solid models)

ii. Bill of materials (BOM), of the assembly in which the components are used.
iii. Material of the components
iv. Manufacturing, test and assembly procedures to be carried out to
produce a component so that it is capable of functioning as per the
requirements of design.

In designing a data structure for CAD database the following factors are to be
considered:

i. The data must be neutral

ii. The data structure must be user-friendly
iii. The data must be portable.

In order to achieve the above requirements, some type of standardization has to

be followed by the CAD software designers. The basic elements associated with
a CAD system are:

• Operator (user)

• Graphics support system

• Other user interface support system

• Application functions

• Database

A diagrammatic presentation of these elements is given in Figure 1.25

Fig. 1.25 CAD System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The reasons for evolving a graphic standard thus include:

• Need for exchanging graphic data between different computer systems.

• Need for a clear distinction between modeling and reviewing aspects.

So proper interface standards are required to be established, some of them are

• GKS (Graphics Kernal System)

• PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical Interface for Graphics)

• GKS-3D

• IGES

• STEP

• DXF

Standards for graphics programming

Attempts to develop a graphics standard resulted in the following developments

in 70's:

i. A Graphic Standards Planning Committee (GSPC) was formed in 1974 by ACM-

SIGGRAPH (Association of Computing Machinery's Special Interest Group
on Graphics and Interactive Techniques).
ii. A committee for the development of computer graphics standard was formed
by DIN in 1975.
iii. IFIP organized a workshop on Methodology in Computer Graphics in
1976. iv. A significant development in CAD standards is the publication of
Graphical Kernel System (GKS) in 1982.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

1. GKS (Graphics kernel system): It is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute and
ISO (International Standards Organization) standard. It interfaces the application program
with graphics support package.

2. IGES (Initial graphics exchange specification): It is an ANSI standard. It enables an

exchange of model database among CAD/CAM software.

3. PHIGS (Programmer's hierarchical interactive graphics system): It supports

workstations and their related CAD/CAM applications. It supports 3-dimensional
modeling of geometry segmentation and dynamic display.

4. CGM (Computer graphics metafile): It defines functions needed to describe an image.

Such description can be stored or transported from one graphics device to another.

S. CGII (Computer graphics interface): It is designed to interface plotters to GKS or PHIGS.

It is the lowest device independent interface in a graphics system.

6. Drawing Exchange Format (DXF): The DXF format has been developed and supported
by Autodesk for use with the AutoCAD drawing files. It is not an industry standard
developed by any standards organisation, but in view of the widespread use of AutoCAD
made it a default standard for use of a variety of CAD/CAM vendors. A Drawing
Interchange File is simply an ASCII text file with a file extension of .DXF and specially
formatted text.

7. Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), officially the ISO standard
10303, Product Data Representation and Exchange, is a series of International Standards
with the goal of defining data across the full engineering and manufacturing life cycle. The
ability to share data across applications, across vendor platforms and between
contractors, suppliers and customers, is the main goal of this standard.

8. Parasolid: It is a portable "kernel" that can be used in multiple systems - both high-end
and mid-range. By adopting Parasolid, start-up software companies have eliminated a
major barrier to application development - a high initial investment. This enabled them
to effectively market softwares with strong solidmodeling functionality at lower-cost.

9. PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification) is an exchange for product data In support
of Industrial automation. "Product data" encompasses data relevant to the entire life
cycle of a product such as design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing and support.
In order to support industrial automation, PDES files are fully Interpretable by computer.
For example, tolerance Information would be carried In a form directly interpretable by a
computer rather than a computerized text form which requires human intervention to
interpret.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Features of GKS

GKS (Graphical Kernel System) is an ANSI and ISO standard. GKS standardizes two-dimensional
graphics functionality at a relatively low level. The primary purposes of the standard are:

• To provide for portability of graphics application programs.

• To aid in the understanding of graphics method by application programmers.

• To provide guidelines for manufacturers in describing useful graphicscapabilities.

The GKS (ANSI X3.124-1985) consists of three basic parts:

i. An informal exposition of contents of the standard, which includes such things as positioning of
text, filling of polygons etc.
ii. A formalization of the expository material outlined in (i) by way of abstracting the ideas into
functional descriptions (input/output parameters, effect ofeach function etc.).
iii. Language bindings, which are the implementations of the abstract functions, described in
(ii) in a specific computer language like FORTRAN,Ada or C.
Figure 1.26 shows the GKS implementation in a CAD workstation.

Fig. 1.26: GKS implementation in a CAD System

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The features of GKS include:

i. Device independence: The standard does not assume that the input or output devices have
any particular features or restrictions.
ii. Text/Annotations: All text or annotations are in a natural language likeEnglish.
iii. Display management: A complete suite of display management functions, cursor control
and other features are provided.
iv. Graphics Functions: Graphics functions are defined in 2D or 3D.

GKS offers two routines to define the user created pictures. They are primitive functions and
attribute functions.

Examples of primitive functions are: • POLYLINE to draw a set of connected straight-line vectors

• POLYMARKER to draw a set of markers or shapes

• FILL AREA to draw a closed polygon with interior fill

• TEXT to create characters

• GDP (Generalized Drawing Primitive) to specify the standard drawing entities likecircle, ellipse etc.

The attribute functions define the appearance of the image e.g. color, line-type etc. Current level of
GKS is GKS-3D, which provides several other functions. GKS-3D is an extension to GKS, which allows
the production of 3-D objects.

Exchange of CAD data between software packages

Necessity to translate drawings created in one drafting package to another often arises. For
example you may have a CAD model created in PRO/E package and you may wish that this might be
transferred to I-DEAS or Unigraphics.

It may also be necessary to transfer geometric data from one software to another. This situation
arises when you would want to carry out modeling in one software, say PRO/E and analysis in
another software, say ANSYS.

One method to meet this need is to write direct translators from one software to another. This
means that each system developer will have to produce its own translators. This will necessitate a
large number of translators. If we have three software packages we may require six translators
among them.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is shown in Fig. 1.27.

Fig. 1.27: Direct Data Translation

A solution to this problem of direct translators is to use neutral files. These neutral
files will have standard formats and software packages can have pre-processors to
convert drawing data to neutral file and postprocessors to convert neutral file data
to drawing file.

Figure 1.28 illustrates how the CAD data transfer is a accomplished using neutral
file.

Fig. 1.28: CAD Data Exchange using Neutral files

Three types of neutral files are:

i. Drawing exchange files (DXF)

ii. IGES files

iii. STEP files

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Drawing exchange files (DXF)

DXF is short for Drawing Interchange Format or Drawing Exchange Format. Commonly known as
AutoCAD DXF format, is a CAD data file format. It was developed by Autodesk to enable data
interoperability between AutoCAD and other programs. DXF file format was first introduced in 1982.
The key purpose of this format was to produce the exact representation of AutoCAD native DWG
files on other applications. For many years, the importing process of DXF files had been very difficult
because of the unavailability of specifications of the format. Presently the format specifications are
available as PDF but this format is rarely used in AutoCAD applications.

Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) Graphics Standard

The IGES committee was established in the year 1979. The CAD/CAM Integrated Information
Network (CIIN) of Boeing served as the preliminary basis of IGES. IGES version 1.0 was released in
1980. IGES continues to undergo revisions. IGES is a popular data exchange standard today.

IGES files can also be generated for:

i. Surfaces

ii. Datum curves and points

Standard for the Exchange of Product Data (STEP)

Seamless exchange of product data is critical to CAD/CAM/CAE systems. The Standard for the
Exchange of Product Data (STEP) is the enabler for such seamlessdata exchange.

It provides a worldwide standard for storing, sharing and exchanging product information among
different CAD systems. Although STEP itself is the basis for Product Data Management System
(PDM). It covers border functionalities. It includes methods of representing all critical product
specifications such as shapeinformation, materials, tolerances, finishes and product structure.

Whereas the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) standard has widespread use, it has its
shortcomings. It does not convey the extensive product information needed in the design and
manufacturing cycle. Often IGES translators are required to move design data from one CAD system
to another. STEP is often viewed as a replacement for IGES, though IGES is still expected to be in
active use for some more time in the future. Although the current focus of STEP is on mechanical
parts, STEP is a data exchange standard that would apply to a wide range of product areas, including
electronics, architectural, engineering and construction, apparel and shipbuilding.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DATABASE MANGEMENT SYSTEM

The data generated during a design and engineering process shares multiple features and structures.
The more complex the product and the longer the project the more important is the control of the
product configuration data. Apart from the traditional drawings and CAD models this data includes
various technical notes, measurement results, material properties, key parameters of the system,
manufacturing and assembly instructions, organizational relations (i.e. responsibilities) and
chronological change history of each component of the product.

The role of Engineering Data Management (EDM) is to store and provide a user- friendly access to this
data during the product’s life-cycle according to certain predefined control rules. These rules are
defined by the configuration management team of the LHC-project in collaboration with the key
players of the project.

Engineering Data Management Systems

In recent years, there has been a growing awareness that although computer-aideddesign technology
and the widespread use of computer applications to prepare engineering documents were
accomplishing their objective of improving the productivity of individual engineers and designers,
they were not doing much to improve the productivity of the overall enterprise.

To accomplish this latter objective better methods were needed to share information between
members of the design teams and other groups involved inthe product life cycle.

Engineering Data Management (EDM) is a set of techniques and tools to organize, control and
distribute all product related data during a product’s life cycle (Fig.
1.29). They have been developed to reduce the development cycle of new products while maintaining
control of the data and distributing it automatically to the peoplewho need it when they need it.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 1.29: EDM’s role in the Product Life Cycle

One of the prime motivation for EDM is the sheer volume and diversity of engineering
data.

An exhaustive description of a part or an assembly requires a huge amount of

documentation. The more complex the item, the more diverse is the documentation.
The following information topics could easily be listed under the heading of the
complete set of the engineering documentation of a part or an assembly:

• drawings,

• CAD models,

• part lists,

• structural analysis models,

• spread sheets,

• technical notes,

• measurements results,

• manufacturing instructions,

• assembly instructions,

• organizational relations,

• material properties,

• schematics,

• applicable standards,

• photos and shaded images

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The basic concept of EDM to manage datasets created by the various tools (Fig. 1.30)
is to create a metadata layer, i.e. a layer containing pointers and summary
information for the datasets being managed. The metadata itself is usually
maintained in a database and managed by a DBMS. This is similar to the use of library
card catalogs.

Fig 1.30: EDM Basic Concept

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain the applications where computers are used in Industrial
Manufacturing.
2. Explain about Product Cycle.
3. Explain basic structure of CAD/CAM Hardware.
4. Explain about different display devices.
5. Explain fundamentals of LCD and LED.
6. What are the different types of coordinate systems? Explain them.
7. Write DDA and Bresenham’s Algorithm for Line generation.
8. Write DDA and Bresenham’s Algorithm for Curve generation.
9. Explain about different Graphic Exchange Standards.
10. Explain about Database Management System.

QUESTION BANK

1. Explain about Product Cycle.

2. Explain about different display devices.
3. Explain fundamentals of LCD and LED.
4. Write DDA and Bresenham’s Algorithm for Line and Curve generation.
5. Explain about different Graphic Exchange Standards.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 2
CURVES AND SURFACES
Course Objective:
Understand the Mathematical representations of curves and surfaces used in
geometric construction.
Course Outcome:
Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of curves
used in geometric construction.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 9
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Curves Representation Representation Understanding how to represent the

of curves curves (B5, B6)

2. Parametric representation of Parametric Learning about representation of

lines: Locating a point on a representation of lines (B4, B5)
line, parallel lines, lines

3. Perpendicular lines, distance Parametric Learning about representation of

of a point, Intersection of representation of lines & circle (B4, B5)
lines, Parametric lines & circle
representation of circle

4. Parametric representation of Parametric Learning about representation of

ellipse, parabola, hyperbola representation of ellipse, parabola, hyperbola (B4, B5)
ellipse, parabola,
hyperbola
5. Synthetic Curves: Concept of Synthetic curves Learning about Synthetic Curves:
continuity, Concept of continuity (B4, B5)
6. Bezier Curve: equations, Bezier Curves Learning about Bezier Curve:
properties equations, properties (B4, B5)
7. Properties and advantages of B-Splines and Learning about Properties and
B-Splines and NURBS NURBS advantages of B-Splines and NURBS
(B5, B6)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

8. Various types of surfaces Representation Learning about Various types of
along with their typical of surfaces surfaces along with their typical
applications applications (B4, B5)
9. Various types of surfaces Algorithms for Learning about Various types of
along with their typical curve generation surfaces along with their typical
applications applications (B4, B5)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Curve Representation
− Curve is defined as the locus of point moving with one degree freedom.
− A curve can be represented by following two methods either by storing its analytical
equation or by storing an array of co-ordinates of various points
− Curves can be described mathematically by following methods:
(i) Non-parametric form
a) Explicit form
b) Implicit form
(ii) Parametric form
Non-parametric form:
• In this, the object is described by its co-ordinates with respect to current
reference frame in use.
Explicit form: (Clearly expressed)
• In this, the co-ordinates of y and z of a point on curve are expressed as
two separate functions of x as independent variable.
P = [x y z]
= [x f(x) g(x)]
Implicit form: (Not clearly expressed)
• In this, the co-ordinates of x, y and z of a point on curve are related
together by two functions.
F (x, y, z) = 0
G (x, y, z) = 0
Limitation of nonparametric representation of curves are:
1. If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or near vertical, its value becomes infinity
or very large, a difficult condition to deal with both computationally and
programming-wise. Other ill-defined mathematical conditions may result.
2. Shapes of most engineering objects are intrinsically independent of any coordinate
system. What determines the shape of an object is the relationship between its data
points themselves and not between these points and some arbitrary coordinate
system.
3. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight line segments, the
computations involved could be extensive.
Parametric form:
• In this, a parameter is introduced and the co-ordinates of x, y and z are
expressed as functions of this parameters. This parameter acts as a local
co-ordinate for points on curve.
P (u) = [x y z]
= [x (u) y (u) z (u)]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Classification of Curves
− Curves can be classified as shown below mainly in two categories:
1. Analytical Curves:
− The curves which are defined by the analytical equations are known as analytical
curves.
− Examples: line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola etc.
2. Synthetic Curves:
− The curves which are defined by set of data points are known as synthetic curves.
− Combination of polynomial segments to represent a desired curve is called a
synthetic curve.
− These curves can be conveniently twisted, shaped or bent by changing the
control points.
− Examples: Cubic spline curve, B-spline curve, Bezier curve etc.
− Synthetic curves take up where the analytic curves leave – the latter are not that
efficient at geometric design of mechanical parts.
− Need for synthetic curves arise in two occasions:
• When a curve is represented by a collection of measured datapoints,
• When an existing curve must change to meet new design requirements
the designer needs a curve representation that is directly related to the
data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist or change the shape by
changing one or more data points.
− Some examples of complex geometric design are: Car bodies, Ship hulls, Airplane
fuselage and wings, Propeller blades, Shoe insoles, aesthetically designed bottles
etc.
− When the curve pass through all the data points, then the curve is known as
Interpolant curve. It sounds more logical but can be more unstable and ringing.
− When a smooth curve is approximated through the data points, then the curve is
known as approximation curve. It turns out to be convenient.

(a) Interploation

(b) Approximation
Fig. 2.1 Interpolant and Approximated Curves

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− Synthetic curve pass through defined data points and can thus represented by
polynomial equations.
− The parametric form for any synthetic curve is:
P (u) = 3C u3 + 2C u2 + 1C u + 0C
where, u = Parameter and Ci = Polynomial coefficients
Parametric representation of analytical curve
➢ Lines
− A line can be represented in a parametric form by an input of two endpoints or by
one point and a length and direction. Besides these, modifiers and filters can be used
to represent these lines. The two important methods of establishing equations for
lines are considered.
➢ A line connecting two endpoints in parametric form, having the values of
parameter u as 0 and 1 at the endpoints:

Fig. 2.2 Line between Two Endpoints

− Consider a line between two given endpoints P1 (x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) as shown
in Fig. 2.2. The position vectors for these two points would be P 1 and P2. Consider any
point P (x, y, z) on the line P1 P2.
− Let a parametric system be introduced such that the point P is represented by the
parameter u such that its values are 0 and 1 at endpoints P1 and P2 respectively.
− From ∆OPP1, we can express the vector between endpoints P1 and P as P - P1. This
vector represents the parameter u. The mapping between the Cartesian and
parametric space can be done by the following relation :
Distance of P from P1 in cartesian space Endpoint Length in cartesian space
=
Distance of P from P1 in parametric space Endpoint Length in parametricspace

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 P − P1 P2 − P1
=
u 1
P − P1 = u ( P2 − P1 )
P = P1 + u ( P2 − P1 ) where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
− This equation represents the vector equation of the line in parametric form. In scalar
form, it can be written as:
x = x1 + u ( x2 − x1 )
y = y1 + u ( y2 − y1 )
z = z1 + u ( z2 − z1 ) where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
− Any point on the above line or its extension can be found by substituting the value of
parameter u. The tangent vector of the line would be represented by :
P' = P2 − P1
− In scalar form these would have the coordinates expressed by the following
equations:
x ' = x2 − x 1
y ' = y2 − y1
z' = z2 − z1
− It can be seen that the tangent vector is independent of the parameter u, thus
representing the constant slope of the line. Above equations are sufficient to
represent all properties of the line for CAD/CAM representation. The length L and

direction vector n can be calculated using the following equations :
L = P2 − P1
= (x −x ) + (y ) +(z )
2
−y
2
−z
2

2 1 2 1 2 1

 P − P1
n= 2
L
➢ A line passing through a point and defined by a length and direction:
− Consider a case, where a line is to pass through a point P1 and has its length L and


direction vector n defined as input as shown in Fig. 2.3. The computation of the
endpoint of this line needs to be done based on the above inputs. As seen earlier,
 P −P1
n=
L 
 
P = P1 +L n 
 
where, -∞≤L≤∞


− Once the user inputs P1, L and n , the endpoint can be calculated as per the above
equation. The two endpoints can then be expressed in parametric form with values
of parameter u as 0 and 1.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.3 Line passing through a point and defined by a Length and Direction
➢ Parallel Lines

Fig. 2.4
− Assume that the existing line has the two endpoints P1 and P2, a length L1, and a
 
direction defined by the unit vector n1 . The new line has the same direction n1 , a
length L2 and endpoints P3 and P4.


− The unit vector n1 is givenby

 P2 − P1
n=
L1
− The unit vector for the parallel line will be same as unit vector for the existingline.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

  P4−P3
n=
L2


P4 = P3 + L 2 n
− The equation of parallel line becomes,
P = P3 + u ( P4 − P3 )

➢ Angle between two lines

Fig. 2.5
− Fig. 2.5 represents two lines L1 and L2 having endpoints are P1, P2 and P3, P4, the
angle measurement command uses the equation
(P − P )(P − P )
cos = 2 1 4 3
|P2 − P1||P4 −P3|
cosθ = L1 . L2
➢ Distance of a point from line

Fig. 2.6
− Fig. 2.6 shows the distance D from point P3 to the line whose endpoints are P1 and P2

and direction is n . Its length is L. D is given by
 (P3 −P1)
D = (P3− P1) n = (P 3− P 1)
|P3 − P1|

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 2.1: For the position vectors P1[1 2] and P2[4 3], determine the parametric
representation of line segment between them. Also determine the slope and tangent vector
of line segment.
A parametric representation of line is
P = P1 + u ( P2 − P1 )
= [1 2] + u ([4 3] – [1 2])
= [1 2] + u [3 1]
Parametric representation of x and y components are
x(u) = x1 + u (x2 – x1)
= 1 + 3u
y(u) = y1 + u (y2 – y1)
=2+u
The tangent vector is obtained by differentiating P(u)
P’(u) = *x’(u) y’(u)+
= [3 1]
The slope of line segment is
dy dy / du
=
dx dx / du
y'
=
x'
1
=
3
Example 2.2 : The end points of line are P1(1,3,7) and P2(–4,5, –3). Determine
i. Tangent vector of the line
ii. Length of line
iii. Unit vector in the direction of line
Parametric representation of x, y and z components are
x(u) = x1 + u (x2 – x1)
= 1 – 5u
y(u) = y1 + u (y2 – y1)
= 3 + 2u
z(u) = z1 + u (z2 – z1)
= 7 – 10u
Tangent vector, P’(u) = *x’(u) y’(u) z’(u)+
= [–5 2 –10]
= –5i + 2j –10k
Length of line, L = P2 − P1
= ( x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z −2 z 1 )2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ( −4 −1) + ( 5 − 3) + ( −3 − 7)
2 2 2
=
= 11.358
𝑃2−𝑃1 𝑃2−𝑃1 1
Unit vector in the direction of line, n^ = = = [-5 2 -10]
|𝑃2−𝑃1| 𝐿 11.358

= [-0.44 0.176 -0.88]

= -0.44i + 0.176j – 0.88k
Example 2.3: A line is represented by the end point P1(2, 4, 6) and P2(-3, 6, 9). If the value of
parameter u at P1 and P2 is 0 and 1 respectively, determine the tangent vector for the line. Also
determine the coordinate of a point represented by; u equal to 0, 0.25, -0.25, 1 and 1.5. Also find the
length and unit vector of line between two points P1 and P2.
Parametric representation of x, y and z components are
x(u) = x1 + u (x2 – x1)
= 2 – 5u
y(u) = y1 + u (y2 – y1)
= 4 + 2u
z(u) = z1 + u (z2 – z1)
= 6 – 3u
Tangent vector, P’(u) = *x’(u) y’(u) z’(u)+
= [–5 2 –3]
= –5i + 2j –3k
u 0 0.25 – 0.25 1 1.5
x (u) 2 0.75 3.25 –3 –5.5
y (u) 4 4.5 3.5 6 7
z (u) 6 5.25 6.75 3 1.5
Length of line, L = P2−P1
= ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y 1 )2 + (z −2 z 1 )2
( −3 −2) + ( 6 − 4 ) + ( 9 − 6 )
2 2 2
=
= 6.16
𝑃2−𝑃1 𝑃2−𝑃1
Unit vector in the direction of line, n^ = = =
|𝑃2−𝑃1| 𝐿
1
[-5 2 -3] = [-0.81 0.324 -0.487]
6.16

= -0.8i + 0.324j – 0.487k

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

➢ Circles

Fig. 2.7 Circle in Parametric Form

− A circle is represented in the CAD/CAM database by storing the values of its center
and its radius. In a parametric form, a circle shown in Fig. 2.7, can be represented by
the following set of equations:
x = xc + R Cos u
y = yc + R Sin u
z = zc
where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 2ᴫ
− In this case the parameter u represents the angle measured from the X axis to any
point P on the circumference of the circle. By incrementing the values of u from 0 to
2ᴫ, the intermediate points on the circle can be worked out.
− These points can then be connected by straight lines for the purpose of display.
However, this method of computation is inefficient as it requires trigonometric
evaluation of functions.
− A convenient method to determine the different points on the circle is to use the
incremental equations. Consider any point Pn (xn, yn, zn) on the circle.
− Let the subsequent incremental point be Pn+1 (xn+1, yn+1, zn+1). From the above
equation, we get:
xn = xc + R Cos u
R Cos u = xn − xc (2.1)
yn = yc + R Sin u
R Sin u = yn − yc (2.2)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Similarly, xn+1 = xc + R Cos (u + u) (2.3)
yn+1 = yc + R Sin (u + u) (2.4)
zn+1 = zn (2.5)
From (2.3), (2.1) & (2.2)
xn+1 = xc + R Cos uCos u − R Sin uSin u
x n+1 = xc +( xn − xc )Cos u − ( yn − yc )Sin u (2.6)
From (2.4), (2.1) & (2.2)
yn+1 = yc + R Sin uCos u + R Cos uSin u
y n+1 = yc +( yn − yc )Cos u + ( xn − xc )Sin u (2.7)
And zn+1 = zc
− Thus, the circle can start from an arbitrary point and successive points with equal
spacing can be calculated. Cos ∆u & Sin ∆u have to be calculated only once, this
eliminates the computations of trigonometric functions for each point.
− This algorithm is useful for hardware implementation to speed up the circle
generation & display.
− If two endpoints of diameter of circle are given, then the center & radius of circle are
calculated as below.
− Let P1 (x1, y1, z1) & P2 (x2, y2, z2) and center point Pc (xc, yc, zc)
Radius, R = 1 (√ 𝑥₂ − 𝑥₁) 2 + (𝑦₂ − 𝑦₁) 2 + (𝑧₂ − 𝑧₁)²
2 (
1
Center, Pc = 2 (P₁+P₂ )
𝑥₁+𝑥₂ 𝑦₁+𝑦₂ 𝑧₁+𝑧₂
[xc yc zc] = [ ]
2 2 2

Example 2.4: The two endpoints of diameter of a circle are P1(13,15,7) and P2(35,40,7).
Determine the centre and radius of circle.
The centre of a circle,
1
Pc = 2 (P₁+P₂ )
𝑥₁+𝑥₂ 𝑦₁+𝑦₂ 𝑧₁+𝑧₂
[xc yc zc] = [ ]
2 2 2
13+35 15+40 7+7
[xc yc zc] = [ ]
2 2 2
[xc yc zc] = [24 27.5 7]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The radius of circle R= (1
2
( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 ) + ( z 2 − z1 )2
2 2

))
R= (
1
( 35 −13) + ( 40 − 15) + ( 7 − 7)
2 2 2

2
R = 16.65

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

➢ Ellipse
− Mathematically the ellipse is a curve generated by a point moving in space such that
at any position the sum of its distances from two fixed points (foci) is constant and
equal to the major diameter. Each focus is located on the major axis of the ellipse at a
distance from its center equal to A2 − B2 (A and B are the major and minor radii).
Circular holes and forms become ellipses when they are viewed obliquely relative to
their planes.

Fig. 2.8 Ellipse Defined by a Center, Major and Minor Axes

− However, four conditions (points and/or tangent vectors) are required to define the
geometric shape of an ellipse.
− Fig. 2.8 shows an ellipse with point Pc as the center and the lengths of half of the
major and minor axes are A and B respectively. The parametric equation of an ellipse
can be written as assuming the plane of the ellipse is the XY plane.
− The parameter u is the angle as in the case of a circle. However, for a point P shown
in the figure, it is not the angle between the line PP c and the major axis of the ellipse.
Instead, it is defined as shown.
− To find point P on the ellipse that corresponds to an angle u, the two concentric
circles C1 and C2 are constructed with centers at Pc and radii of A and B respectively. A
radial line is constructed at the angle u to intersect both circles at points P 1 and P2
respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− If a line parallel to the minor axis is drawn from P1 and a line parallel to the major axis
is drawn from P2, the intersection of these two lines defines the point P.
x = xc + A cosu
y = yc + B sinu  0  u  2
z = zc 

− Similar development as in the case of a circle results in the following recursive
relationships which are useful for generating points on the ellipse for display
purposes without excessive evaluations of trigonometric functions:
A
x = x + (x − x ) cos u − (y − y )sinu
n+1 c n c
B n c
A
yn+1 = yc + (yn − yc ) cos u + (xn − xc ) sinu (2.8)
B
zn+1 = zn
− If the ellipse major axis is inclined with an angle α relative to the x axis as shown in
Fig. 2.8, the ellipse equation becomes
x = xc + A cosu cos − B sinu sin
y = yc + A cosu sin + B sinu cos  0  u  2 (2.9)
z = zc 

− Equations (2.9) cannot be reduced to a recursive relationship similar to what is given
by Eqs. (2.8). Instead these equations can be written as
x = x + A cos(u + u) cos − B sin(u + u) sin
n+ c n n1
y = y + A cos(u + u) sin + Bsin(u + u) cos
n+1 c n n

zn+1 = zn

➢ Parabola
− The parabola is defined mathematically as a curve generated by a point that moves
such that its distance from a fixed point (the focus P F) is always equal to its distance
to a fixed line (the directrix) as shown in Fig. 2.9.
− The vertex Pv is the intersection point of the parabola with its axis of symmetry. It is
located midway between directrix and focus. Focus lies on the axis of symmetry.
− Useful applications of the parabolic curve in engineering design include its use in
parabolic sound and light reflectors, radar antennas and in bridge arches.
− Three conditions are required to define a parabola, a parabolic curve, or a parabolic
arc. The default plane of a parabola is the XY plane of the current WCS at the time of
construction.
− The database of a parabola usually stores the coordinates of its vertex, distances y HW
and yLW, that define its endpoints as shown in Fig. 2.9, the distance A between the
focus and the vertex (the focal distance) and the orientation angle α.
− Unlike the ellipse, the parabola is not a closed curve. Thus, the two endpoints
determine the amount of the parabola to be displayed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.9 Basic geometry of Parabola
− Assuming the local coordinate system of the parabola as shown in Fig. 2.9, its
parametric equation can be written as
x = xv + Au2 
y = yv + 2Au 0  u  
z = zv 

− If the range of the y coordinate is limited to yHW and yLW for positive and negative
values respectively, the corresponding u values become
y
u = HW
H 2A
y
u = LW
L 2A
− The recursive relationships to generate points on the parabola are obtained by
substituting un + Δu for points n + 1. This gives
xn+1 = xn + (yn − yv )u + A (u)2
yn+1 = yn + 2A u
zn+1 = zn

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

➢ Hyperbolas
− A hyperbola is described mathematically as a curve generated by a point moving such
that at any position the difference of its distances from the fixed points (foci) F and F'
is a constant and equal to the transverse axis of the hyperbola.

Fig. 2.10 Hyperbola Geometry

− Fig. 2.10 shows the geometry of a hyperbola.
− The parametric equation of a hyperbola is given by
x = xv + Acoshu
y = yv + Bsinhu
z = zv
− This equation is based on the nonparametric implicit equation of the hyperbola
which can be written as
(x − x )2 (y − y )2
−
B2 =
v v 1
A2
by utilizing the identity cosh2u – sinh2u = 1.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Parametric representation of synthetic curve
− Analytic curves, are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of
mechanical parts. Products such as car bodies, ship hulls, airplane fuselage and
wings, propeller blades, shoe insoles and bottles are a few examples that require
free-form, or synthetic, curves and surfaces.
− The need for synthetic curves in design arises on two occasions: when a curve is
represented by a collection of measured data points and when an existing curve must
change to meet new design requirements.
− In the latter occasion, the designer would need a curve representation that is directly
related to the data points and is flexible enough to bend, twist, or change the curve
shape by changing one or more data points.
− Data points are usually called control points and the curve itself is called an
interpolant if it passes through all the data points.

Fig. 2.11 Various Orders of Continuity of Curves

− Mathematically, synthetic curves represent a curve-fitting problem to construct a
smooth curve that passes through given data points. Therefore, polynomials are the
typical form of these curves.
− Various continuity requirements can be specified at the data points to impose various
degrees of smoothness of the resulting curve. The order of continuity becomes
important when a complex curve is modeled by several curve segments pieced
together end to end.
− Zero-order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve. First (C1)- and second
(C2)-order continuities imply slope and curvature continuous curves respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− A C1 curve is the minimum acceptable curve for engineering design. Fig. 2.11 shows a
geometrical interpretation of these orders of continuity.
− A cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial that can guarantee the
generation of C0, C1, or C2 curves. In addition, the cubic polynomial is the lowest-
degree polynomial that permits inflection within a curve segment and that allows
representation of nonplanar (twisted) three dimensional curves in space.
− Higher-order polynomials are not commonly used in CAD/CAM because they tend to
oscillate about control points, are computationally inconvenient and are
uneconomical of storing curve and surface representations in the computer.
− The type of input data and its influence on the control of the resulting synthetic
curve determine the use and effectiveness of the curve in design.
− For example, curve segments that require positions of control points and/or tangent
vectors at these points are easier to deal with and gather data for than those that
might require curvature information.
− Also, the designer may prefer to control the shape of the curve locally instead of
globally by changing the control point(s). If changing a control point results in
changing the curve locally in the vicinity of that point, local control of the curve is
achieved; otherwise global control results.
− Major CAD/CAM systems provide three types of synthetic curves: Hermite cubic
spline, Bezier and B-spline curves. The cubic spline curve passes through the data
points and therefore is an interpolant.
− Bezier and B-spline curves in general approximate the data points, that is, they do
not pass through them. Under certain conditions, the B-spline curve can be an
interpolant. Both the cubic spline and Bezier curves have a first-order continuity and
the B-spline curve has a second-order continuity.
➢ Hermite Cubic Spline Curve:
− They are used to interpolate the given data but not to design free-form curves.
Splines derive their name from “French curves or splines”
− It connects two data (end) points and utilizes a cubic equation.
− Four conditions are required to determine the coefficients of the equation – two end
points and the two tangent vectors at these two points.
− It passes through the control points and therefore it is an Interpolant. It has only up
to C1 continuity.
− The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, the entire
curve is affected, resulting in a global control.
− The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number of data
points. Increase in the number of data points increases shape flexibility, however, this
requires more data points, creating more splines that are joined together (only two
data points and slopes are utilized for each spline).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.12 Hermite Cubic Spline Curve
− A cubic spline curve utilizes a cubic equation of the following form:
P (u) = 3C u3 + 2C u2 + 1C u +0C (2.10)
where, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1
− The cubic spline is defined by the two endpoints P0, P1 and the tangent vectors at
these points. The tangent vector can be found by differentiatingequ.(2.10).
P'(u) = 3C3u2 +2C 2u +C 1 (2.11)
− To determine the coefficients of the curve, consider the two endpoints P0, P1 and the
tangent vectors as shown in Fig. 2.12.
− Applying conditions at u = 0, in equations (2.10) and (2.11)
P0 =C0 (2.12)
P'0 = C1 (2.13)
− Applying conditions at u = 1, in equations (2.10) and (2.11)
P1 = C3 + C2 + C1 + C0 (2.14)
P'1 = 3C3 + 2C2 + C1 (2.15)
− Substituting (2.12) and (2.13) in (2.14) and (2.15), we get:
P1 = C3 + C2 + P'0 + P0 (2.16)
P'1 = 3C3 + 2C2 + P'0 (2.17)
− By solving simultaneous equations (2.16) and (2.17), weget
3P1 − P'1 = C2 +2P'0 + 3P0
C2 = 3P1 − P'1 −2P'0 −3P0
(2.18)
− Similarly again by solving simultaneous equations (2.16) and (2.17), we get
P'1 −2P1 = C3 −P '0 −2P0
C3 = P'1 −2P1 + P'0 + 2P0 (2.19)
− Substituting (2.12), (2.13), (2.18) and (2.19) in (2.10), we get:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 P (u) = (P ' −2P + P ' + 2P )u3 + (3P −P ' −2P ' − 3P )u2 + P ' u + P
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0

P (u) = P' u3 −2Pu3 + P' u3 +2P u3 + 3Pu2 −P' u2 −2P' u2 −3P u2 + P' u + P
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
P ( u) = 2P u3 − 3P u2 + P −2Pu3 + 3Pu2 + P' u3 −2P' u2 + P' u + P ' u3 −P ' u2
P (u ) = P (2u3 − 3u2 + 1) + P ( −2u3 + 3u2 ) + P ' (u3 −2u2 + u ) + P ' (u3 −u2 )
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
(2.20)
0 1 0 1

− The expression can be written in matrix form as under:

2u3 − 3u2 +1
P (u) =P P '  −2u + 3u 
3 2
P P'
1  u − 2u + u 
3 2
0 1 0


 u − u 
3 2

 2 −3 0 1 u  2 
3

−2 3 0 0 
P ( u ) =  P P P' P '   u
0 1 0 1
1 −2 1 0  u
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
− On similar lines, the tangent vector equation can be determined by differentiating
equation (2.20)
P' (u ) = P0 ( 6u2 − 6u) + P1( −6u2 + 6u ) + P ' 0( 3u2 − 4u + 1) + P ' 1(3u2 −2u )
 6u22− 6u 
P' ( u ) =  P P P ' −6u + 6u
P '  
1 3u − 4u + 1
2
0 1 0

 
 3u − 2u 
2

0 6 −6 0 u32 

0 −6 6 0
P' ( u ) =  P P P '  u 
P'  
0 1 0 1 0 3 −4 1  u
  
0 3 −2 0 1 
− Changing the values of endpoints or tangent vectors would modify the shape of the
curve.
Example 2.5: A cubic spline curve has start point P0(16,0) and end point P1(3,1). The tangent
vector for end point P0 is given by line joining P0 and point P2(14,8). Tangent vector for end
P1 is given by line joining P2 and point P1.
1. Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
2. Plot the hermite cubic curve.
P0 = [16 0]
P1 = [3 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [14 8] – [16 0]
= [–2 8]
P’1 = P1 – P2 = [3 1] – [14 8]
= [–11 –7]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Parametric equation
For any point on curve
2 −3 0
−2 1 u
 2
3

3 0 0 
P (u)=P P P' P '   u
0 1 0 1
1 −2 1 0  u
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
X coordinate of a point on curve
−3 0 1 u
−2
2  2 
3

3 0 0 
P (u) =P P P' P '   u
x 0x 1x 0x 1x
1 −2 1 0  u
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
−22 −3 0 1 u 2 
3

3 0 0
P (u) =16 3 −2 −11  u

x
 1 −2 1 0  u 
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
u3 
 2
u
P (u)=13 −24 −2 16 
x
u
 
1 
Px (u) = 13u3 −24u2 −2u +16

Y coordinate of a point on curve

 2 −3 0 1 u  2
3

P (u) = P P P ' P '  −2 3 0 0 u

  
 0y 1y 1y  −2 1 0   u
 1
y 0y
 
 1 −1 0 0 1 
 2 −3 0 1 u  2
3

−2 3 0 0 
P (u) =0 1 8 −7  u
y
 1 −2 1 0  u 
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
u 
3

u2
P (u)=−1 −6 8 0  
y u
 
1 
Py ( u ) = −u3 −u2 + 8u

Thus, parametric equation of parametric curve is

Px (u) = 13u3 − 24u2 − 2u + 16
(2.21)
Py ( u ) = −u3 − u2 + 8u

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in equ. (2.21)
are shown in table

Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 16 15.57 14.74 13.59 12.19 10.63 8.97 7.30 5.70 4.24 3.00
y (u) 0 0.74 1.35 1.83 2.18 2.38 2.42 2.32 2.05 1.61 1.00

The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.13.

Fig. 2.13
Example 2.6: The end point of a cubic spline curve are P0(1,2) and P1(7,1). The tangent vector
for end P0 is given by line joining P0 and point P2(-2,1). The tangent vector for end P0 is given
by line joining P3(9,-2) and point P1.
1. Determine the parametric equation of hermite cubic curve.
2. Determine the parametric equation for tangent vector.
[Link] the hermite cubic curve.
P0 = [1 2]
P1 = [7 1]
P’0 = P2 – P0 = [–2 1] – [1 2] = [–3 –1]
P’1 = P1 – P3 = [7 1] – [9 –2] = [–2 3]

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Parametric equation of curve
For any point on curve
2 −3 0
−2 1 u
 2
3

3 0 0 
P (u)=P P P' P '   u
0 1 0 1
1 −2 1 0  u
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
X coordinate of a point on curve
−2
2 −3 0 1 u  2 
3

3 0 0 
P (u) =P P P' P '   u
x 0x 1x
1 0x 1x −2 1 0  u
  
1 −1 0 0 1 
 2 −3 0 1 u
 2
3

−2 3 0 0
P (u) =1 7 −3 −2  u

 1 −2 1 0  u 
x

  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
u3 
 u2
P (u) =−17 26 −3 1 
x
u
 
1 
Px (u) = −17u3 + 26u2 − 3u +1

Y coordinate of a point on curve

 2 −3 0 1 u3 
P (u) = P P P '    2
P '  −2 3 0 0 u
  
y  0y 1y 0y 1y 
 −2 1 0   u
1  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
 2 −3 0 1 u  2
3

−2 3 0 0
P (u) =2 1 −1 3  u

y
 1 −2 1 0 u  
  
 1 −1 0 0 1 
u 
3

 u2
 
P (u) =4 −4 −1 2
y u
 
1 
Py ( u ) = 4u3 − 4u2 −u +2

Thus, parametric equation of parametric curve is

Px (u) = −17u3 + 26u2 − 3u + 1
(2.22)
Py (u) = 4u3 − 4u2 − u + 2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Parametric equation of tangent vector
0 6 −6 0 u23 
0 −6 6 0
P'(u) =P P P'   u 
P' 
0 1 0 1 0 3 −4 1  u
  
 0 3 −2 0 1 
X coordinate of tangent vector
0 6 −6 0 u32
0 −6 6 0 u
P ' (u) =1 7 −3 −2  
x
0 3 −4 1  u 
  
 0 3 −2 0 1 
u 
3

u2
P ' (u) =0 51 52 −3 
x u
 
1 
P' x ( u ) = 51u2 + 52u−3

Y coordinate of tangent vector

0 6 −6 0 u23 
0 −6 6 0
P ' (u) =2 1 u 
y −1 3 0 3 −4 1  
u
  
0 3 −2 0 1 
u3 
u2
P ' (u) =0 12 −8 −1 
y u
 
1 
P' y (u) =12u −8u −1
2

Thus, parametric equation of tangent vector is

P 'x (u) = 51u2 + 52u − 3
P 'y (u) = 12u2 − 8u −1

Curve plot
The point on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in equ.(2.22)
are shown in table

Point
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
U 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
x (u) 1 0.94 1.30 1.98 2.87 3.88 4.89 5.81 6.54 6.97 7.00
y (u) 2 1.86 1.67 1.45 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.71 0.69 0.78 1.00

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The Hermite cubic curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.14.

Fig. 2.14
➢ Bezier Curves:
− Cubic splines are based on interpolation techniques. Curves resulting from these
techniques pass through the given points.
− Another alternative to create curves is to use approximation techniques which
produce curves that do not pass through the given data points. Instead, these
points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.
− Most often, approximation techniques are preferred over interpolation techniques
in curve design due to the added flexibility and the additional intuitive feel
provided by the former. Bezier and B-spline curves are examples based on
approximation techniques.
− As its mathematics show shortly, the major differences between the Bezier curve
and the cubic spline curve are:
1. The shape of Bezier curve is controlled by its defining points only. First derivatives
are not used in the curve development as in the case of the cubic spline. This
allows the designer a much better feel for the relationship between input (points)
and output (curve).
2. The order or the degree of Bezier curve is variable and is related to the number of
points defining it; n + 1 points define an nth degree curve which permits higher-
order continuity. This is not the case for cubic splines where the degree is always
cubic for a spline segment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. The Bezier curve is smoother than the cubic spline because it has higher order
derivatives.

Fig. 2.15 Beizer Curve

− The Bezier curve is defined in terms of (n+1) points. This points are called as
control points, where n is the degree of the curve.
− If n=3 control points are 4, as shown in the Fig 2.15.
− These control points form the vertices of the control polygon or Bezier
characteristic polygon.
− The control or Bezier characteristic polygon uniquely defines the curve.
➢ Properties of Beizer Curve:
− The degree of polynomial defining the curve segment is one less than the no. of
defining polygon points (n-1).
− The curve follows the shape of the defining polygon.
− Only the first and last control points or vertices of polygon actually lie on curve.
− The other vertices define order & shape of the curve. (see Fig. 3.8)

Fig. 2.16 Same data points but different orders for Beizer Curve
− The curve is also always tangent to first and last segments of polygon.
− The same Beizer curve would be generated, if the sequence of the points is
changed from P0 – P1 – P2 – P3 to P3 – P2 – P1 – P0.
− The flexibility of the shape would increase with increase in number of vertices
of the polygon.
− It is having global control on the shape of the curve.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.17 Same Typical Examples of Beizer Curve
− Mathematically, for n + 1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the
following polynomial of degree n:
n

P(u) = Pi Bi ,n (u), 0  u  1 (2.23)

i =0

− where P(u) is any point on the curve and Pi is a control point. Bi,n are the Bernstein
polynomials. Thus, the Bezier curve has a Bernstein basis. The Bernstein polynomial
serves as the blending or basis function for the Bezier curve and is given by
B (u) = C(n,i)ui (1 − u)n−i (2.24)
i ,n

− where C(n,i) is the binomial coefficient

n!
C(n,i) = (2.25)
i!(n − i )!

− Utilizing Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25) and observing that C(n, 0) = C(n, n) = 1,
− Eq. (2.23) can be expanded to give
P(u) =P0(1 − u)n +P1 C(n,1)u(1 − u)n−1 +P2 C(n,2)u2(1 − u)n−2
+..... +P C(n,n −1)un−1 (1 − u) +P un , 0  u  1
n−1 n

− Bezier curve with 3 control points

P(u) =P0(1 − u)2 +P1 C(2,1)u(1 − u)2−1 +P2 C(2,2)u2 (1 − u)2−2
P(u) = (1 − u)2P + 2u(1 − u)P + u2P
0 1 2

− Bezier curve with 4 vertices

P(u) =P0(1 − u)3 +P1 C(3,1)u(1 − u)3−1 +P2 C(3,2)u2 (1 − u)3−2 +P3 C(3,3)u3 (1 − u)3−3
P(u) = (1 − u)3P + 3u(1 − u)2P + 3u2(1 − u)P + u3P
0 1 2 3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 − Bezier curve with 5 vertices
P(u) =P0(1 − u)4 +P1 C(4,1)u(1 − u)4−1 +P2 C(4,2)u2 (1 − u)4−2 +P3 C(4,3)u3(1 − u)4−3 +P4 C(4,4)u4 (1 − u)4−4
P(u) = (1 − u)4P + 4u(1 − u)3P + 6u2(1 − u)2P + 4u3(1 − u)P + u4P
0 1 2 3 4

Example 2.7: A Bezier curve is to be constructed using control points P0(35,30), P1(25,0),
P2(15,25) and P3(5,10). The Bezier curve is anchored at P0 and P3. Find the equation of the
Bezier curve and plot the curve for u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.
P0 = [35 30]
P1 = [25 0]
P2 = [15 25]
P3 = [5 10]
n=3
The parametric equation for Bezier curve
P(u) =(1 − u)3P + 3u(1− u)2P + 3u2(1− u)P + u3P
0 1 2 3

X-coordinate of a point on curve

P (u) = (1 − u)3P + 3u(1 − u)2P + 3u2 (1 − u)P + u3P
x 0x 1x 2x 3x

Px (u) = 35(1 − u)3 + 75u(1 − u)2 + 45u2 (1 − u) + 5u3

Px (u) = 35(1 − 3u + 3u2 − u3 ) + 75u(1 − 2u + u2 ) + 45u2 − 45u3 + 5u3
Px (u) = 35 − 105u + 105u2 − 35u3 + 75u − 150u2 + 75u3 + 45u2 − 45u3 + 5u3
Px (u) = 35 − 30u

Y-coordinate of a point on curve

P (u) = (1 − u)3P + 3u(1 − u)2 P + 3u2 (1 − u)P + u3P
y 0y 1y 2y 3y

Py (u) = 30(1 − u)3 + 75u2 (1 − u) + 10u3

Py (u) = 30(1 − 3u + 3u2 − u3) + 75u2 − 75u3 + 10u3
Py (u) = 30 − 90u + 165u2 − 95u3

The parametric equation of Bezier curve

Px (u) = 35 − 30u
(2.26)
Py (u) = 30 − 90u + 165u2 − 95u3

The points on curve obtained by varying the value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1 in equ.
(2.26) are shown in below table

Point No. 0 2 4 6 8 10
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Px (u) 35.0 29.0 23.0 17.0 11.0 5.00
Py (u) 30.0 17.84 14.32 14.88 14.96 10.00

The Bezier curve plotted using the above coordinates is shown in Fig. 2.18.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.18
Example 2.8: Plot a Bezier curve using the following control points.
(2,0), (4,3), (5,2), (4,-2), (5,-3) and (6,-2).
P0 = [2 0] P1 = [4 3]
P2 = [5 2] P3 = [4 -2]
P4 = [5 -3] P5 = [6 -2]
n=5
The parametric equation for Bezier curve with 6 control points
P(u) =(1 − u)5P + 5u(1− u)4P +10u2(1 − u)3P +10u3(1 − u)2P + 5u4(1 − u)P + u5P
0 1 2 3 4 5
P(u) = (1 − 5u + 10u2 − 10u3 + 5u4 − u5 )P + 5u(1 − 4u + 6u2 − 4u3 + u4 )P
0 1
+ 10u2(1− 3u + 3u2 − u3)P + 10u3(1− 2u + u2)P + 5u4(1− u)P + u5P
2 3 4 5
P(u) = (1 − 5u + 10u2 − 10u3 + 5u4 − u5 )P +(5u − 20u2 + 30u3 − 20u4 + 5u5 )P
0 1
+(10u2 − 30u3 + 30u4 − 10u5)P +(10u3 − 20u4 + 10u5)P + (5u4 − 5u5)P + u5P
2 3 4 5
P(u) =P +(−5P + 5P )u +(10P − 20P + 10P )u2 +(−10P + 30P − 30P + 10P )u3
0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
+(5P − 20P + 30P − 20P + 5P )u4 +(−P + 5P −10P + 10P − 5P +P )u5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5

X- coordinate of a point on a curve

P (u) =P +(−5P + 5P )u +(10P − 20P + 10P )u2 +(−10P + 30P − 30P + 10P )u3
x 0x 0x 1x 0x 1x 2x 0x 1x 2x 3x
+(5P − 20P + 30P − 20P + 5P )u4 + (−P + 5P − 10P + 10P − 5P +P )u5
0x 1x 2x 3x 4x 0x 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Px (u) = 2 +(−5(2) + 5(4))u +(10(2) − 20(4) + 10(5))u2 +(−10(2) + 30(4) − 30(5)+ 10(4))u3
+(5(2) − 20(4)+ 30(5)− 20(4)+ 5(5))u4 +(−(2)+ 5(4)− 10(5)+ 10(4) − 5(5)+ (6))u5
Px (u) = 2 + 10u −10u2 −10u3 + 25u4 −11u5
Y-coordinate of a point on a curve
P (u) =P +(−5P + 5P )u +(10P − 20P + 10P )u2 +(−10P + 30P − 30P + 10P )u3
y 0y 0y 1y 0y 1y 2y 0y 1y 2y 3y
+ (5P − 20P + 30P − 20P + 5P )u4 + (−P + 5P − 10P + 10P − 5P +P )u5
0y 1y 2y 3y 4y 0y 1y 2y 3y 4y 5y

Py (u) = 0 +(−5(0) + 5(3))u +(10(0) − 20(3) + 10(2))u2 +(−10(0) + 30(3) − 30(2) + 10(−2))u3
+(5(0)− 20(3)+ 30(2)− 20(−2) + 5(−3))u4 +(−(0) + 5(3)−10(2) + 10(2)− 5(−3)+ (−2))u5
Py (u) = 15u − 40u2 +10u3 + 25u4 −12u5
The parametric equation of Bezier curve
Px (u) = 2 + 10u −10u2 − 10u3 + 25u4 − 11u5 (2.27)
Py (u) = 15u − 40u2 + 10u3 + 25u4 − 12u5
The points on curve obtained by varying the value of u from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.1 in
equ.(2.27) are shown in below table

Point No. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
u 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Px (u) 2 2.89 3.56 4.01 4.29 4.47 4.62 4.82 5.12 5.52 6.00
Py (u) 0 1.11 1.52 1.34 0.76 -0.06 -0.93 -1.68 -2.17 -2.29 -2.00

Fig. 2.19

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

➢ B-Spline Curve:
− B-Spline curves are proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curve.
− They are very similar to Bezier curve and are also defined with the help of
characteristic polygon.
− The major advantage of B-Spline curve is due to its ability to control the curve
shape locally, as opposed to global control (see Fig. 2.20).

Fig. 2.20 Local Control of a B-Spline Curve

− B-Spline curves allow a local control over the shape of the spline curve.
− B-Spline curves allow us to vary the control points without changing the degree of
the polynomial (i.e. number of control points can be added or subtracted).
− The degree of the curve is independent of the number of control points (i.e. four
control points can generate a linear, quadratic or cubic curve).
− It gives better control over the shape of curve.
− They are more complex compared to Bezier curves.
− B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is given by
n

P(u) = Pi Ni ,k (u), 0  u  umax (2.28)

i =0

Ni,k(u) are the B-spline functions. Thus, the B-spline curves have a B-spline basis.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

➢ Rational curves
− A rational curve is defined by the algebraic ratio of two polynomials while a
nonrational curve is defined by one polynomial.
− The formulation of rational curves requires the introduction of homogeneous
space and the homogeneous coordinates. The homogeneous space is four-
dimensional space. A point in three dimensional with coordinates (x, y, z) is
represented in the homogeneous space by the coordinates (x*, y*, z*, h),where h
is a scalar factor. The relationship between the two types of coordinates is
x* y* z*
x= y= z=
h h h
− A rational B-spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is given by
n

P(u) = Pi Ri ,k (u), 0  u  umax (2.29)

i =0

− Ri,k(u) are the rational B-spline functions and are given by

R (u) = hiNi ,k (u)
i ,k n

hN i i ,k (u)
i =0

− The above equation shows that Ri,k(u) are a generalization of the nonrational basis
functions Ni,k(u). If we substitute hi = 1 in the equation, Ri,k(u) = Ni,k(u). The rational
basis functions Ri,k(u) have nearly all the analytic and geometric characteristics of
their nonrational B-spline counterparts.
− The main difference between rational and nonrational B-spline curves is the ability
to use hi at each control point to control the behavior of the rational B-splines (or
rational curves in general).
− Thus, similarly to the knot vector, one can define a homogeneous coordinate
vector H = [h0 h1 h2 h3 . . . hn]T at the control points P0, P1, . . ., Pn of the rational B-
spline curve. The choice of the H vector controls the behavior of the curve.
− A rational B-spline is considered a unified representation that can define a variety
of curves and surfaces. The premise is that it can represent all wireframe, surface
and solid entities. This allows unification and conversion from one modeling
technique to another. Such an approach has some drawbacks, including the loss of
information on simple shapes.
− For example, if a circular cylinder (hole) is represented by a B-spline, some data on
the specific curve type may be lost unless it is carried along. Data including the fact
that the part feature was a cylinder would be useful to manufacturing to identify it
as a hole to be drilled or bored rather than a surface to be milled.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Surface Modeling
− The surface model is an extension of wire frame model which involves providing a
surface representation making the object look solid to the viewer.
− Surface systems were in fact the first CAD systems to raise the possibility of
integrating the whole industrial process of design and analysis through to the next
stages of production and quality control, using the computer as an intermediary.
− Shape design and representation of complex objects such as car, ship, aircraft and
castings cannot be achieved by a wire frame model. In such cases, surface models
are preferred for representing the objects with precision and accuracy.
− These models also find widespread applications in companies manufacturing
forgings, castings and molded products. Such articles are characterized by
smoothly curved shapes with blended edges which are not easily represented by
conventional engineering drawings.
− Another difficulty for designers with wire frame modelers is to obtain good
visualization of their ideas. The surface modeler is ideal for such products as the
entire surface is represented; allowing the computer to generate very realistic
shaded surface pictures.
− Most surface modelers come equipped with rendering features. In this, the model
once created is then provided with surface properties. For example, the surface
may be given a property which may make the object appear corroded or made of
brass or any such effects.
− A huge material library is generally made available to select the desired surface
effect. One can also define different kinds of lights, such as spot lights, ambient
lights, etc. in a 3D space and generate a photorealistic image of the object. This
feature is highly used in automobile and styling industries for determining the
aesthetic appeal of the object being designed.
− Advanced surface modelers go beyond representation and to some extent can be
used for property calculations as well. The surface model can be used for
generating NC tool paths for continuous path machining, making it an ideal mode
for integrating CAD / CAM. A surface modeler can be considered as an extension of
a wire frame.
− A wire frame model can be easily extracted from a surface model. It should be
remembered that surface models only store the geometry of their corresponding
objects and not the topology of these objects. To generate a surface model, a user
typically starts with a wire frame model and then connects them with the desired
surfaces.
− Once the product has been surface modeled, its geometry may be used directly in
the design of the mould or die which is to be made. Essential calculations can usually
be performed automatically by the computer such as for example the determination
of the volume enclosed by a mould. This gives an immediate idea of the volume of
raw material needed to make the product.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 ➢ Kinds of Surfaces

Fig. 2.21 Effect of Mesh Size on Object Visualization

− To create a surface, data related to the desired shape is required. The choice of the
surface is dependent on the application. In order to visualize surfaces, a mesh of
m x n in size is displayed. The mesh size is controllable and is in the form of criss-
cross on the surface. The mesh size plays an important role in proper visualization as
can be seen in the objects shown in Fig. 2.21. However, it should be noted that finer
the mesh size of surface entities, longer is the time required by the software to
construct and modify the entities.
− A system may need two boundaries to create a ruled surface or might require one
entity to create a surface of revolution. Surfaces provided by CAD / CAM software
are either analytical or synthetic.
The following are descriptions of major surface entities provided by CAD/CAM systems:
1. Plane Surface: This is the simplest surface. It requires three noncoincident points to
define an infinite plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross-sectional
views by intersecting a surface model with it, generate cross sections for mass
property calculations, or other similar applications where a plane is needed. Fig. 2.22
shows a plane surface.

Fig. 2.22 Plane Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2. Ruled (lofted) Surface: This is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two
boundary curves that define the surface (rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity.
This entity is ideal to represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks. Fig.
2.23 gives some examples.

Fig. 2.23 Ruled Surface

3. Surface of Revolution: This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric
objects. It is generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis
of symmetry a certain angle (Fig. 2.24).

Fig. 2.24 Surface of Revolution

4. Tabulated Cylinder: This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the cylinder) as shown in Fig.
2.25. The plane of the curve is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. It is used to
generate surfaces that have identical curved cross sections. The word "tabulated" is
borrowed from the APT language terminology.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.25 Tabulated Cylinder
5. Bezier surface: This is a surface that approximates given input data. It is different
from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. Similarly to the Bezier
curve, it does not pass through all given data points. It is a general surface that
permits twists and kinks (Fig. 2.26). The Bezier surface allows only global control of
the surface.

Fig. 2.26 Bezier Surface

6. B-spline surface: This is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input
data (Fig. 2.27). It is a synthetic surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier surface
but with the advantage of permitting local control of the surface.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 2.27 B-spline Surface
7. Coons Patch: The above surfaces are used with either open boundaries or given data
points. The Coons patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed
boundaries (Fig. 2.28).

Fig. 2.28 Coons Patch

8. Fillet surface: This is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together (Fig. 2.29).
The two original surfaces may or may not be trimmed.

Fig. 2.29 Fillet Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

9. Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape
but may have different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up surface
construction. For example, to create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner cylinder
can be created using a cylinder command and the other one can be created by an
offset command. Offset surface command becomes very efficient to use if the
original surface is a composite one. Figure 2.30 shows an offset surface.

Fig. 2.30 Offset Surface

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain representation of lines at different cases.
2. Explain representation of circle, ellipse.
3. Explain representation of parabola and hyperbola.
4. Explain properties, equation and blending of cubic spline.
5. Explain properties, equation and blending of Bezier curves.
6. Explain properties, and advantages of B-Splines and NURBS.
7. Explain various types of surfaces.

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain representation of lines at different cases.
2. Explain properties, equation and blending of cubic spline.
3. Explain properties, equation and blending of Bezier curves.
4. Explain properties, and advantages of B-Splines and NURBS.
5. Explain various types of surfaces.
 UNIT 3
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION OF SOLIDS
Course Objective:
Understand the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric construction.
Course Outcome:
Understand and develop the Mathematical representations of solids used in geometric
construction.
NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 7
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Geometry and Topology of Geometry of Understanding geometry and

Solids Solids topology of solids (B5, B6)

2. Comparison of wireframe, Comparing Learning Comparison of wireframe,

surface and solid models wireframe, surface and solid models (B3, B5)
surface and solid
models

3. Properties of solid model Solid model Learning about Properties of solid

properties model (B4, B5)

4. Properties of representation Representation Learning properties of representation

schemes schemes schemes (B4, B5)
5. Concept of Half-spaces, Half spaces and Learning about Concept of Half-
Boolean operations. Boolean spaces, Boolean operations. (B4, B5)
operations
6. Schemes: B-rep, CSG, Sweep Schemes Learning about Schemes: B-rep, CSG,
representation, ASM Sweep representation, ASM (B4, B5)
7. Primitive instancing, Cell Schemes Learning about Primitive instancing,
Decomposition and Octree Cell Decomposition and Octree
encoding encoding (B4, B5)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Wire Frame Modeling
− A geometric model of an object is created by using the two-dimensional geometric
entities such as: points, lines, curves, circles etc.
− Very often, designers build physical models to help in the visualization of a design. This
may require the construction of skeleton model using wires to represent the edges of
an object or component.
− Wire frame modeling is used in computer aided engineering techniques and also to
facilitate the production of various projected views to aid visualization.
− The model appears like a frame constructed out of wire hence it is called as WIRE
FRAME model.
− It is simple to construct.
− It requires less computer memory for storage compare to other types of geometric
models.
− The time required to retrieve, edit or update is less for wire-frame models compare to
other types of geometric models.
− It is more ambiguous to interpret the wire-frame model (see Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1 Ambiguity in Wire frame Model

− Calculation of the properties, such as mass, volume, moment of inertia etc., is not
possible.
− It is difficult and time consuming to generate wire-frame model for complicated
objects.
− It requires more input data compare to others as it requires co-ordinates of each node
and their connectivity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Solid Modeling
− To eliminate all kinds of ambiguities in representation and manipulations of the
objects, the solid modeler was developed. Out of the various approaches developed,
one of them was an approach to the design of mechanical parts by treating them as
combinations of simple building blocks like cylinders and cuboids.
− Such solid modelers or volume modelers can hold complete unambiguous
representations of the geometry of a wide range of solid objects. The completeness
of the information contained in a solid model allows the automatic production of
realistic images of a shape and automation of the process of interference checking.
− Furthermore, interfaces can interrogate the model and extract lot of useful data. The
model can also serve as a means of geometric input for finite element analysis or
even manufacturing tasks such as the generation of instructions for numerically
controlled machining.
− Solid modelers store more information (geometry and topology) than wireframe or
surface modelers (geometry only). Both wireframe and surface models are incapable
of handling spatial addressability as well as verifying that the model is well formed,
the latter meaning that these models cannot verify whether two objects occupy the
same space.
− Surface models provide a precise definition of surfaces and can handle complex
geometries, they are slow to render, are computationally intensive and do not
further CAD/CAM automation and integration goals. A shaded surface model is by no
means considered a solid model.
− On the other hand, solid modeling produces accurate designs, provides complete
three-dimensional definition, improves the quality of design, improves visualization
and has potential for functional automation and integration.
− However solid modeling has some limitations. For example, it cannot automatically
create other models from the solid definition and neither can it automatically use
data created in other models to create a solid. In addition, solid modeling has not
been proven for large-scale production applications.
− Other limitations such as slow rendering and computations as well as poor user
interface are fading away with the rapid enhancement of both hardware and
software.
Geometry and Topology
− The difference between geometry and topology is illustrated in Fig. 3.2. Geometry
(sometimes called metric information) is the actual dimensions that define the
entities of the object.
− The geometry that defines the object shown in Fig. 3.2 is the lengths of lines L 1, L2
and L3, angles between the lines and the radius R and the center P1 of thehalf-circle.
− Topology (sometimes called combinatorial structure), on the other hand, is the
connectivity and associativity of the object entities.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 − It has to do with the notion of neighborhood; that is, it determines the relational
information between object entities.
− The topology of the object shown in Fig. 3.2b can be stated as follows: L 1 shares a
vertex (point) with L2 and C1, L2 shares a vertex with L1 and L3, L3 shares a vertex with
L2 and C1, L1 and L3 do not overlap and P1 lies outside the object. Based on these
definitions, neither geometry nor topology alone can completely model objects.
− Wireframe and surface models deal only with geometrical information of objects and
are therefore considered incomplete and ambiguous. From a user point of view,
geometry is visible and topology is considered to be nongraphical relational
information that is stored in solid model databases and are not visible to users.

Fig. 3.2 Difference between Geometry and Topology of an Object

Properties of solid model
The properties that a solid model or an abstract solid should capture mathematically can be
stated as follows:
1. Rigidity This implies that the shape of a solid model is invariant and does not depend
on the model location or orientation in space.
2. Homogeneous three-dimensionality Solid boundaries must be in contact with the
interior. No isolated or dangling boundaries (see Fig. 3.3) should be permitted.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 3. Finiteness and finite describability The former property means that the size of the
solid is not infinite while the latter ensures that a limited amount of information can
describe the solid. The latter property is needed in order to be able to store solid
models into computers whose storage space is always limited. It should be noted
that the former property does not include the latter and vice versa. For example, a
cylinder which may have a finite radius and length may be described by an infinite
number of planar faces.
4. Closure under rigid motion and regularized boolean operations This property
ensures that manipulation of solids by moving them in space or changing them via
boolean operations must produce other valid solids.
5. Boundary determinism The boundary of a solid must contain the solid and hence
must determine distinctively the interior of the solid.

Fig. 3.3
Properties of representation scheme
The formal properties of representation schemes which determine their usefulness in
geometric modeling can be stated as follows:
1. Domain: The domain of a representation scheme is the class of objects that the
scheme can represent or it is the geometric coverage of the scheme.
2. Validity The validity of a representation scheme is determined by its range, that is,
the set of valid representations or models it can produce. If a scheme produces an
invalid model, the CAD/CAM system in use may crash or the model database may be
lost or corrupted if an algorithm is invoked on the model database. Validity checks
can be achieved in three ways: test the resulting databases via a given algorithm,
build checks into the scheme generator itself, or design scheme elements (such as
primitives) that can be manipulated via a given syntax.
3. Completeness or Unambiguousness This property determines the ability of the
scheme to support analysis and other engineering applications. A complete scheme
must provide models with sufficient data for any geometric calculation to be
performed on them.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Uniqueness This property is useful to determine object equality. It is a custom in
algebra to check for uniqueness but it is rare to do so in geometry. This is because it
is difficult to develop algorithms to detect the equivalence of two objects and it is
computationally expensive to implement these algorithms if they exist. Positional
and permutational nonuniqueness are two simple cases shown in fig. 3.4. Fig. 3.4(a)
shows a two dimensional rectangular solid (of side lengths a and b) in two different
positions and orientations. The two-dimensional solid S shown in fig. 3.4(b) is divided
into three blocks A, B and C that can be unioned in a different order.

Fig. 3.4
The informal properties of representation schemes for solid models
The primary considerations for storing the model in a computer are:
i. Conciseness (i.e. how much computer memory is occupied by the model of a shape).
ii. Efficiency (i.e. how much computer time is used in creating, interrogating or
modifying the model of a shape.
− In general, there is a trade-off between the usage of memory and usage of time. For
example, if we use up storage for 'remembering' the properties of a shape, then we
do not need to spend a lot of time recalculating these properties every time one
needs the information.
− Representation schemes where the elements of a shape are explicitly held in the
model are termed as evaluated representations. Conversely, those where the
elements must be calculated from implicit instructions for construction of the shape
are known as unevaluated representations.
− Depending on the application, either of the above approaches can be used.
Representation of solid in a computer can be divided into 6 general classes as
follows:
1. Pure Primitive Instancing
− This technique is used to define numerous families of objects, each defined
parametrically as shown in Fig. 3.5. A particular solid is specified completely by giving
the family to which it belongs, together with a limited set of parameter values.
However, such systems can only define a restricted range of objects which have
been predefined in the system.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Pin parameters (D, T, and L)
Fig. 3.5 Pure Primitive Instancing
2. Generalized Sweeps
− A solid is defined in terms of volumes swept out by 2D or 3D lamina as they move
along a curve. Some of the typical objects generated by this method are shown in
Fig. 3.6.

(a) Translational Sweep

(b) Translational Sweep over Path

(c) Rotational Sweep

Fig. 3.6 Generalised Sweep

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

3. Spatial Occupancy Enumeration
− Under this technique 3D objects are divided up into cubical cells at a particular
resolution and objects are modeled by listing the cells that they occupy as shown in
Fig. 3.7 (a) to (c).
− Smaller the size of the cube, more accurate would be the representation. This
representation scheme requires large amounts of storage for reasonable resolution
and thus has not been favored in practical systems.

(a) First Level (b) Second Level

(c) Third Level (d) Fourth Level (e) Fifth Level

Fig. 3.7 Spatial Occupancy Enumeration and Octree Decomposition
− However, this problem has been reduced in a development of a scheme known as
Octree decomposition [Refer Fig. 3.7 (d) & (e)]. In this scheme only those cells that
are occupied at each level are stored and sub-division is only necessary for partially
occupied cells.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

4. Cellular Decomposition
− An object is represented in this scheme by a list of cells it occupies, but the cells are
not necessarily cubes, nor are they necessarily identical (see Fig. 3.8)

Fig. 3.8 Cellular Decomposition (9 Cell Decomposition)

5. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG or C-rep)
− This method is also called as the Building Block Approach. The CSG system allows the
user to build the model out of solid graphic primitives, such as rectangular blocks,
spheres, cylinders, cones, wedges and torus. These shapes and the mathematical
representation of these blocks are shown below in Fig. 3.9.

Fig. 3.9 Solid Primitives

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− This is one of the most popular method of representing and building complex solids.
ACSG model is based on the principle that any physical object can be divided into a
set of bounded primitives which can be combined in a certain manner to form the
physical object.
− Structuring and combining the primitives of the solid model in the graphics database,
is achieved by the use of Boolean operations. Consider two solids A and B, sharing a
common volume of space as shown in Fig. 3.10 (a). The Boolean operations that can
be performed on them and the resultant solid are shown in Fig. 3.10 (b) to (d).

Fig. 3.10 Boolean Operations

− CSG method has a procedural advantage in the initial formulation of the model. It is
relatively easy to construct a precise solid model out of regular solid primitives by
adding, subtracting and intersecting the components. CSG uses the unevaluated
representation format which results in compact file of the model in the database.
However, this results in more computations to evaluate the model.
− The data representation of CSG objects is represented by a binary tree. The binary
tree gives the complete information of how individual primitives are combined to
represent the object. The number of primitives thus decides the number of Boolean
operations required to construct the binary tree.
− The balanced distribution of the tree is desired to achieve minimum computations
while modifying or interrogating a model. A balanced tree can be defined as a tree
whose left and right subtrees have almost an equal number of nodes.
− The creation of balanced or an unbalanced tree is solely dependent on the user and
is related to how the primitives are combined. Ideally the model should be built from
an almost central position and branch out in two opposite directions.
− For example, while doing a union operation, it is preferred to combine all the unions
together, rather than achieving unions of objects two at a time. A balanced and an
unbalanced method of building the same object is shown in Fig. 3.11.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 (a) Unbalanced Tree

(b) Balanced Tree

Fig. 3.11 CSG Tree
− The CSG tree is organized upside down, with the root representing the composite
object at the top and primitives called as leaves at the bottom.
6. Boundary Representation (B-rep)
− The boundary representation approach or B-rep is a popular method of solid
representation. It can be considered as an extension of the wire frame model with
additional face information added.
− In a B-rep, the solid is considered to be bounded by its surface and has its interior
and exterior. The surface consists of a set of well organized faces. The two important
areas for B-rep models are the topological and geometrical information.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− Topological information provides the relationship about vertices, edges and faces
similar to that used in a wire frame model. In addition to connectivity, topological
information also includes orientation of edges and faces. Geometric information is
usually in terms of equations of the edges and the faces.
− In a B-rep model, the information related to the orientation of the face is important.
Generally external vertices of the face are numbered in anti-clockwise fashion. The
normal vector of the face as determined by the right hand rule must point to the
exterior of the surface.
− Consider the three faces as shown in Fig. 3.12. One of the methods to describe the
top face would be 4-3-5-6. On similar lines the other two faces could be described as
1-2-3-4 and 1-4-6-3.

Fig. 3.12 Orientation of External Face

− However, not all surfaces can be oriented in this way. If the surface of the solid can
be oriented, it is called orientable; otherwise it is non-orientable.
− The CSG and the B-rep information of the same solid are shown in Fig. 3.13. The CSG
model is achieved by the union of the two primitives whereas the facial information
for B-rep is as shown.
− It is seen that B-rep systems store only the bounding surfaces of the solid, however it
is still possible to compute geometrical and mass properties by virtue of numerical
methods such as Gauss Divergence Theorem, which relates volume integrals to
surface ones. The speed and accuracy of computations vary as per the kind of
surfaces used.
− B-rep systems are extremely useful when unusual shapes are encountered, which
would not be possible with CSG. This kind of situation occurs in aircraft fuselage,
wing shapes and in automobile body styling. Such shapes would be extremely
difficult to build by CSG.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 − In B-rep models, the solid is represented as an evaluated data structure. This
requires more storage space but does not demand nearly the same computation as
would be required for CSG to reconstruct the image. This makes it more efficient.

(a) CSG Information (b) B-rep Information

Fig. 3.13 Comparison of CSG and B-rep Information
− Another advantage of B-rep is that, it is relatively simple to convert back and forth
between a boundary representation and a corresponding wire-frame model. The
reason is that the model’s boundary definition is similar to the wire-frame definition
which facilitates conversion of one form to another.
Table 3.1 Comparison of C-rep and B-rep
C-rep B-rep
It does not store only the bounding It stores only the bounding surfaces of the
surfaces of the solid. solid.
It is easy to create precise solid model It does not use standard primitives.
using standard primitives.
It is difficult to create unusual shapes. It is easy to create unusual shapes.
Less storage space. More storage space.
More computation time required. Less computation time required.
It is relatively difficult to convert back and It is relatively simple to convert back and
forth between a C-rep and a corresponding forth between a boundary representation
wire-frame model. and a corresponding wire-frame model.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

7. Skinning or Lofting
− This method is uses a number of two dimensional profiles for generating a three
dimensional object. The two dimensional profiles are arranged as desired and a
three dimensional space curve is made to pass through these profiles.
− A skinning operation is then done for generating a solid. A typical example is shown
in Fig. 3.14. This method is useful in modeling turbine blades, aerofoil shapes,
manifolds, volute chambers and other such surfaces.

Fig. 3.14 Skinning

8. Miscellaneous Modeling Techniques:
− A complete modeler should have certain additional features which would simplify
the modeling procedures. A few of them are described below:
(a) Tweaking :
− A model can be created by using a combination of methods as described previously.
The ability available to the user to modify or move a vertex or a face and to see the
effect of that on the model is referred to as tweaking. This feature is useful in styling
automobile bodies and other consumer products.
(b) Filleting :
− Most engineering and consumer components are provided with smooth edges or
generous fillets. This not only improves the stress distribution, but also prevents
injury while handling them.
− If filleting procedure is done through CSG method, it would require a lot of data
input for achieving it. Instead direct procedures which allow the user to input the
properties of a fillet are necessary. This would result in a quick filleting operation,
without a large database.
− A typical filleting operation in wire frame and rendered modes are shown in Fig.
3.15.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

− Each of the solid modeling representation discussed above has its advantages and
disadvantages. The CSG and B-rep approaches are widely used in major CAD
softwares.
− In a single representation modeler, the representation is usually B-rep, with certain
commands such as sweep and a few CSG like inputs are accepted. However, the
storing of data is in B-rep format only.
− As compared to this, a dual representation modeler has a primary representation
scheme as CSG. (e. g. PADL-2). Here the modeler has both B-rep and CSG
representations. However, in this case, B-rep is derived internally and the user has
no control over it.
− In a truly hybrid modeler there are two independent internal representations of CSG
and B-rep. With these systems, the users have the capability to construct the
geometric model by either approach (CSG or B-rep), whichever is more appropriate
to the particular problem.

Fig. 3.15 Filleting Operation

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Half spaces
− Half-spaces form a basic representation scheme for bounded solids. By combining
half-spaces (using set operations) in a building block fashion, various solids can be
constructed. Half-spaces are usually unbounded geometric entities; each one of
them divides the representation space into two infinite portions, one filled with
material and the other empty. Surfaces can be considered half-space boundaries and
half-spaces can be considered directed surfaces.
− A half-space is defined as a regular point set in three dimensional coordinate system
(E3) as follows:
H = {P: P Є E3 and f(P) < 0}
− where P is a point in E3 and f(P) = 0 defines the surface equation of the half-space
boundaries. Half-spaces can be combined together using set operations to create
complex objects.
− The most used half spaces are:
Planar half-space: H={(x, y, z): z < 0}
Cylindrical half-space: H={x, y, z): x2 + y2 < R2}
Spherical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 + z2 < R2}
Conical half-space: H = {(x, y, z): x2 + y2 < [(tan α/2)z]2]}
Toroidal half-space: H = {(x, y, z): (x2 + y2 + z2 – R22 – R12)2 < 4 R22(R12– z2)}

Fig. 3.16

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain about Wireframe modeling.
2. Explain about geometry and topology of solids.
3. Explain properties of solids.
4. Explain properties of representation schemes.
5. Explain concept of Half spaces.
6. Explain about different Boolean operations.
7. Explain about B-representations.

QUESTION BANK
1. Explain about Wireframe modeling.
2. Explain about geometry, topology and properties of solids.
3. Explain properties of representation schemes.
4. Explain concept of Half spaces.
5. Explain about B-representations.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT 4
GEOMETRIC
TRANSFORMATIONS
Course Objective:
Understand the transformation of 2D and 3D parts.
Course Outcome:
Able to get the transformed in 2D and 3D using transformation equations.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 8
LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Geometric Transformations: Geometric Understanding homogeneous

Homogeneous Transformations representation of Geometric
representation Transformations (B5, B6)

2. Translation, Scaling, Translation, Learning about Translation, Scaling,

Scaling, Reflection (B4, B5)
Reflection

3. Reflection Reflection Learning about Reflection (B4, B5)

4. Rotation, Shearing in 2D and Rotation, Learning about Rotation, Shearing in

3D Shearing in 2D 2D and 3D (B4, B5)
and 3D

5. Orthographic projections Orthographic Learning about Orthographic

projections projections (B4, B5)
6. Perspective projections Perspective Learning about Perspective
projections projections (B4, B5)
7. Window to View-port Window to View- Learning about Window to View-port
transformation. port transformation. (B4, B5)
transformation.
8. Examples Examples Solving different examples (B2, B3)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Introduction
• Computer graphics can be defined as creation, storage and manipulation of pictures
and drawings by means of a computer.
• It enhances the power of communication between the computer and its users.
• It allows representation of huge set of numbers in the form of a graph or a picture
which helps in better understanding of the characteristic and pattern of data.
• A viewing surface of a raster scan display is divided into an array of pixels. A CRT
screen is made up of horizontal and vertical lines.
• Each horizontal line is made up of pixels. The memory of the computer is a collection
of bits and a bit can take any value either 0 or 1.
• Each pixel can be represented by one bit in memory. This memory is called frame
buffer.
• If a line as to be represented, then the pixel must be made bright to display the line.
• The pixel value of bit must be 1 in memory. This is known as scan conversion.

Geometric Transformations
• All changes performed on the graphic image are done by changing the database of
the original picture. These changes are called as transformations.
• Transformations allow the user to uniformly change the entire picture. An object
created by the user is stored in the form of a database. If the database, which
represents the object, is changed, the object also would change. This method is used
to alter the orientation, scale, position of the drawing.
• In general, geometric transformations can be defined as the change done to the
database by performing certain mathematical operations on it, so as to produce the
desired change in the image.
4.2.1 Translation

Fig. 4.1 Translation

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • When every entity of a geometric model remains parallel to its initial position, the
transformation is called as translation.
• Translating a model therefore implies that every point on it moves by an equal given
distance in a given direction. A translation involves moving of an element from one
location to another.

Scaling
• Scaling transformation alters the size of an object. Scaling can be uniform (i.e. equal
in both X and Y directions) or non-uniform (i.e. different in X and Y directions).
• To achieve scaling, the original coordinates would be multiplied by scaling factor.

Fig. 4.2 Scaling

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This equation can also be represented in matrix form as follows:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Reflection or Mirror
• Reflection is the process of obtaining a mirror of the original shape.
• This is an important transformation and is used quite often as many engineered
products are symmetrical.
• The following transformation matrices as shown in Fig, 4.3 when multiplied to the
original point produce a Reflection or Mirror.
• Thus, in general,
P' = P  M

Fig. 4.3 Reflection

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Rotation
• Rotation is an important transformation and allows the user to view the objects from
different angles.
• It can also be used to create entities arranged in circular arrays, by creating the
entity once and then rotating / copying it to the desired positions on the
circumference. This would allow the user to create an array of objects.

Fig. 4.4 Rotation

• Let point P (x, y) be rotated by an angle θ about the origin O.
P =x y =r Cos  r Sin 
• Let the rotated point be represented as :
P' =  x' y' = rCos
 ( + ) r Sin ( + )
 ( Cos Cos - Sin Sin )
P' = r r ( Sin Cos + Cos Sin )
P' = ( x Cos − y Sin )( x Sin + y Cos )
• This can be expressed as:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Homogeneous Representation
• Many a times it becomes necessary to combine the above mentioned individual
transformations in order to achieve the required results. In such cases the combined
transformation matrix can be obtained by multiplying the respective transformation
matrices.
• However, care should to be taken that the order of the matrix multiplication be done
in the same way as that of the transformations as follows.
[P*] = [Tn] [Tn – 1] [Tn – 2+ ……..*T3] [T2] [T1] ................................. (4.1)
In Eq. (4.1) all the transformation matrices should be multiplicative type.
• The following form should be used to convert the translation into a multiplication
form.
P* = x * y * 1
1 0 0
=  0 1 0x y 1
dX dY 1
• Hence the translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as
1 0 0
MT  =  0 1 0
dX dY 1
• This is termed as homogeneous representation. In homogeneous representation, an
n-dimensional space is mapped into (n+1) dimensional space. Thus a 2 dimensional
point [x y] is represented by 3 dimensions as [x y 1]. Homogeneous representation
can be experienced in the following situations.
Rotation about an arbitrary Point
• The transformation given earlier for rotation is about the origin of the axes system. It
may sometimes be necessary to get the rotation about any arbitrary base point as
shown in Fig. 4.5. To derive the necessary transformation matrix, the following
complex procedure comprising the followin1g three points would be required.
(i) Translate the point A to O, the origin of the axes system.
(ii) Rotate the object by the given angle.
(iii) Translate the point back to its original position.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • The transformation matrices for the above operations in the given sequence are the
following.

Fig. 4.5 Rotation about an arbitrary Point

Reflection about an arbitrary Line

• Similar to the above, there are times when the reflection is to be taken about an
arbitrary line as shown in Fig. 4.6.
1. Translate the mirror line along Y axis such that line passes through the origin, O.
2. Rotate the mirror line such that it coincides with the X axis.
3. Mirror the object through the X axis.
4. Rotate the mirror line back to the original angle with X axis.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 5. Translate the mirror line along the Y axis back to the original position.
Following are the transformation matrices for the above operations in the givensequence.

Fig. 4.6 Reflection Transformation about on arbitrary Line

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Shearing
• A transformation that distorts the shape of an object such that the transformed
shape appears as if the object were composed of internal layers that had been
caused to slide over each other is called a shear.
2D Shearing
• Two common shearing transformations are those that shift coordinate x values and
those that shift y values.
• An x-direction shear relative to the x axis is produced with the transformation matrix
1 shx 0
0 1 0 ………(4.2)
 
0 0 1
• which transforms coordinate positions as
x’ = x + shx . y, y’ = y ………(4.3)
• Any real number can be assigned to the shear parameter shx. A coordinate position
(x, y) is then shifted horizontally by an amount proportional to its distance (y value)
from the x axis (y = 0).
• Setting shx to 2, for example, changes the square in Fig. 4.7 into a parallelogram.
Negative values for shx shift coordinate positions to the left.

Fig. 4.7 A unit square (a) is converted to a parallelogram (b) using the x direction shear
matrix 4.2 with shx = 2.
• We can generate x-direction shears relative to other reference lines with

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• with coordinate positions transformed as
x’ = x + shx (y – yref), y’ = y .............................................. (4.5)
• An example of this shearing transformation is given in Fig.4.8 for a shear parameter
value of 1 /2 relative to the line yref = –1.

Fig. 4.8 A unit square (a) is transformed to a shifted parallelogram (b)

with shx = 1/2 and yref = –1 in the shear matrix 4.4.
• A y-direction shear relative to line x = xref is generated with transformation matrix

• which generates transformed coordinate positions

x’ = x, y’ = y + shy (x – xref) ................................................. (4.7)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 4.9 A unit square (a) is turned into a shifted parallelogram (b) with parameter values shy
= 1/2 and xref = –1 in the y direction using shearing transformation 4.6.
• This transformation shifts a coordinate position vertically by an amount proportional
to its distance from the reference line x = xref. Fig. 4.9 illustrates the conversion of a
square into a parallelogram with shy = 1/2 and xref = –1.
• Shearing operations can be expressed as sequences of basic transformations. The x-
direction shear matrix 4.2, for example, can be written as a composite
transformation involving a series of rotation and scaling matrices that would scale
the unit square of Fig. 4.9 along its diagonal, while maintaining the original lengths
and orientations of edges parallel to the x axis.
• Shifts in the positions of objects relative to shearing reference lines are equivalent to
translations.
3D Shearing
• In two dimensions, transformations relative to the x or y axes to produce distortions
in the shapes of objects. In three dimensions, we can also generate shears relative to
the z axis.

Fig 4.10
• As an example of three-dimensional shearing, the following transformation produces
a z-axis shear:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• Parameters a and b can be assigned any real values. The effect of this transformation
matrix is to alter x- and y-coordinate values by an amount that is proportional to the
z value, while leaving the z coordinate unchanged.
• Boundaries of planes that are perpendicular to the z axis are thus shifted by an
amount proportional to z. An example of the effect of this shearing matrix on a unit
cube is shown in Fig. 4.10, for shearing values a=b=1. Shearing matrices for the x axis
and y axis are defined similarly.

4.2 Projections of Geometric Models

• Databases of geometric models can only be viewed and examined if they can be
displayed in various views on a display device or screen. Viewing a three dimensional
model is a rather complex process due to the fact that display devices can only
display graphics on two-dimensional screens.
• This mismatch between three-dimensional models and two-dimensional screens can
be resolved by utilizing projections that transform three-dimensional models onto a
two-dimensional projection plane. Various views of a model can be generated using
various projection planes.
• To define a projection, a center of projection and a projection plane must be defined
as shown in Fig. 4.11. To obtain the projection of an entity (a line connecting points
P1 and P2 in the figure), projection rays (called projectors) are constructed by
connecting the center of projection with each point of the entity.

Fig. 4.11 Projection Definition

• The intersections of these projectors with the projection plane define the projected
points which are connected to produce the projected entity. There are two different
types of projections based on the location of the center of projection relative to the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 projection plane.
• If the center is at a finite distance from the plane, perspective projection results and
all the projectors meet at the center. If, on the other hand, the center is at an infinite
distance, all the projectors become parallel (meet at infinity) and parallel projection
results. Perspective projection is usually a part of perspective, or projective,
geometry.
• Such geometry does not preserve parallelism, that is, no two lines are parallel.
Parallel projection is a part of affine geometry which is identical to Euclidean
geometry. In affine geometry, parallelism is an important concept and therefore is
preserved.
Perspective projection
• Perspective projection creates an artistic effect that adds some realism to
perspective views. As can be seen from Fig. 4.11(a), the size of an entity is inversely
proportional to its distance from the center of projection; that is, the closer the
entity to the center, the larger its size is.
• Perspective views are not popular among engineers and draftsmen because actual
dimensions and angles of objects and therefore shapes, cannot be preserved, which
implies that measurements cannot be taken from perspective views directly. In
addition, perspective projection does not preserve parallelism.
• In order to define perspective projection, a centre of projection and a projection
plane are required. The centre of projection is placed along the z-axis and the image
is projected onto z = 0 or xy plane.
• The transformation of perspective projection is given by:
P* = Po P
where
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
PO = 0 0 0

0
 
0 0 −1 / d 1
P is the given point.
P* is the reflected point.
d is the distance between the centre of projection to the projection plane.

Orthographic Projection
• Unlike perspective projection, parallel projection preserves actual dimensions and
shapes of objects. It also preserves parallelism. Angles are preserved only on faces of
the object which are parallel to the projection plane.
• There are two types of parallel projections based on the relation between the
direction of projection and the projection plane. If this direction is normal to the
projection plane, orthographic projection and views result.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• The orthographic projection system is to include a total of six projecting planes in
any direction required for complete description.
• A typical example is shown in Fig. 4.12 where the object is enclosed in a box such
that there are 6 mutually perpendicular projecting planes on which all possible 6
views of the object can be projected.
• This would help in obtaining all the details of the object as shown in Fig. 4.13. The
visible lines are shown with the help of continuous lines while those that are not
visible are shown by means of broken lines.

Fig. 4.12 An object Enclosed in a Cube for Obtaining Various Parallel Projections
• Obtaining the orthographic projections is relatively straight forward because of the
parallel projections involved. The top view can be obtained by setting z = 0. The
transformation matrix will then be
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
M = 
0 0 0 0
TOP 
0 0 0 1
• For obtaining the front view, y = 0 and then the resulting coordinates (x, z) will be
rotated by 900 such that the Z axis coincides with the Y axis. The transformation
matrix will then be
1 0  0 0
0 0 −1 0
MFRONT  =  
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 1

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig. 4.13 Orthographic Projection of an Object.
• Similarly for obtaining the right side view, x = 0 and then the coordinate system is
rotated such that Y axis coincides with the X axis and the Z axis coincides with the Y
axis. The transformation matrix will then be
0
0 0 −1 0
1 0 0
MRIGHT  =  
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 1

Window to View-port transformation

• A world-coordinate area selected for display is called a window. An area on a display
device to which a window is mapped is called a viewport. The window defines what
is to be viewed; the viewport defines where it is to be displayed.
• Often, windows and viewports are rectangles in standard position, with the
rectangle edges parallel to the coordinate axes. Other window or viewport
geometries, such as general polygon shapes and circles, are used in some
applications, but these shapes take longer to process.

Fig. 4.14 A viewing transformation using standard rectangles for the window and viewport

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

• In general, the mapping of a part of a world-coordinate scene to device coordinates
is referred to as a viewing transformation. Sometimes the two-dimensional viewing
transformation is simply referred to as the window-to-viewport transformation or
the windowing transformation.
• Fig. 4.14 illustrates the mapping of a picture section that falls within a rectangular
window onto a designated rectangular viewport.
• Fig. 4.15 illustrates the window-to-viewport mapping. A point at position (xw, yw) in
the window is mapped into position (xv,yv) in the associated viewport. To maintain
the same relative placement in the viewport as in the window, we require that
xv − xvmin = xw − xwmin
xvmax − xvmin xwmax − xwmin
yv − yvmin yw − ywmin
= ………………(4.8)
yvmax − yvmin ywmax − ywmin
• Solving these expressions for the viewport position (xv, yv), we have
xv = xvmin + (xw − xwmin)sx
………………(4.9)
yv = yvmin + (yw − ywmin)sy
• Where the scaling factors are
xv − xvmin
sx = max
xwmax − xwmin
……………….(4.10)
yv − yvmin
sy = max
ywmax − ywmin
• Eq. 4.9 can also be derived with a set of transformations that converts the window
area into the viewport area. This conversion is performed with the following
sequence of transformations:

Fig. 4.15 A point at position (xw, yw) in a designated window is mapped to viewport
coordinates (xv,yv) so that relative positions in the two areas are the same.
1. Perform a scaling transformation using a fixed-point position of (xwmin, ywmin) that
scales the window area to the size of the viewport.
2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of the viewport.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Relative proportions of objects are maintained if the scaling factors are the same
(sx = sy). Otherwise, world objects will be stretched or contracted in either the x or y
direction when displayed on the output device.
• Character strings can be handled in two ways when they are mapped to a viewport.
The simplest mapping maintains a constant character size, even though the viewport
area may be enlarged or reduced relative to the window.
• This method would be employed when text is formed with standard character fonts
that cannot be changed. In systems that allow for changes in character size, string
definitions can be windowed the same as other primitives. For characters formed
with line segments, the mapping to the viewport can be carried out as a sequence of
line transformations.
• From normalized coordinates, object descriptions are mapped to the various display
devices. Any number of output devices can be open in a particular application, and
another window-to-viewport transformation can be performed for each open output
device.
• This mapping, called the workstation transformation, is accomplished by selecting a
window area in normalized space and a viewport area in the coordinates of the
display device.
• With the workstation transformation, we gain some additional control over the
positioning of a scene on individual output devices. As illustrated in Fig. 4.16, we can
use workstation transformations to partition a view so that different parts of
normalized space can be displayed on different output devices.

Fig. 4.16 Mapping selected parts of a scene in normalized coordinates to different video
monitors with workstation transformations.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 4.1
A triangle ABC with vertices A (32, 22), B (88, 20) and C (32, 82) is to be scaled by a factor
of 0.6 about a point X (50, 42). Determine the co-ordinates of the vertices for the scaled
triangle.
Solution:
Data given:
Sx = Sy = 0.6
Scaling about a point X (50, 42)
So, first translate the object to origin then scale the object and then translate back the
scaled object to the given point X (50, 42).
A'B'C' = ABC T S T −1
32 22 1  1 0 0 0.6 0 0  1 0 0
A'B'C' = 88 20 1  0 1 0  0 0.6 0  0 1 0
    
32
 82 1  −50 −42 1  0 0 1 50 42 1
32 22 1  1 0 0 0.6 0 0
A'B'C' = 88 20 1  0 1 0  0 0.6 0
   
32 82 1  −50 −42 1  50 42 1
32 22 1 0.6 0 0
A'B'C' = 88 20 1  0 0.6 0
  
32
 82 1  20 16.8 1
39.2 30 1
A B C = 72.8 28.8 1
' ' ' 
 
39.2 66 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (39.2, 30), B’ (72.8, 28.8) and C’ (39.2, 66).

Example 4.2
Using transformation matrix, determine the new co-ordinates of triangle ABC with
vertices A (0, 0), B (3, 2) and C (2, 3) after it is rotated by 45° clockwise about origin.
Solution:
Data given:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Rotation about origin 45° clockwise
Hence, θ = -45°
A'B'C' = ABC R
0 0 1  Cos(−45∘) Sin(−45∘) 0
A B C = 3 2 1 −Sin(−45∘)
' ' ' 
Cos( 45 ∘) 0
  − 
2 3 1  0 0 1 
0 0 1 0.707 −0.707 0
A'B'C' = 3 2 1 0.707 0.707 0
2 3 1  0 0 1
 0 0 0
A B C = 3.536 −0.707 0
' ' ' 
 
3.536 0.707 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (0, 0), B’ (3.536, -0.707) and C’ (3.536, 0.707).
Example 4.3
A rectangle ABCD has vertices A (1, 1), B (2, 1), C (2, 3) and D (1, 3). It has to be rotated by
30° counter clockwise about a point P (3, 2). Determine the new co-ordinates of the
vertices for the rectangle.
Solution:
Data given:
Rotation about a point 45° counter clockwise
Hence, θ = 45°
Rotation about a point P (3, 2), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the object
and then translate back the rotated object to the given point P (3, 2).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Answer: New vertices are A’ (1.768, 0.134), B’ (2.634, 0.634), C’ (1.634, 2.366) and D’ (0.768,
1.866).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 4.4
A triangle ABC with vertices at A (0, 0), B (4, 0) and C (2, 3) is given. Perform the following
operations for it.
(i) Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y direction respectively,
(ii) Rotation through 90° in counter clockwise direction about the new position of
point C.
Solution:
(i) Translation by tx = 4 and ty = 2.
A'B'C' = ABC T
0 0 1  1 0 0
 
A'B'C' = 4 0 1  0 1 0
 
2 3 1 t x t y 1 
0 0 1 1 0 0
A'B'C' = 4 0 1 0 1 0

  
2 3 1 4 2 1

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 4 2 1
A'B'C' = 8 2 1

 
6 5 1
Answer: New vertices are A’ (4, 2), B’ (8, 2) and C’ (6, 5).
(ii) Rotation about the new point C’ (6, 5) through 90° counter-clockwise.
Hence, θ = 90°
Rotation about a point C’ (6, 5), so, first translate the object to origin then rotate the
object and then translate back the rotated object to the given point C’ (6, 5).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Answer: New vertices are A’’ (9, 3), B’’ (9, 7) and C’’ (6, 5).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Example 4.5
The co-ordinates of three vertices of the triangle are P (50, 20), Q (110, 20) and R (80, 60).
Determine the co-ordinates of the vertices for the new reflected triangle if it is to be
reflected about:
(i) x-axis,
(ii) Line y = x.
Solution:
(i) Reflection about x-axis
P'Q'R' = PQR Mx
 50 20 1 1 0 0
P Q R = 110 20 1 0 −1 0
' ' ' 
  
 80 60 1 0 0 1
 50 −20 1
P'Q'R' = 110 −20 1
 
80 −60 1
Answer: New vertices are P’ (50, -20), Q’ (110, -20) and R’ (80, -60).
(ii) Reflection about line y = x
P'Q'R' = PQR M(y=x)
 50 20 1 0 1 0
P'Q'R' 
= 110 20 1 1 0 0
  
 80 60 1 0 0 1
20 50 1

P'Q'R' = 20 110 1
 
60 80 1
Answer: New vertices are P’ (20, 50), Q’ (20, 110) and R’ (60, 80).
Example 4.6
Reflect the diamond shape polygon whose vertices are A (-2, 0), B (0, -1) C (2, 0) and D (0,
1) about an arbitrary line L which is represented by equation y = 0.5 x + 1.
Solution:
Data given:
Reflect the polygon about line y = 0.5 x + 1
So, first translate the object to origin, and then rotate the object such that the line coincides
with x-axis, then reflect the polygon about x-axis, then rotate back and then translate back.
y = 0.5 x + 1
m = 0.5 = tan
 = tan−1 0.5 = 26.565∘ (Clockwise)
 = −26.565∘
Also, when x = 0, y = 1 and when y = 0, x = -2.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
 Tutorial Questions
1. Explain about homogeneous representation of geometric transformations.
2. Explain about translation, scaling, rotation and reflecion.
3. Explain about shearing in 2D and 3D.
4. Explain about orthographic and perspective projections.
5. Explain about window to viewport transformations.

QUESTION BANK
1. A triangle ABC with vertices A (32, 22), B (88, 20) and C (32, 82) is to be scaled
by a factor of 0.6 about a point X (50, 42). Determine the co-ordinates of the
vertices for the scaled triangle.
2. Using transformation matrix, determine the new co-ordinates of triangle ABC
with vertices A (0, 0), B (3, 2) and C (2, 3) after it is rotated by 45° clockwise
about origin.
3. A triangle ABC with vertices at A (0, 0), B (4, 0) and C (2, 3) is given. Perform the
following operations for it.
(a) Translation through 4 and 2 units along X and Y direction respectively,
(b) Rotation through 90° in counter clockwise direction about the new
position of point C.
4. Explain about orthographic and perspective projections.
5. Explain about window to viewport transformations.
 UNIT 5
VISUAL REALISM
Course Objective:

Understand the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts.

Course Outcome:

Understand and develop the algorithm for visualization of various 2D and 3D parts.

NO OF LECTURE HOURS: 8

LECTURE LECTURE TOPIC KEY ELEMENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES

(2 to 3 objectives)

1. Introduction to Visual Visual Realism Learning about Visual Realism (B4,

Realism B5)

2. Hidden Line Removal Hidden Line Learning about Hidden Line Removal
Algorithm Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

3. Hidden surface Removal Hidden surface Learning about Hidden surface

Algorithm Removal Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

4. Hidden solid Removal Hidden solid Learning about Hidden solid Removal
Algorithm Removal Algorithm (B4, B5)
Algorithm

5. Shading Shading Understanding Shading (B5, B6)

6. Coloring Coloring Understanding Coloring (B5, B6)

7. Computer Animation Computer Learning about Computer Animation.

Animation (B4, B5)
8. Computer Animation Computer Learning about Computer Animation.
Animation (B4, B5)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 VISUAL REALISM

Introduction

Visual Realism is a method for interpreting picture data fed into a computer and for
creating pictures from difficult multidimensional data sets. Visualization can be classified as
:

· Visualization in geometric modeling

· Visualization in scientific computing.

Visualization in geometric modeling is helpful in finding connection in the design

applications. By shading the parts with various shadows, colors and transparency, the
designer can recognize undesired unknown interferences. In the design of complex surfaces
shading with different texture characteristics can use to find any undesired quick
modifications in surface changes.

Visualization in computing is viewed as a technique of geometric modeling. It

changes the data in numerical form into picture display, allowing users to view their
simulations and computations. Visualization offers a process of seeing the hidden.
Visualization in scientific computing is of great interest to engineers during the design
process.

Existing visualization methods are:

· Parallel projections

· Perspective projection.

· Hidden line removal

· Hidden surface removal

· Hidden solid removal

· Shaded models

Hidden line and surface removal methods remove the uncertainty of the displays of 3D
models and is accepted the first step towards visual realism. Shaded images can only be
created for surface and solid models. In multiple step shading process, the first step is
removing the hidden surfaces / solids and second step is shades the visible area only. Shaded
images provide the maximum level of visualization.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 The processes of hidden removal need huge amounts of computing times and also
upper end hardware services. The creation and maintenance of such a models are become
complex. Hence, creating real time images needs higher end computers with the shading
algorithms embedded into the hardware.

Hidden line removal

Hidden line removal (HLR) is the method of computing which edges are not hidden by the
faces of parts for a specified view and the display of parts in the projection of a model into a
2D plane. Hidden line removal is utilized by a CAD to display the visual lines. It is considered
that information openly exists to define a 2D wireframe model as well as the 3D topological
information. Typically, the best algorithm is required for viewing this information from an
available part representation.

Fig 5.1: Hidden Line Removal

3D parts are simply manufactured and frequently happen in a CAD design of such a
part. In addition, the degrees of freedom are adequate to show the majority of models and
are not overwhelming in the number of constraints to be forced. Also, almost all the surface-
surface intersections and shadow computations can be calculated analytically which results
in significant savings in the number of computations over numerical methods.

1. Priority algorithm

Priority algorithm is basis on organization all the polygons in the view according to the biggest
Z-coordinate value of each. If a face intersects more than one face, other visibility tests
besides the Z-depth required to solve any issue. This step comprises purposes of wrapper.
Imagines that objects are modeled with lines and lines are generated where surfaces join. If
only the visible surfaces are created then the invisible lines are automatically removed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 5.2: Priority Algorithm
Face Priority
ABCE 1
ADFG 1
DCEF 1
ABHG 2
EFGH 2
BCEH 2

ABCD, ADFG, DCEF are given higher priority-1. Hence, all lines in this faces are visible, that is,
AB, BC, CD, DA, AD, DF, FG, AG, DC, CE, EF and DF are visible.

AGHB, EFGH, BCEH are given lower priority-2. Hence, all lines in this faces other than
priority-1 are invisible, that is BH, EH and GH. These lines must be eliminated.

Hidden surface removal

The hidden surface removal is the procedure used to find which surfaces are not visible
from a certain view. A hidden surface removal algorithm is a solution to the visibility issue,
which was one of the first key issues in the field of three dimensional graphics.

The procedure of hidden surface identification is called as hiding, and such an algorithm is
called a ‘hider’. Hidden surface identification is essential to render a 3D image properly, so
that one cannot see through walls in virtual reality.

Hidden surface identification is a method by which surfaces which should not be visible to
the user are prohibited from being rendered. In spite of benefits in hardware potential there
is still a requirement for difficult rendering algorithms.

The accountability of a rendering engine is to permit for bigger world spaces and as the
world’s size approaches infinity the rendering engine should not slow down but maintain at
constant speed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 There are many methods for hidden surface identification. They are basically a work out in
sorting, and generally vary in the order in which the sort is executed and how the problem is
subdivided. Sorting more values of graphics primitives is generally done by divide.

1. Z - buffer algorithm

Fig 5.3: Z – buffer Algorithm

In Z-buffering, the depth of ‘Z’value is verified against available depth value. If the
present pixel is behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the pixel is eliminated, or else it is shaded and
its depth value changes the one in the Z-buffer. Z-buffering helps dynamic visuals easily, and
is presently introduced effectively in graphics hardware.

· Depth buffering is one of the easiest hidden surface algorithms

· It keeps follow of the space to nearest object at every pixel position.
· Initialized to most negative z value.
· when image being drawn, if its z coordinate at a position is higher than z buffer value,
it is drawn, and new z coordinate value is stored; or else, it is not drawn
· If a line in three dimensional is being drawn, then the middle z values are
interpolated: linear interpolation for polygons, and can calculate z for more difficult
surfaces.

Algorithm: loop on y;

loop on x;

zbuf[x,y] = infinity;

loop on objects

loop on y within y range of this object

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 {

loop on x within x range of this scan line of this object

if z(x,y) < zbuf[x,y] compute z of this object at this pixel & test zbuf[x,y]
= z(x,y) update z-buffer

image[x,y] = shade(x,y) update image (typically RGB)

Basic operations:

1. compute y range of an object

2. compute x range of a given scan line of an object

3. Calculate intersection point of a object with ray through pixel position (x,y).

2. Painter’salgorithm

The painter's algorithm is called as a priority fill, is one of the easiest results to the visibility
issue in three dimensional graphics. When projecting a 3D view onto a 2D screen, it is essential
at various points to be finalized which polygons are visible, and which polygons are hidden.

Fig 5.4: Painter’s Algorithm

The ‘painter's algorithm’ shows to the method employed by most of the painters of
painting remote parts of a scene before parts which are close thereby hiding some areas of
distant parts. The painter's algorithm arranges all the polygons in a view by their depth and
then paints them in this order, extreme to closest. It will paint over the existing parts that are
usually not visible hence solving the visibility issue at the cost of having painted invisible areas

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

of distant objects. The ordering used by the algorithm is referred a 'depth order', and does
not have to respect the distances to the parts of the scene: the important characteristics of
this ordering is, somewhat, that if one object has ambiguous part of another then the first
object is painted after the object that it is ambiguous. Thus, a suitable ordering can be
explained as a topological ordering of a directed acyclic graph showing between objects.

Algorithm:

sort objects by depth, splitting if necessary to handle intersections; loop on objects

(drawing from back to front)

loop on y within y range of this object

loop on x within x range of this scan line of this object

image[x,y] = shade(x,y);

Basic operations:

1. compute ‘y’range of an object

2. compute ‘x’range of a given scan line of an object

3. compute intersection point of a given object with ray via pixel point (x,y).

4. evaluate depth of two objects, determine if A is in front of B, or B is in front of A, if

they don’t overlap in xy, or if they intersect

5. divide one object by another object

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Advantage of painter's algorithm is the inner loops are quite easy and limitation is
sorting operation.

3. Warnock algorithm

The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm developed by John Warnock that
is classically used in the area of graphics. It explains the issues of rendering a difficult image
by recursive subdivision of a view until regions are attained that is trivial to evaluate. Similarly,
if the view is simple to compute effectively then it is rendered; else it is split into tiny parts
which are likewise evaluated for simplicity. This is a algorithm with run-time of O(np),
where p is the number of pixels in the viewport and n is the number of polygons.

The inputs for Warnock algorithm are detail of polygons and a viewport. The good case is that
if the detail of polygons is very simple then creates the polygons in the viewport. The
continuous step is to divide the viewport into four equally sized quadrants and to recursively
identify the algorithm for each quadrant, with a polygon list changed such that it contains
polygons that are detectable in that quadrant.

Fig.5.5. Warnock algorithm

1. Initialize the region.

2. Generate list of polygons by sorting them with their z values.

3. Remove polygons which are outside the area.

4. Identify relationship of each polygon.

5. Execute visibility decision analysis:

a) Fill area with background color if all polygons are disjoint,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 b) Fill entire area with background color and fill part of polygon contained in area with
color of polygon if there is only one contained polygon,

c) If there is a single surrounding polygon but not contained then fill area with color of
surrounding polygon.

d) Set pixel to the color of polygon which is closer to view if region of the pixel (x,y) and
if neither of (a) to (d) applies calculate z- coordinate at pixel (x,y) of polygons.

6. If none of above is correct then subdivide the area and Go to Step 2.

Hidden Solid Removal

The hidden solid removal issue involves the view of solid models with hidden line or
surface eliminated. Available hidden line algorithm and hidden surface algorithms are useable
to hidden solid elimination of B-rep models.

The following techniques to display CSG models:

1. Transfer the CSG model into a boundary model.

2. Use a spatial subdivision strategy.

3. Based on ray sorting.

1. Ray-Tracing algorithm

A ray tracing is a method for creating an image by tracing the path of light via pixels in an
image plane and reproducing the effects of its meets with virtual objects. The
procedure is capable of creating a high degree of visual realism, generally higher than
that of usual scan line techniques, but at a better computational. This creates ray
tracing excellent suited for uses where the image can be rendered gradually ahead of
time, similar to still images and film and TV visual effects, and more badly suited for
real time environment like video games where speed is very important. Ray tracing is
simulating a wide range of optical effects, such as scattering, reflection and refraction.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig.5.6. Ray-Tracing algorithm

Ray-Tracing algorithm
For every pixel in image

Generate ray from eye point passing via this pixel Initialize Nearest ‘T’to ‘INFINITY’

Initialize Nearest Object to NULL

For each object in scene

If ray intersects this image

If t of intersection is less than Nearest T

Set Nearest T to t of the intersection

Set Nearest image to this object

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 If Nearest image is NULL

Paint this pixel with background color

}
Else

Shoot a ray to every light source to check if in shadow

If surface is reflective, generate reflection ray

If transparent, generate refraction ray

Apply Nearest Object and Nearest T to execute shading function

Paint this pixel with color result of shading function

Optical ray tracing explains a technique for creating visual images constructed in three
dimensional graphics environments, with higher photorealism than either ray casting
rendering practices. It executes by tracing a path from an imaginary eye via every pixel in a
virtual display, and computing the color of the object visible via it.

Displays in ray tracing are explained mathematically by a programmer. Displays may

also incorporate data from 3D models and images captured like a digital photography.

In general, every ray must be tested for intersection with a few subsets of all the
objects in the view. Once the nearest object has been selected, the algorithm will calculate
the receiving light at the point of intersection, study the material properties of the object, and
join this information to compute the finishing color of the pixel. One of the major limitations
of algorithm, the reflective or translucent materials may need additional rays to be re-cast
into the scene.

Advantages of Ray tracing:

1. A realistic simulation of lighting over other rendering.

2. An effect such as reflections and shadows is easy and effective.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 3. Simple to implement yet yielding impressive visual results.

Limitation of ray tracing:

Scan line algorithms use data consistency to divide computations between pixels,
while ray tracing normally begins the process a new, treating every eye ray separately.

Shading
Shading defines to describe depth perception in three dimensioning models by
different levels of darkness. Shading is applied in drawing for describes levels of darkness on
paper by adding media heavy densely shade for darker regions, and less densely for lighter
regions.

There are different techniques of shading with cross hatching where perpendicular lines of
changing closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an object. The closer the lines are
combining, the darker the area appears. Similarly, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter
the area shows.

Fig.5.7. Shading

Fig.5.8. Image with edge lines

The image shown in figure 5.8 has the faces of the box rendered, but all in the similar color.
Edge lines have been rendered here as well which creates the image easier to view.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig.5.9. Image without edge lines

The image shown in figure 5.9 is the same model rendered without edge lines. It is
complicated to advise where one face of the box ends and the next starts.

Fig.5.10. Image with Shading

The image shown in figure 5.10 has shading enabled which makes the image extra realistic
and makes it easier to view which face is which.

Shading techniques:

In computer graphics, shading submits to the procedure of changing the color of an object in
the 3D view, a photorealistic effect to be based on its angle to lights and its distance from
lights. Shading is performed through the rendering procedure by a program called a ‘Shader’.
Flat shading and Smooth shading are the two major techniques using in Computer graphics.

Goal: To use the lighting and reflectance model to shade facets of a polygonal mesh — that
is, to assign intensities to pixels to give the impression of opaque surfaces rather than
wireframes.

Assume we’re given the following:

• - center of projection in world coordinates

• - point light source location

• Ia, Id - intensities of ambient and directional light sources
• ra, rd, rs - coefficients for ambient, diffuse, and specular reflections
• α - exponent to control width of highlights

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Flat Shading
With flat shading, each triangle of a mesh is filled with a single color.

For a triangle with counterclockwise vertices p¯1, p¯2, and p¯3, as seen from the outside, let
the midpoint be

with normal

Then we may find the intensity at p¯ using the Phong model and fill the polygon with that:

Flat shading is a simple approach to filling polygons with color, but can be inaccurate for
smooth surfaces, and shiny surfaces. For smooth surfaces—which are often tesselated and
represented as polyhedra, using flat shading can lead to a very strong faceting effect. In other
words, the surface looks very much like a polyhedron, rather than the smooth surface it’s
supposed to be. This is because our visual system is very sensitive to variations in shading,
and so using flat shading makes faces really look flat.

Interpolative Shading

The idea of interpolative shading is to avoid computing the full lighting equation at each pixel
by interpolating quantites at the vertices of the faces.

Given vertices p¯1, p¯2, and p¯3, we need to compute the normals for each vertex, compute
the radiances for each vertex, project onto the window in device coordinates, and fill the
polygon using scan conversion.

There are two methods used for interpolative shading:

Gouraud Shading The radiance values are computed at the vertices and then linearly
interpolated within each triangle. This is the form of shading implemented in OpenGL.

Phong shading The normal values at each vertex are linearly interpolated within each triangle,
and the radiance is computed at each pixel. Gouraud shading is more efficient, but Phong
shading is more accurate. When will Gouraud shading give worse results?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Shading in OpenGL

OpenGL only directly supports Gouraud shading or flat shading. Gouraud is enabled by
default, computing vertex colors, and interpolating colors across triangle faces. Flat shading
can be enabled with

glShadeModel(GL FLAT).

This renders an entire face with the color of a single vertex, giving a faceted appearance.

Fig 5.11: Left: Flat shading of a triangle mesh in OpenGL. Right: Gouraud shading.

Note that the mesh appears smooth, although the coarseness of the geometry is visible at
the silhouettes of the mesh.

With pixel shaders on programmable graphics hardware, it is possible to achieve Phong

shading by using a small program to compute the illumination at each pixel with
interpolated normals. It is even possible to use a normal map to assign arbitrary normals
within faces, with a pixel shader using these normals to compute the illumination.

COLORING

Color plays an important role in images. The light enters our eyes in the form of a spectrum
with variation in the wavelengths. Human beings have three kinds of cones in their eyes that
respond to different colors with different wavelengths. The basic colors red, green and blue
represents long, medium and short wavelengths respectively. Introduction

The human vision is three-dimensional known as principle of trichromacy. According to this,

the spectrum of light is encoded into three values that correspond to the amount of light
absorbed by each type of cone.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Color Models

Color is a complex, interdisciplinary phenomenon spanning from psychology to physics. As

the name suggests, color model is a model of colors. It can be defined as an organized
system, which is used for the creation of a wide variety of colors starting from a small
collection of primary colors.

Color models are of two types, as depicted in the figure 5.12.

Fig 5.12: Color Models

1. Additive Color Models:

Additive color models are those color models, which use light for displaying colors. In
these color models, colors are seen as an aftereffect of transmitted light.

The RGB color model is an example of an additive color model.

2. Subtractive Color Models:
Subtractive color models are those color models, which use printing inks for
displaying colors. In these color models, colors are seen as an aftereffect of reflected
light.
The CMYK color model is an example of a subtractive color model.

RGB Color Model

The RGB color model is an additive color model, which uses three primary colors,
namely, red (R), green (G), and blue (B). These primary colors can further be used to
create secondary colors, such as yellow, white, and magenta. Computers can display
approximately 16.7 million colors using this color model.

In RGB model, every color’s measurement is done with a value that ranges from 0 to
255, where 0 means no light, and value 255 means maximum intensity. This (0 to
255) is the limit of storing information in 1 byte of computer memory. In RGB model,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 3 bytes (24 bits) of information are needed for defining the three primary colors
RGB.

A large percentage of the visible band of colors can be represented by mixing red,
green, and blue (RGB) colored light in various intensities and proportions. RGB colors
are also called as additive colors, as they combine to create white color.

In other words, adding all colors creates white, that is, all visible wavelengths are
transmitted back to the eye. Additive colors are used for monitors, video, and lighting.

A unit cube is used to represent the color space of RGB colors. This unit cube is placed at
origin in its standard position. The figure 5.13 depicts the color co-ordinate system with
the three primary colors of RGB model, that is, RGB.

Fig 5.13: Color Coordinate System with RGB Colors

Each of the RGB (primary) colors can take up the intensity value ranging from 0 being the lowest
to 1 being the highest. When these primary colors are mixed at different intensity levels, they
produce a variety of colors including cyan, magenta, yellow, and white. The collection of all the
colors available by such a linear combination of red, green, and blue forms the cube-shaped RGB
color space as shown in figure 5.13.

The corner of the RGB color cube that is at the origin of the co-ordinate system corresponds to
black. The corner of the cube that is diagonally or obliquely opposite to the origin represents
white. The oblique line connecting white and black corresponds to all the gray colors between
white and black and it is called as the gray axis. With the help of this RGB color model, a random
color within the cubic color space can be specified by its color co- ordinates, that is red, green,
and blue.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 (0,0,0) is for black, (1,1,1) is for white, (1,1,0) for yellow.

The color specification using the RGB color model is an additive process. First, black color is
considered and the suitable primary component is added on to yield a preferred color.

CMYK Color Model

The colors cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black (K) (CMYK) is a subtractive color model,
which is mainly used in color print production. This color model is also called as acomplementary
RGB model.

In this color model, inks of four colors, cyan (C), magenta (M), yellow (Y) and black (K) are used
for defining colors. Every color has some ink amount, whose measurement is done by using
percent starting from 0 to 100, where a value of 100 signifies the application of inks at full
intensity. This CMY color model describes colors using a subtractive process, which closely
matches the working principles of the printer.

The color space of CMYK color model is called subtractive. The application of inks of cyan,
magenta, yellow, and black color to a surface that is white in color, is done for subtracting some
color from that white surface. This method of subtraction finally leads to the creation of the final
color. This model is generally called as CMY model.

The subtraction of all colors by the CMY combination at full intensity renders black color.
Nevertheless, because of impurities that exist in the available CMY inks, complete and equal
intensity is made impossible, and filtering of some RGB light takes place, which renders a muddy
brown color. Thus, with the addition of the black ink CMY color model takes place.

In the CMY model, first the white color is considered, and the suitable primary components are
taken away, to yield a preferred color.

Example: If we subtract or decrease the red color from white color, the color that remains
consists of green and blue, which is nothing but the cyan color.

If the above example is considered from another perspective, the quantity of cyan, the
complementary color of red, can be used in order to control the amount of red, which isequal to
one minus the amount of cyan color.

The following figure 5.14 depicts a co-ordinate system using the three primary complementary
colors which are cyan (C), magenta (M), and yellow (Y).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 5.14: Color Co-ordinate System with CMY Colors

In the figure 5.14, the corner of the CMY color cube, that is, at (0, 0, 0) represents white
color, whereas the corner of the cube that is at (1, 1, 1) represents black color. CMY color
model is mainly used for the production of printed materials. This is the reason why CMY
color model is an important element in printing.

COMPUTER ANIMATION

Introduction

Visual effect is part of advanced computer graphics that pertains to the various processes
through which images are created and manipulated in the absence of a live environment. When
the sets are costly to setup and when it becomes impossible to capture a film or object, visual
effects come into picture. They provide realistic image of the live environment. The images in
visual effects are computer generated and can be seen in most of the movies. Visual effects
provide more appeal to the story line of a movie and are generally completed after the
completion of movie but are pre-planned before the commencement of a movie shoot. Visual
effects employ graphic designing, modeling, animation and other relevant software but special
effects are made on the sets. Today, one can find the application of computer graphics and
visual effects and animation in diverse fields such as science, technology, military, advertising,
entertainment, and so on.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Animation

The word animation is derived from the Latin word ‘anima’ which is the animating principle.
It is used as a translation for the Greek word psyche and relates to the Christian concept of
soul. Hence, animation can be defined as a technique of giving soul to drawings and art
work which are lifeless. Earliest examples of animation can be traced back to the Paleolithic
cave paintings where attempts were made to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing.

The term animation is used to display a sequence of images rapidly employing either 2-D or
3-D art works or positions of various models to bring out an illusionary movement to the
models and art work. This is done through optical illusion of motion by employing the
phenomenon of persistence of vision in which images can be created and depicted in
several ways. Motion picture or video programs are the commonly used methods of
animation.

Persistence of Vision

Persistence of vision is a phenomenon of the eye where an afterimage is thought to persist

for one twenty-fifth of a second on the retina of the eye. In the visual perception
phenomenon, the eye is not considered as a camera. The phi phenomenon has a more
constructionist approach towards cinema while persistence of vision is a realistic approach.

Today, persistence of vision is an accepted phenomenon in the history of cinema. In the

early days, it was determined that a frame rate of less than 16 frames per second had
enabled the mind to see flashing images. Audiences, sometimes interpret motion at ten
frames per second or even slower. The modern theatrical films run at 24 frames per second.

The two perceptual illusions are:

1. Phi Phenomenon: This method is an optical illusion defined by Max Wertheimer in the
Gestalt psychology in 1912. It is based on the principle that the human eye is able to
perceive movements based on pieces of information. This is similar to the succession of
images. The speed of the images per second can be observed for the phi phenomenon. The
figure 5.15 shows the phi phenomenon and depicts how an object moves in a circular
motion with constant speed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig 5.15: Phi Phenomenon

2. Beta Movement: The beta movement is considered to be a perceptual illusion where the
brain merges two more still images, imaginatively to be in motion. This phenomenon
creates an illusion of motion both towards and away from the viewer. Consider
phenomenon of a viewer watching a screen. This screen is projected with two images in
succession. The first image shows a ball on the left side of the frame, while the second
image shows a ball on the right side of the frame. These images are shown in rapid
succession. Thus, as a viewer you can see one ball moving from the left towards the right
but not two balls flashing in succession. When the two objects are of different size that is
when the first image is large and the second image is small. As a viewer, you can only view
that the object is moved away from us.

The following figure 5.16 depicts the beta phenomenon and provides a clear understanding
about how the image keeps changing its position.

Fig 5.16: Beta Phenomenon

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Animation came into existence with the advent of cinematography. Georges Melies is
considered as the creator of special effect films and is also the first person to have used
animation with special effects. George Melies came up with the stop motion animation. In this
method, the rolling camera was stopped to make changes in the scene and then continued to
roll the film.

This technique was discovered accidently when George Melies’ camera broke while shooting a
moving bus. Immediately after this incident, George restarted shooting; this time he happened to
shoot a hearse pass by. Finally, George observed that he had transformed
the moving bus into a moving hearse. This made George analyze about what he had created. This
concept was later used in the field of animation and George Melies is considered to be a great
contributor to the field of animation.

Animated films are also referred to as cartoons, which is an industry of its own today. John
Randolph Bray is a successful producer of animations along with Earl Hurd who came up with
the idea of cel animation process.

The photographs of the drawings are drawn on paper. To create an illusion of movement the
drawings are done in such a way that they slightly differ from the previous one. Then these
drawings are photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels. These cels are filled with
paints and are assigned colors on the opposite side of the line drawings. The cels are then
photographed one by one onto motion picture film against a painted background by a rostrum
camera. Cel animation is obsolete now.

Today, drawings with their backgrounds are scanned using a computer system. Software
programs are used to color the drawings and their effects are simulated.

Nowadays, a complete animated film is done in a variety of styles such as the films produced by
Walt Disney to the Cartoon Styles produced by the Warner Brothers.

Computer Animation

Computer animation uses a variety of techniques to be created digitally on a computer. The

following are some of the techniques:

1. 2-D Animation: In 2-D animation, figures are created and edited on the computer by either
using 2-D bitmap graphics or by using 2-D vector graphics. This method uses the traditional
animation techniques like tweening, morphing, onion skinning, and interpolated rotoscoping.
Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, Danny Phantom, Waltz with Bashir, The Grim Adventures
of Billy and Mandy are some of the examples for 2-D films.

2. 3-D Animation: In 3-D animation the figures are digitally modeled and manipulated using an
animator. A process known as rigging is carried out. In this process to manipulate a mesh, a
digital skeletal structure is used to control the mesh. Techniques like mathematical functions,
simulated fur or hair, effects such as fire and water and the use of motion capture, fall under the
3- D dynamics. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between 3-D animations and live actions.
In such cases visual effects are used.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Computer Animation is an art to produce moving images. We can define it as a subfield of
computer graphics and animation. When we use animation in a movie or film, it is called CGI
(Computer Generated Imaging).

Application Areas of Animation

Animation is used in various fields. They are:
1. Education: An animated video or animated tutorial is used to increase the learning
of the students. The animation is mostly used in schools, colleges, and training
centers.
2. Entertainment: It is a vast area where we can use animations. Various animation
methods are used in cartoons, movies, motion pictures, and TV shows.
3. Advertisement: Animation is also used to make ad films that take less space and
captures the vast attention of the people. It is a better way to provide more
information about products.
4. Medical: Animation is used in medical science. The professionals and the students
can easily visualize the details of human anatomy through medical animation.
5. Retail: The marketers use animation to present the attributes of products to the
customers.
6. Computer-Aided Design: Animation plays an important role in CAD. We can use CAD
in automobile designing and many other designing.
7. Gaming: Animation is widely used in gaming. We can develop 3D games by using
animation.
8. Presentation: We can present anything through an animated presentation.
Animated presentation is a better way to represent an idea.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Types of Animation
The Animation is divided into three parts.

• 2D: It is also called “2 Dimensional.”2D animation is defined as a process of

producing characters, storyboards, and backgrounds in a two-dimensional
environment.
2D animation is a flat animation that only works on two coordinates x-axis(horizontal) and y-
axis(vertical).
The 2D animation uses raster and vector graphics to produce and edit animated images.
For Example– Cartoons (Daffy Duck, Snow White, the jungle book, etc.)
The software used in 2D animation is:
1. Adobe Photoshop
2. Adobe Flash
3. After Effects
4. Encore

Advantages:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 1. Easy to Control.
2. Less Time-Consuming.
3. Less Production Cost.
4. Easy to change.
Disadvantages:
1. Need proper skills to use animation software.
• 3D: It is also called “3 Dimensional.” 3D animation is defined as the process of
producing three-dimensional motion images in the digital environment. 3D
Animation is used to create animated scenes through the computer.
We can manipulate 3D objects or models through the 3D animation software.
3D animation works on all three coordinates x-axis(height), y-axis(width) and z-axis(depth).
For Example–
1. Toy Story
2. Jurassic Park
3. The Transformers

The software used in 3D animation is:

1. ZBrush
2. Houdini
3. Blender
4. Autodesk Maya
The process of producing 3D animations is divided into three parts:
1. Modeling: It is a phase in which we can describe the creation of 3D objects within a
specific scene.
2. Layout and Animation: It is a phase in which we can describe how objects are
positioned and animated within a scene.
3. Rendering: It is a final process. It is a phase in which we can convert 3D objects or
images into 2D objects or images.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages:
1. Motion Communication
2. More Realistic
3. Reusable
Disadvantages:
1. Lack of purity
2. Limited Thought and Ideas
3. VFX: It is also called “Visual Effects.” It is a process in which we can make a mixture
of real shooting (special effects) with animated images (digital effects). It is mostly
and widely used in movie making.

For Example-
In a movie, we will see the hero flying into the air by using VFX effects.
In the Jurassic Park movie, the dinosaurs are also created by using VFX effects.
The Software used in VFX animation:
1. Nuke
2. After effects
3. 3D Studio Max
4. Adobe Creative Suite 4
This process has been done in two parts-

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Special effects (SFX): The special effects cover all visual effects that occur in live-
action.
For Example- Stunt, Any Explosion on set.
• Digital Effects (VFX): It is also called “Visual effects.” It includes different steps by
which photographic assets can create, and imagery can manipulate.
Digital effects mostly include a combination of real photography and computer-aided
imagery to create a realistic environment. The environment would be impossible, costly,
and sometimes very dangerous to shoot in-camera.
Advantages:
1. It helps to show unreal objects.
2. It saves a lot of time.
Disadvantages:
1. Need a Lot of Planning.
2. Overuse of Visual Effects

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Tutorial Questions

1. Explain about visual realism

2. Write Algorithm for hidden line removal.
3. Write Algorithm for hidden surface removal.
4. Write Algorithm for hidden solid removal.
5. Explain about shading.
6. Explain about coloring.
7. Explain about computer animation and its applications.

QUESTION BANK

1. Write Algorithm for hidden line removal.

2. Write Algorithm for hidden surface removal.
3. Write Algorithm for hidden solid removal.
4. Explain about shading and coloring.
5. Explain about computer animation and its applications

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING