Dr.

Purshottam
Department of Social Work,
KUK
 Comparison of Growth and
Development
Growth Development

Growth refers to physiological changes. Development refers to overall changes in

the individual. It involves changes in an
orderly and coherent type towards the goal
of maturity

Changes in the quantitative respect is Development changes in the quality along

termed as growth. with quantitative aspect

Growth does not continue throughout life. Development continues throughout life.

Growth stops after maturation. Development is progressive.

Growth occurs due to the multiplication of Development occurs due to both

cells. maturation and interaction with the
environment.
Principles
A fundamental, primary or general
law or truth from which others are
derived.
Or
A basic idea or rule that explains
or controls how something
happens or works
Principles of Growth and
development
1) Continuity
2) Sequentiality
3) Generality to Specificity
4) Differentiality
5) Growth proceeds from the head downward
6) Growth proceeds from the centre of the body
outward
7) Development depends on maturation and learning
Principles of Growth and
development
8) Development proceeds from the simple to
more complex
9) Growth is a personal matter
10) Growth comes from within
11) Growth has certain characteristics common
at particular stages
12) Growth is gradual and orderly but uneven
Continuity
 Growth and Development is a continueous process
from conception to death.
 In the early years of life, development consists of
changes that lead the child to maturity not only of
body size and functioning, but also of behaviour.
 Even after maturity has been attained, development
does not end. Changes continue which lead to the
period of life known as senescence or old age.
 These changes continue until death ends the life
cycle.
Sequentiality
 Every species, whether animal or human, follows a
pattern of development peculiar to it. This pattern
in general is the same for all individuals.
 Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have
come to see development as a relationship between
organism and environment in a collaboration.
 Individuals work with and affect their environment,
and in turn the environment works with and affects
them
Sequentiality
All children follow a development pattern
with one stage leading to the next.
Ex - Infants stand Before they walk; draw
circles before they make squares
Generality to Specificity
 Development proceeds from general to
specific. In all areas of development, general
activities always precedes specific activity.
 For example;
- The child moves its whole body but
incapable of making specific responses
-Infants wave their arms randomly. They can
make such specific responses as reaching out
for an object near them.
Differentiality
 The tempo of development is not even.
Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development.
 Boys and girls have different development
rates. Each part of the body has its own
particular rate of growth. Development does
not occur at an even pace.
 There are periods of great intensity and
equilibrium and there are periods of
imbalance.
Growth proceeds from the Head
downward (Cephalocaudal principle)
 This principle describes the direction of growth and
development.
 The head region starts growth at first, following by
which other organs starts developing.
 The child gains control of the head first, then the arms
and then the legs.
 Infants develop control of the head and face
movements at first two months. In next few months
they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms.
Next gain control over leg and able to crawl, stand,
walk, run, jump, climb, day by day.
Growth proceeds from the centre
of the body outward
(Principle of Proximodistal development)
 The directional sequence of development during both
prenatal and postnatal stages may either be (i) from
head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the
extremities of the body.
 The spinal cord develops before outer parts of the
body.
 The child’s arms develops before the hands, the hands
and feet develops before the fingers and toes.
 Fingers and toe muscles are the last to develop in
physical development.
The directional sequence of development stages
may either be (A) from head to foot, or (B) from
the central axis to the extremities of the body.
Development depends on
maturation and learning
 Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of
biological growth and development.
 The biological changes occur in sequential order
and give children new abilities.
 Changes in the brain and nervous system account
largely for maturation. And help children to improve
in thinking and motor skills.
 Children must mature to a certain point before they
can progress to new skills.
Development proceeds from the
simple to more complex
 Children use their cognitive and language
skills to reason and solve problems.
 Children at first are able to hold the big things
by using both arms, In the next part able to
hold things in a single hand, then only able to
pick small objects like peas, cereals etc.
 Children when able to hold pencil, first starts
draw circles then squares then only letters
after that the words.
Growth/ Development is a
personal matter
 Each child grows in his own personal
manner. He/she should be permitted to
grow at his/her own rate.
 If we expects too much, he/she may
does even less than he/she is able to do.
Growth/ development comes
from within
 Surrounding environment can encourage or
hinder the energy of a child, but the drive
force that pushes a child to grow is carried
inside him.
 Parent or teachers’ job is to clear the track,
guide the child with love, acceptance and
then relax and enjoy.
11)Growth/development has certain
characteristics common at particular
stages
12)Growth/development is gradual
and orderly but uneven
Growth chart
Thank You
Biological and Social
Influences on human
Growth and Development
/Behavior (Heredity &
Environment)

Dr. Purshottam
Department of Social Work
KUK
Growth and Behaviour:
 Uniqueness in every person… some are
criminals and others law abiding citizens…
 There are several factors which directly or
indirectly influence the growth and Human
Behaviors
 Brother and sister ---- same family. Same
parents and definitely look alike, but our
personalities are so different!.. Think
different… act differently..
 Twins are even more interesting than regular
siblings because even identical twins, who
have the exact same DNA, can look and act
differently from one another. Because
different aspects of our behaviors are
influenced by our genes, the environment, or
a combination of the two….
 For example, your natural features, such as
your hair and eye color, are determined by
genetics. But how you style that hair and
what kind of sunglasses you wear over those
eyes make you different..
 Well, those may be part of your genetic
personality, but they're also likely influenced
by the people you hang out with and other
social cues in your environment.
Biological Factors… these factors include
genetic factors and hormonal factors..
 Heredity or genetic factors: Heredity is
a biological process through which the
transmission of physical characteristics
takes place from parents to offsprings.
 It greatly influences the different aspects
of growth and development i.e. height,
weight and structure of the body, colour
of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes
and instincts.
 Hormonal factors (Sex): Sex acts as
an important factor of growth and
development. There is difference in
growth and development of boys and girls.
The boys in general taller, courageous
than the girls but Girls show rapid physical
growth in adolescence.
 In general the body constitution and
structural growth of girls are different
from boys. The functions of boys and girls
are also different in nature.
Environmental factors:
Environment plays an important role in
human life.
 Physical environment (outer physical
surroundings, food, clothing and shelter.
Geographical conditions i.e. weather and
climates are physical environment which
has considerable impact on individual
child).
 Social environment (society-individuals
and institutions, social laws, customs by
which human behavior is regulated).
 Psychological environment (One's love,
affection and fellow feeling attitude will
strengthen human bond with one
another).
 Parental factors…
 Importance of mother, father and other
family members.
 Size of family. (language & mental abilities
develop faster)
 Economic status of family.
 School and Peer Groups
 Adjustment
 Teachers’ behaviour & school environment
 Social and emotional development
 Cultural Factors
 Important factor affects the child’s
behaviour & development
 Values and norms
So Growth and Development are regulated
by the environment of an individual where
he lives.
Dimensions of
Development
Dr. Purshottam
Guest Faculty
Department of Social
Work, KUK
Physical Development
Motor Development
Cognitive development
Emotional development
Social development
Moral development
 Body growth(teeth, bones)
 Change in body size (height, weight)
 Shape, appearance
 Development of internal organs (nervous
system, circulatory system, digestive
system)
 Changes in body proportion
 Development of movement
 Many motor skills are necessary for
everyday life activities e.g. sitting,
walking, running, climbing stairs, picking
up objects, using keyboard, using pencils
& pens etc.
1. Gross Motor Skills: large movement of
body including sitting, walking, running
and climbing stairs etc
2. Fine Motor Skills: involve the small
movements of fingers & hands. E.g.
using pencils and pens, using keyboard
etc
 Motor Development seems to follow a
pattern. Large muscles develop before
smaller ones.
 Intellectual Development (language,
memory)
 Cognitive development is the thought
processes, including remembering,
problem solving, and decision making, from
childhood to adulthood.
 Cognitive development refers to how a
person perceives, thinks, and gains
understanding of his or her world through
the interacting genetic and learned factors.
 Emotional development is the
emergence of a child’s experience,
expression, understanding, and
regulation of emotions from birth to late
adolescence
 Parents & other caregivers play an
important role in emotional develoment
 Crying, smile, laughter, anger
 Pride, shame, fear
 Social development refers to how people
develop social and emotional skills
across the life span, with particular
attention to childhood and adolescence.
 Healthy social development leads to
positive relationships with family, friends,
teachers and other people in our lives
 Behavior, norms, human interaction
 Moral is to know the difference between
right and wrong.
 Moral development focuses on the
emergence, change and understanding
of morality from infancy through
adulthood.
 Morality is defined as principles for how
individuals ought to treat one another,
with respect to justice, other’s welfare
and rights
Measures:
Beliefs
Emotions
Behavior
Role:
Parents
Peers
Teachers
Culture
Societal influence
THANK YOU
 COMMUNICATION:
Concept, principles,
process, elements and
types..

Dr. Purshottam
Guest Faculty
Department of Social Work,
KUK
 Communication:
 Exchanging of information by speaking,
writing, or using some other medium.
 Systematic = Step by Step = Process
 Communication as a Process:
Human communication is
interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a
process.
DEFINITION:
 Newman- Communication is an exchange
of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two
or more persons.
 Keith Davis- Communication is the process
of passing information and understanding
from one person to another.
 The American Management Association-
Communication is any behaviour that
results in exchange of meaning.
Elements of communication:
 Source/ sender
 Ideas/ message
 Encoding
 Medium/ channel
 Decoding
 Receiver/decoder
 Feedback
 Process
 The process of communication refers to the
transmission or passage of information
or message from the sender through a
selected channel to the receiver
overcoming barriers that affect its pace.
The process of communication is a cyclic
one as it begins with the sender and ends
with the sender in the form of feedback.
Principles of communication:
 Clarity
 Conciseness
 Concrete/ Objectivity
 Correct
 Coherent/ Relevant
 Complete
 Courteous/gentle/ nice
 Audience knowledge
Verbal communication:
 Oral communication:
In oral communication, Spoken words
are used. It includes face-to-face
conversations, speech, telephonic
conversation, video, radio, television,
voice over internet. In oral
communication, communication is
influence by pitch, volume, speed and
clarity of speaking.
 Written communication:
In written communication, written signs
or symbols are used to communicate. A
written message may be printed or hand
written. In written communication
message can be transmitted via email,
letter, report etc. Message, in written
communication, is influenced by the
vocabulary & grammar used, writing
style and clarity of the language used.
Non-verbal Communication

 Non-verbal communication is the

sending or receiving of wordless
messages. We can say that
communication other than oral and
written, such as gesture, body language,
posture, tone of voice or facial
expressions, is called nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal
communication is all about the body
language of speaker.
Nonverbal communication have
the following three elements:
 Appearance
 Body Language
 Sounds
Communication Based on
Purpose and Style
 Formal Communication
 Informal Communication
Formal Communication:
Formal communication occurs in formal
and official style. Usually professional
settings, corporate meetings, conferences
undergoes in formal pattern. In formal
communication, use of slang and foul
language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required.
Informal Communication:
It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use
of slang words, foul language is not
restricted. Usually, informal
communication is done orally and
using gestures. Informal
communication helps in building
relationships.
Thank You
Dr. Purshottam
Guest faculty
Department of Social Work,
KUK
Communication is about more than just
exchanging information. It is about
understanding the emotions and intensions
behind the information.
More than just the words you use, effective
communication combines a set of skills
including non verbal communication, engaged
listening, managing stress in the moment, the
ability to communicate assertively, and the
capacity to recognize and understand your
own emotions and those of the person you are
communicating with.
 Become an engaged listener
 Pay attention to non-verbal signals
 Keep stress in check
 Assert yourself
 Emphasize your key points through
repetition
 Keep a good sense of humor
 Respond in a timely manner
 Be present
 Put your audience at ease
 Ask before you speak
 Practice strong visual
communication
 Feedback
1. Understanding the basics of
communication skills
2. Engaging your audience
3. Using your words
 Know what communication
really is
 Have courage to say what
you think
 practice
 Make eye contact
 Manifest
constructive
attitudes and
beliefs
(honest, patient,
sincere, respectful,
accepting to
others)
 Develop effective
listening skills
 Use gestures (hand,
face, make your
whole body talk)
 Don’t send mixed
messages (make your
words, gestures, facial
expressions & tone
match)
 Be aware of what your
body is saying
 Speak clearly
 Pronounce your words correctly
 Use the right words
 Develop your voice
 Animate your voice
 Use appropriate volume
Feedback is one important aspect in
constructive communication.
 Effective feedback, both positive and
negative, is helpful to others.
 It is specific rather than general.
 It is focused on behavior rather than
on the person
 Feedback should be time
bounded
 Feedback should be given to
help not to hurt
 It involves sharing of information
rather than giving advice
 Receiving feedback effectively
 Listen to feedback given
 Be aware of your responses
 Be open
 Understand the message
 Use it or ignore it
 Feedback should be clear & easy
to understand
EDUC103: PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION-I

UNIT II: GROWTH &

DEVELOPMENT
Ismail Thamarasseri
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Education
Central University of Kashmir

E-Content

E-MAIL: ISMAILKTKL@[Link], PH: 9446154254

1
 Index

Sl. Page
Description
No. No.
1 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE 3

2 INTRODUCTION 3

3 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT 5

4 PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 8

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF GROWTH AND
5 9
DEVELOPMENT
6 INFANCY (0-2 YEARS) 10

7 CHILDHOOD (3-12 YEARS) 16

8 ADOLESCENCE 22

9 INTELLECTUAL (MENTAL) DEVELOPMENT 28

10 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 29

11 MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 30

12 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 31

13 SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT 32

14 CONCLUSION 34

15 MODEL QUESTIONS 34

16 REFERENCES 35

2
 UNIT II

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE

· To develop an understanding about different aspects of human development

from infancy to adolescence.

INTRODUCTION

The human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death,
the person is undergoing changes. Development may be defined as a progressive series
of orderly, coherent changes. The various developments that take place during the life
time of an individual are physical, motor, social, emotional, intellectual, aesthetic and
moral. Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies intra
individual and inter individual changes.

The Developmental Process

The aim of education is to bring desirable changes in the learner. These changes are
taking place due to growth and development. Therefore, to bring desirable changes in
the child, knowledge of growth and development especially how the pre-natal and post-
natal development takes place, how child’s behaviour due to interaction with the
surrounding etc is to be understood by prospective teachers.

3
Change is the law of nature. Animate or inanimate object are all subject to change. As far
as human beings are concerned life starts with the conception in the mother’s womb as
a result of the process of fertilization of the ovum of the mother by the sperm cell of the
father. Then mother’s womb becomes the site and means for the growth and
development of new life and after nine month , baby come in to the world .i.e. the
process by which a germinating seed or conceived organism is turned in to mature plant
or full-fledged being called ‘growth and development’. Growth refers to increase in the
size of body parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be measured or quantified. E.g.
growth in height, weight, size etc. In other words, growth refers to cell multiplication or
quantitative changes in size, weight, and number.

Development is a process by which an individual grows and changes throughout the life
cycle. Or it refers to qualitative changes that begin at conception and continue through
life span. e.g. ability to sit, stand, walk, learning to talk etc. In the words of Elizabeth
Hurlock, ‘ the term development means progressive series of changes that occur in an
orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience’. According to Crow
& Crow, ‘growth refers to structural and physiological change and development is
concerned with growth as well as those changes in which result from environmental
situations’. Therefore, growth is quantitative and development is qualitative.

Table. 2.1: Comparisons between Development and Growth

Development Growth
A progressive series of changes that occur as a Structural and physiological
result of maturation and learning changes
functional change structural change
overall changes particular
Qualitative quantitative
direct measurement difficult possible
progressive changes changes both progressive and
retrogressive
continuous process possible without growth E.g. may or may not bring development
Intellectual functions in abstract thinking E.g. increase in brain weight

4
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT

This debate within psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects
of behaviour are a product of either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e. learned)
characteristics. Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic
inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of
external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning
on an individual. The nature-nurture debate is concerned with the relative contribution
that both influences make to human behaviour.

Figure 2.1

Heredity (Nature) and Environment (Nurture)

It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined
by genetic inheritance. Colour of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin
and certain diseases are all a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical
characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the
genetic make-up of our biological parents.

5
Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses
(e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically related
individuals. These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological
characteristics such as behavioural tendencies, personality attributes and mental
abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.

Those who adopt an extreme hereditary position are known as nativists. Their basic
assumption is that the characteristics of the human species as a whole are a product of
evolution and that individual differences are due to each person’s unique genetic code.
In general, the earlier a particular ability appears, the more likely it is to be under the
influence of genetic factors.

At the other end of the spectrum are the environmentalists – also known as empiricists
(not to be confused with the other empirical / scientific approach). Their basic
assumption is that at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this
is gradually “filled” as a result of experience (e.g. behaviourism).

From this point of view psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that
emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning. It is how you are
brought up (nurture) that governs the psychologically significant aspects of child
development and the concept of maturation applies only to the biological.

For example, when an infant forms an attachment it is responding to the love and
attention it has received, language comes from imitating the speech of others and
cognitive development depends on the degree of stimulation in the environment and,
more broadly, on the civilization within which the child is reared.

In contrast Bandura's (1977) social learning theory states that aggression is a learnt
from the environment through observation and imitation. This is seen in his famous
Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Also, Skinner (1957) believed that language is
learnt from other people via behaviour shaping techniques.

6
This question was first framed by Francis Galton in the late 19th century. Galton
(himself a relative of Charles Darwin) was convinced that intellectual ability was
largely inherited and that the tendency for “genius” to run in families was the outcome
of a natural superiority.

This view has cropped up time and again in the history of psychology and has
stimulated much of the research into intelligence testing (particularly on separated
twins and adopted children). A modern proponent is the American psychologist Arthur
Jenson. Finding that the average I.Q. scores of black Americans were significantly lower
than whites he went on to argue that genetic factors were mainly responsible – even
going so far as to suggest that intelligence is 80% inherited.

The storm of controversy that developed around Jenson’s claims was not mainly due to
logical and empirical weaknesses in his argument. It was more to do with the social and
political implications that are often drawn from research that claims to demonstrate
natural inequalities between social groups. Galton himself in 1883 suggested that
human society could be improved by “better breeding”.

Now we can see why the nature-nurture debate has become such a hotly contested
issue. What begins as an attempt to understand the causes of behavioural differences
often develops into a politically motivated dispute about distributive justice and power
in society. What’s more, this does not only apply to the debate over I.Q. It is equally
relevant to the psychology of sex and gender, where the question of how much of the
(alleged) differences in male and female behaviour is due to biology and how much to
culture is just as controversial.

However, in recent years there has been a growing realization that the question of “how
much” behaviour is due to heredity and “how much” to the environment may itself be
the wrong question. Take intelligence as an example. Like almost all types of human
behaviour it is a complex, many-sided phenomenon which reveals itself in a great
variety of ways. The “how much” question assumes that the variables can all be
expressed numerically and that the issue can be resolved in a quantitative manner. The
reality is that nature and culture interact in a host of qualitatively different ways.

7
It is widely accepted now that heredity and the environment do not act independently.
Instead of defending extreme nativist or nurturist views, most psychological
researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture
interact. For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition
and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop.

PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth and Development do not take place in a haphazard manner. They tend to follow
certain principles underlie certain process of development, which can be observed in all
human being. Crow and Crow says; ‘Growth refers to structural and physiological
change, while development refers to growth as well as those changes in behaviour,
which result from environmental stimulation’. Growth refers to structural and
physiological changes. It generally refers to an increase in size, height and weight. While
development refers to changes in the organism as a whole. Growth can be measured.
Development can be observed. Growth stops at maturity. But development continuous
throughout the life. Growth may or may not bring development. Development is also
possible without growth. Growth is quantitative. But development is both quantitative
and qualitative. Growth takes place through twin process of differentiation and
integration. Whereas development is a wider process, but growth is only part of it.

· Development is continuous
· Development follows an orderly pattern
· Development proceeds from general to specific
· Development leads to integration
· Principle of cephalocaudal and proximo distal tendencies
· Development proceeds from egocentricism to allocentricism
· Development proceeds from heteronomy (dependence) to autonomy
· Development is an individualized process
· Development is predictable

8
 · Development is the product of the interaction between maturation and learning
· Principle of interrelation
· Development is cumulative
· Development is the product of the interaction between heredity and
environment

· Development is complex
· Development is spiral and not linear

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT

The human being is never static. From the moment of conception to the time of death,
the person is undergoing changes. Development may be defined as a progressive series
of orderly, coherent changes. The various developments that take place during the life
time of an individual are physical, motor, social, emotional, intellectual, aesthetic and
moral.

1. Development is a continuous process, so the teacher should take continuous

efforts to achieve perfection in the various aspects of development of the
child.
2. Development is individualized process. So, each child should be helped along
the development process within the sphere of his individual ability.
3. Development follows an orderly sequence. This knowledge helps the teacher
to plan learning process and arrange suitable learning experiences so as to
achieve maximum gains in terms of growth and development.
4. Different aspects of development are interrelated and interdependent. The
knowledge cautions the teacher not to encourage the development of a
particular aspect at the cost of another.

9
 5. The principle of interaction between heredity and environment reminds the
teacher to arrange for the best environmental settings and experiences for
children so that they can develop maximum within the limits of their genetic
makeup.
6. The goal of developmental changes is that, to enable the people to adapt to
the environment in which they live.
7. Maturation is the biological unfolding of the characteristics according to a
plan contained in the genes, or the hereditary material passed from parents
to child. Learning is the process through which experience brings about
relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings or behaviour.

INFANCY (0-2 Years)

An infant (from the Latin word infants, meaning "unable to speak" or "speechless")
is the very young offspring of a human or animal. When applied to humans, the term
is usually considered synonymous with baby or brain (in Scottish English), but the
latter is commonly applied to the young of any animal. When a human child learns to
walk, the term toddler may be used instead.

The term infant is typically applied to young children between the ages of 1 month
and 12 months; however, definitions may vary between birth and 1 year of age, or
even between birth and 2 years of age. A newborn is an infant who is only hours,
days, or up to a few weeks old. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate (from Latin,
neonatus, newborn) refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth; the term
applies to premature infants, post mature infants, and full term infants. Before birth,
the term foetus is used.

Characteristics of Infancy

· Very fast changing phase

· rate of growth is very fast, but not as much as in Prenatal stage

10
 · a nutrition-dependent phase
· high velocity of growth declines after year one
· nervous system develops faster
· birth weight and length increases (usually doubles weight by 9 months)
· uncoordinated movements
· responds to human touch & voice
· poor vision (focusing range = 8 to 12 inches)
· Reflexes: sucking, grasping, stepping, rooting, startle

Physical Development during Infancy

Three month old infants can sit with their head held steady for a few seconds, if
supported 6 months Infants have more strength and muscle control. They can lift
their heads, sit without support, and turn their head to look around. They can pull
themselves up when their hands are grasped 9 months Infants can sit unsupported
for ten minutes. They are starting to move independently by rolling or squirming.
They can pull themselves to stand, and can stand holding onto something for a few
moments 12 months Infants can get from a lying to a sitting position without help.
They crawl rapidly. They can walk by holding onto furniture and stand alone for a
few moments. 15 months Infants can get on their feet alone. They can walk and
crawl upstairs. 18 months Infants can run, walk upstairs and crawl downstairs . 2
years Infants can walk downstairs. 3 years Infants can climb on play equipment, ride
a tricycle and throw and catch a ball.

From birth to age two, interactions and patterns of attachment between the infant
and the primary caregiver are an important catalyst for cognitive, linguistic, social-
emotional, and behavioural development. Noticeable developmental changes occur
rapidly during the infancy period, particularly when comparing the completely
dependent child at birth to a child at age two who is able to put words together, walk
alone, and navigate the social environment with purpose. For this reason, milestones
within each domain are organized according to the period of birth to six months,

11
seven months to 1 year, 13 months to 18 months, and 19 months to two years, to
better reflect the sequencing of change during the infancy and early toddlerhood
periods.

Cognitive and linguistic milestones from birth to six months

During this period, the infant’s use of sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell facilitates
cognitive and linguistic growth as well as social interaction with primary caregivers.
From birth to six months, infants’ perceptual acuity begins to improve, leading to the
increased differentiation of external stimuli, such as patterns, colours or sounds, as
well as the recognition of facial expressions. As they navigate their new world,
babies are attracted to stimuli that help them in this quest-brightly coloured
mobiles, clear sounds like bells and whistles and easy to distinguish shapes and
patterns. These perceptual changes coincide with the infant’s growing preference for
familiar people and stimuli. At birth, most babies tolerate being held by a number of
different adults without showing too much distress. However, closer to age six
months, babies may cry or whimper more often when held by unfamiliar adults or
family members, developing a particular preference for the face, vocal sounds and
smell of the primary caregiver, typically the mother in most cultures. In some sense,
normal developmental processes during infancy suggest it might be easier for a child
to start communal care arrangements like day care at a relatively younger age
(earlier than six months) before developing clear preferences for caregivers or
settings.

Cognitive and linguistic milestones during seven months to one

year

Infants continue to use their growing perceptual and sensory capabilities to inform
cognitive and linguistic development during this period as they approach one year of
age. At this time, infants’ memory and attention skills continue to improve, although

12
memory in these early stages is contingent upon the familiarity of the situation or
person or the infant’s motivation, for example, to interact with others or use a toy. A
milestone of this developmental period is object permanence, an understanding
that objects or people still exist when these items are not readily seen or heard, that
emerges around eight months (Piaget, 1954).

Cognitive and linguistic milestones from 13 months to 18 months

During this time period infants expand their repertoire of earlier cognitive skills.
Most babies not only search for objects hidden from sight - characteristic of object
permanence - but look for these items in more than one location, such as under the
couch and in other rooms, making organized games like hide-and-seek possible.
Memory storage and retrieval continues to advance - babies at this age can imitate
others with increasing delays between the time of the observed behaviour and the
imitation of this behaviour in other contexts. Infants at this age also begin to store
prior experiences in memory and are aware of times when present situations are
not in accordance with prior events or their pre-existing expectations.

Cognitive and linguistic milestones from age 19 months to two

years

As the infant approaches toddlerhood, cognitive advances continue in the areas of

memory, problem solving and attention (executive functioning). Beginning at this
stage, infants can develop and carry out action plans, such as building a specific type
of structure with blocks. Whereas 10-month-old children cannot typically sustain
play together - typically sit side by side in a playroom (called parallel play) - the play
of infants at this stage becomes more interactive. When a pair of 20-month-old
infants plays together, they might engage in pretend or make-believe play. A
common theme for make-believe play is engaging in everyday tasks that the infants
have observed others perform, such as eating, cooking, sleeping, or feeding
household pets.

13
Table 2.2. Summary of developmental milestones from zero to two
years
Cognitive and linguistic Social-emotional and behavioural
milestones: Social stimulation milestones: Attachment relationship
and interaction
Birth to · Better differentiation of · Early behavioural and
six external stimuli (sounds, emotional self-regulation based
months colours, etc.) on establishment of regular
· Recognition of facial activities and routines (e.g.,
expression eating, sleeping, etc.)
· Preference for familiar · Sleep cycles become more
people, stimuli and face- predictable by the age of eight
to face interactions. weeks
· Improvement of · Gaze aversion: Normal reaction
memory and attention to overstimulation and arousal
skills (infants can · Social smile: As a response to
remember and attend to familiar human faces (6 weeks)
certain people, physical and as initiated by the baby (3
locations or objects) or 4 months).
· Use of crying to express · Multiple displays of emotions by
basic needs (hunger, age six months (e.g., frustration,
thirst, comfort, etc.) anger, sadness, etc.)
· Emergence of language · Individual and contextual
precursors: Cooing (2 differences in temperament
months) and babbling (4
months)
· Joint attention:
Caregiver and baby take
turns exchanging facial
expressions and noises.
Seven · Growing perceptual and · Development of attachment
months sensory capabilities. relationships: Infant’s bond with
to one · Improvement of the primary caregiver
year memory and attention · Separation anxiety: Displays
skills: Dependent on the anxiety when the caregiver
familiarity of the leaves
situation, person, or · Social referencing: − How to
infant’s motivation react to ambiguous or novel
· Object permanence situations − Facilitates
(eight months): Objects acquisition of culture-bound
and people still exist social nuances − Differentiation
although not seen or between self and others.
heard
· Emergent language
skills: Babbling when
interacting with the
caregiver, some will
speak their first word at

14
 12 months or in the next
stage
· Can point to an object
(e.g., a toy) around one
year
· Will learn and respond
to own name
13 · Expansion of their · Self-awareness: Recognition of
months repertoire of earlier oneself
to 18 cognitive skills: · First demonstrations of
months − Object permanence: Will look empathy: Capacity to reflect and
for the hidden item in more feel the emotions demonstrated
than one location by another person (e.g., when
− Memory and retrieval: infants see displays of negative
Increasing delays between the emotionality in their caregiver,
observed behaviour and its they may show their own
imitation in other contexts personal distress or attempt to
− After the first word (eight-18 comfort the caregiver).
months): Vocabulary grows to
about 200 words
19 · Cognitive advances in · Use of language and other
months memory, problem behaviours to regulate
to two solving, and attention: emotional experience
years − Development and · Growing awareness of others
execution of action plans Emergence of more complex
(e.g., building a emotions (e.g., embarrassment,
structure) guilt, shame, etc.)
− Pretend or make- · Lower intensity of separation
believe play (20 months) anxiety
and daily life play · First signs of self-control: Able
themes to delay engagement in an
enjoyable task
· Advanced linguistic · Play: Imitation of others, use of
skills: language and play choices based
− Combining two or on gender stereotypes.
more words
− Replacement of parts
of a word with vowels or
consonants that are
easier to say
− Vocabulary growth.

15
How does a child grow and develop between the ages of 2 and 5?

The ages between 2 and 5 are often called the preschool years. During these years,
children change from clumsy toddlers into lively explorers of their world. A child
develops in these main areas:

· Physical development. In these years, a child becomes stronger and starts to

look longer and leaner.
· Cognitive development. A child this age makes great strides in being able to
think and reason. In these years, children learn their letters, counting, and
colures.
· Emotional and social development. Between the ages of 2 and 5, children
gradually learn how to manage their feelings. By age 5, friends become
important.
· Language. By age 2, most children can say at least 50 words. By age 5, a child
may know thousands of words and be able to carry on conversations and tell
stories.
· Sensory and motor development. By age 2, most children can walk up stairs
one at a time, kick a ball, and draw simple strokes with a pencil. By age 5,
most can dress and undress themselves and write some lowercase and
capital letters.

CHILDHOOD (3-12 Years)

Definitions of stages of growth in childhood come from many sources. Theorists

such as Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Erik Erikson have
provided ways to understand development, and recent research has provided
important information regarding the nature of development. In addition, stages of
childhood are defined culturally by the social institutions, customs, and laws that
make up a society. For example, while researchers and professionals usually define

16
the period of early childhood as birth to eight years of age, some others might
consider age five a better end point because it coincides with entry into the cultural
practice of formal schooling.

There are three broad stages of development: early childhood, later childhood, and
adolescence. The definitions of these stages are organized around the primary tasks
of development in each stage, though the boundaries of these stages are malleable.
Society's ideas about childhood shift over time, and research has led to new
understandings of the development that takes place in each stage.

Early Childhood (2 to 7 Years)

Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all areas of development. The
dependent newborn grows into a young person who can take care of his or her own
body and interact effectively with others. For these reasons, the primary
developmental task of this stage is skill development.

Physically, between birth and age three a child typically doubles in height and
quadruples in weight. Bodily proportions also shift, so that the infant, whose head
accounts for almost one-fourth of total body length, becomes a toddler with a more
balanced, adult-like appearance. Despite these rapid physical changes, the typical
three-year-old has mastered many skills, including sitting, walking, toilet training,
using a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye coordination to catch and throw a
ball.

Between three and five years of age, children continue to grow rapidly and begin to
develop fine-motor skills. By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control
of pencils, crayons, and scissors. Gross motor accomplishments may include the
ability to skip and balance on one foot. Physical growth slows down between five
and eight years of age, while body proportions and motor skills become more
refined.

17
Physical changes in early childhood are accompanied by rapid changes in the child's
cognitive and language development. From the moment they are born, children use
all their senses to attend to their environment, and they begin to develop a sense of
cause and effect from their actions and the responses of caregivers.

Over the first three years of life, children develop a spoken vocabulary of between
300 and 1,000 words, and they are able to use language to learn about and describe
the world around them. By age five, a child's vocabulary will grow to approximately
1,500 words. Five-year-olds are also able to produce five-to seven-word sentences,
learn to use the past tense, and tell familiar stories using pictures as cues.

Language is a powerful tool to enhance cognitive development. Using language

allows the child to communicate with others and solve problems. By age eight,
children are able to demonstrate some basic understanding of less concrete
concepts, including time and money. However, the eight-year old still reasons in
concrete ways and has difficulty understanding abstract ideas.

A key moment in early childhood socio emotional development occurs around one
year of age. This is the time when attachment formation becomes critical.
Attachment theory suggests that individual differences in later life functioning and
personality are shaped by a child's early experiences with their caregivers. The
quality of emotional attachment, or lack of attachment, formed early in life may
serve as a model for later relationships.

From ages three to five, growth in socio-emotional skills includes the formation of
peer relationships, gender identification, and the development of a sense of right
and wrong. Taking the perspective of another individual is difficult for young
children, and events are often interpreted in all-or-nothing terms, with the impact
on the child being the fore-most concern. For example, at age five a child may expect
others to share their possessions freely but still be extremely possessive of a
favourite toy. This creates no conflict of conscience, because fairness is determined
relative to the child's own interests. Between ages five and eight, children enter into
a broader peer context and develop enduring friendships. Social comparison is

18
heightened at this time, and taking other people's perspective begins to play a role in
how children relate to people, including peers.

Early Childhood: Implications for in-school learning

The time from birth to eight years is a critical period in the development of many
foundational skills in all areas of development. Increased awareness of, and ability to
detect, developmental delays in very young children has led to the creation of early
intervention services that can reduce the need for special education placements
when children reach school age. For example, earlier detection of hearing deficits
sometimes leads to correction of problems before serious language impairments
occur. Also, developmental delays caused by premature birth can be addressed
through appropriate therapies to help children function at the level of their typically
developing peers before they begin school.

Characteristics of Early Childhood

· rate of growth decreases or slows down; growth is slowest by the 3rd year,
but stable and consistently increasing
· learning ability which was launched in the 1st year becomes faster as the
child is exposed to new environment
· all the psychomotor skills are enhancing; muscle coordination allows the
child to run, climb, move freely
· speech is learned; child recognizes letters and some words
· teeth erupt
· short attention span

Later Childhood (Eight to Twelve Years)

Historically, Later childhood has not been considered an important stage in human
development. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory labelled this period of life the
latency stage, a time when sexual and aggressive urges are repressed. Freud

19
suggested that no significant contributions to personality development were made
during this period. However, more recent theorists have recognized the importance
of middle childhood for the development of cognitive skills, personality, motivation,
and inter-personal relationships. During middle childhood children learn the values
of their societies. Thus, the primary developmental task of middle childhood could
be called integration, both in terms of development within the individual and of the
individual within the social context.

As with physical development, the cognitive development of middle childhood is

slow and steady. Children in this stage are building upon skills gained in early
childhood and preparing for the next phase of their cognitive development.
Children's reasoning is very rule based. Children are learning skills such as
classification and forming hypotheses. While they are cognitively more mature now
than a few years ago, children in this stage still require concrete, hands-on learning
activities. Middle childhood is a time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning
and work, for achievement can become a motivating factor as children work toward
building competence and self-esteem.

Later Childhood: Implications for in-school learning

For many children, middle childhood is a joyful time of increased independence,

broader friendships, and developing interests, such as sports, art, or music.
However, a widely recognized shift in school performance begins for many children
in third or fourth grade (age eight or nine). The skills required for academic success
become more complex. Those students who successfully meet the academic
challenges during this period go on to do well, while those who fail to build the
necessary skills may fall further behind in later grades.

Recent social trends, including the increased prevalence of school violence, eating
disorders, drug use, and depression, affect many upper elementary school students.
Thus, there is more pressure on schools to recognize problems in eight-to eleven-
year-olds, and to teach children the social and life skills that will help them continue

20
 to develop into healthy adolescents. Late Childhood phase influenced by growth of
sex hormones.

Educational implications of development at Childhood

· Parents should take care of the education of the child. They should lay
foundations for all improvement in different dimension of developments.
· A sound mind has to built in this early stages. Physical activities should be an
integral part of education. Proper nourishing food should be given. Protection
from epidemic diseases must be carefully attended.
· Mother-tongue should be taken as the medium of instruction since mother-
tongue has an emotional attachment by being early understood.
· There should be associated with good environments that may keep themselves
away from various deeds.
· The instincts of curiosity should be developed. Their questions must be properly
answered. They should broaden the mental horizon of the child.
· Group playing, peer group relations should be encouraged. Education should find
provision for such developments of social qualities.
· Some interesting and entertaining activities such as music, fine arts etc should be
the essential part of education at this stage.
· Play way method in education is the essential psychological approach at this
stage of education. Scientific and attractive toys, models etc should be freely
displayed to their access for releasing then innate and dormant qualities.

Social Development During Early Childhood (3-7 years)

During early childhood, the social behaviour of the child exhibits a progressive change
from individualization towards socialization. During three and four years child is
completely ego-centric. That is in this period he is unable to identify his self with others.
He has no social insight. He is unable to accept the point of view of others. He thinks all
is based on himself. As the child approaches his fourth year, he comes to realize that
‘what is mine is yours’ also and likes to share or exchange toys with his play mates.

21
Factors Affecting Social Development

· Home
· Parental attitude and social development
· Child rearing practices
· Relation with siblings
· Socio Economic Status (SES)
· Influence of Peer Group
· School

ADOLESCENCE

It is aptly said that a child during baby learn to adjust himself and also
discourages his own personality. In the pre-school period the child simply learns to
adjust to his family. When he reaches middle childhood he leans to adjust to the society.
This adjustment is considered to be most difficult and is usually dependent on the
earlier adjustment to self, family and school. From the theoretical standpoint
adolescence is best regarded as the recapitulation of the first period of life. The word
adolescence comes from a Latin word which means ‘to grow in to maturity’. It is a bio-
social transition between childhood and adulthood. So adolescence represent a period
of intensive growth and change in nearly all aspects of child’s physical mental social
and emotional life. Period of adolescence is most crucial in the life of human being. The
growth achieved, the experience gained responsibilities felt and relationship developed
at this stage frame the complete future of an individual. Thus Adolescence refers to the
behavioural characteristics of this period that are influenced by culture and physical
changes.

The child is described to be an adolescent, when he has become sexually mature, i.e., he
is able to produce of his own kind. It is very difficult to point out the exact range of
adolescence period in terms of chronological years. Therefore the range of adolescence
not only differs from country to country but also varies from community to community.

22
In our country in comparison to western countries, the period of adolescence starts
early as Indian children achieve puberty earlier because of favourable climatic and
cultural factors. Also it ends earlier due to the early attainment of maturity. Thus the
range of period of adolescence is not rigid.

The observation of Ross reflects the above idea. “Adolescence is best regarded as the
recapitulation of the first period of life. Like infancy the adolescence is the period of too
much restlessness and disturbance. Stanley Hall regards it as “it is a period of stress and
strain, storm and strife.” Rabindra Nath Tagore, first Nobel prize winner, say about
adolescence as "In this world of human affairs there is no worse nuisance than a boy at
the age of fourteen. If he talks with a childish lisp, he is called a baby; and if he answers
in a grown up way, he is called an impertinent”.

Physical development during adolescence

During adolescence the physical growth and development reaches its peak and human
body find its final stage. The maximum limit with regard to increase in size, height and
weight, is achieved at this time. Bones and muscles increase to the greatest possible
extent leading to a great increase in motor activity. The growth and function of all other
outer and inner organ also reaches to its maximum and almost all the glands become
extremely active at this stage.

Girls and boys develop the characteristic feature of their respective sexes. There is
distinct change in voices between the two sexes, while the girls voices acquires
shrillness and becomes sweet, while the boy’s voice deepens and becomes harsher.
Thus physiologically the boys and girls attain all the male and female characteristics
respectively and prepare themselves for being called men and women or gentlemen or
ladies. Secondary sexual characteristics also developed at this stage.

The adolescent become interested in his muscle development. He begins to participate

in hard exercised like swimming, playing football and become interested in gymnastic
and rustling. The value of this sort of interest of an adolescent in such exercises and

23
games should be closely realize by the parents and teachers who should provide full
opportunity to develop his physique in the best possible manner.

During adolescence the brain also matures. This makes it possible to teach the
individual the behaviour with be desire. There are individual differences in physical
development. Some are small and short. While others are full and strong. The teacher
should encourage such physical activities, which give each pupil a chance to succeed.
The teacher can select extracurricular activities in such a way that the pupil according
to their physical development can adopt them.

Emotional development during adolescence

Emotional development reaches it s maximum during adolescence. During adolescence

all emotions like anxiety, fear, love, anger etc are maximum. Once again like an infant an
individual experiences emotional imbalances during adolescence. The physical growth
and development being maximum the strength of it gives opportunities for maximum
motor activity. Therefore in matter of emotional expression and experience the
adolescence provides the highest peak. At no other stage the child is so restless and
emotionally disturb as in adolescence. He is too sensitive and moody and inflammable.
In the words of James Ross “the adolescent leads an intensely emotional life in which we
can see once more the rhythm of positive and negative phases of behaviour, in his
constant alternation between intense excitement and deep expression.” That is why
this period is often designated as the period of stress and strain.

Social Development

Social development implies the development of an individual in such a way as he

becomes a useful member of society or the group to which he belongs. Social
development begins with the infant’s first contact with other people and continues
throughout life. It is the net result of the child’s constant interactions with his social
environment. Social development helps in learning and acquiring social qualities of

24
character. Social development enables the child to adjust himself to his social
environment and to maintain social relationships.

Self Concept and Social Development

When a child recognizes and identifies with his ways of growing, behaving and thinking
he is strengthening his awareness of himself. This awareness of self attributes as he sees
and believes them be, constitutes his self concept. The self-concept is developed from
comments made by others and from inferences from experiences the child has had in
his life. The child reaches middle childhood with a self concept derived through his
parents immediate family and a limited number of peers. His life concept is likely to be
distorted or incomplete.

Adolescence is the period of increased social relationship and contact, where as the
child cares very little for the society an adolescent develops a good amount of social
sense. He ceases to be egocentric, selfish and unsocial. Now he wants to mould his
behaviour according to the norms of society. The social circle of an adolescent is very
wide. Contrary to childhood he becomes interested in opposite sex. The friendships are
more intent in making intimate friendship and attach him closely to a group. Peer group
relationships control the social behaviour at this age. The child develops a strong sense
of loyalty towards groups. He wants to be accepted by the group. The rejection is costly
as it creates so many adjustment problems.

Another significant change in the social aspect of the child during adolescent is in his
relationship with his parents and family. Now there is a desire for independency. He
wants that the parents and elder members of the family should recognize his
personality. He must not be treated as a child. He gives more important to the value
and maintained by his peer groups than the advice of his parents. If the parents tried to
impose their opinion and values in the adolescence children they may become hidden or
open rebellion.

25
Intellectual Development and Adolescence

Adolescence is the period of maximum growth and development with regard to mental
functioning. Intelligence reaches its climax during these period. Intellectual powers
like logical thinking abstract reasoning and concentration are almost developed to the
end of this period. An adolescent learns to reason and seeks answers to how and why of
critical thinking scientifically. His power of critical thinking and observation is much
developed. He develops a fine imagination, improper channelization of imagination and
dissatisfied need may turn an adolescents into day dreaming. Therefore great care is to
be given for proper cultivation of their power of imagination. Hero worship is most
prominent at this period. Adolescent generally love adventures activities and develop
interest in reading books.

Moral and Religious Development

With the development of social sense the children during this period learn to behave
according to the norms of the society and culture. Also the group sense make then
follow some moral or ethical code. It prepares a stage of proper moral development.
The formation of strong sentiments during this period intensifies the process of moral
development. The impact of religion and religious practice is also felt for the first time
at this age. For example; an adolescent tries to talk about God and Religion.

Table 2.3: Human Development: From Infancy to Adolescence an

Overview
· Rapid growth. From reflex movement to movement with
INFANCY purpose.
· From rolling over to sitting to crawling to first steps.
· From using senses for learning to participating in
rolling/throwing a ball.
· From coos and babbles to understanding very simple
commands.
· From indiscriminate smiling to drawing away from
strangers.
· Attachment bond with caretaker is developed.

26
TODDLER: · From first steps to running, jumping and kicking. Bladder
control achieved.
· From imitating the stacking of cubes to recognizing colours.
· Begins to feed self with spoon.
· From using two- or four-word sentences to enjoying simple
songs.
· From imitation of adult behaviour to playing alone (fantasy
play).
· From almost total dependence to increasingly greater
independence. Has temper tantrums.
EARLY · From basic toilet training to increased body
CHILDHOOD: awareness and exploration. More awareness of sexual
differences.
· From knowing colours to identifying pennies, nickels
and dimes. Begins to read and write.
· From four-word sentences to use of full sentences.
Mastery over use of past tense words is achieved.
· Begins to model and identify with adults of the same
sex.
· From very bossy and belligerent to wanting to please
adults.
· From putting together simple puzzles to good body
LATENCY: control. Girls begin to develop breasts and pubic hair.
· From taking care of personal needs to increasing
responsibility at home and in school. Increased ability
to use logic.
· From first use of full sentences to well-developed
language and communication skills.
· From self-centred behaviour and unstable
relationships to highly selective (best friend)
relationships. Engaging in and enjoying competitive
games.
· From being sensitive to feelings or others toward self,
to becoming more independent dependable and
trustworthy. Likes privacy.
ADOLESCENCE: · Sudden and rapid physical and sexual development.
· Abstract thinking appears. May start planning for the
future.
· Needs less family companionship and interaction.
· Usually has a gang of friends with less intense
relationships.
· Conflicting feelings about dependence/independence.
· Worried about grades, appearance and popularity.
· May appear moody, angry, lonely, impulsive, self-
centred, confused and stubborn.
· May develop strong interest in single, romantic
relationships.

27
 INTELLECTUAL (MENTAL) DEVELOPMENT

The mental development include the development of intellectual and mental

capabilities like sensation, perception, concept formation, attention and interest,
development of imagination, memory and problem solving ability and other mental
abilities. The teacher’s duty is to assist the child in the development of his abilities.
Development of these abilities is the aim of our education. Therefore, mental
development means development of mental and intellectual capabilities, which help an
individual to adjust his behaviour to the ever-changing environmental conditions or to
complete a task that needs complex cognitive capabilities. Intellectual abilities are
interrelated, so, the overall development of this abilities can only lead to the
development of an individual.

Factors affecting mental development

· Hereditary or natural factors

· Environmental or nurtural factors
· Influence of family
· Neighbourhood influence
· Influence of school
· Teacher’s behaviour
· Method of teaching
· Curriculum:
· Extra-curricular activities

Areas of Mental Development

· Sensation: Sensation is the elementary impression gathered through sense

organ. The child’s response to a stimulus is influenced not only by the sensory

28
 stimulus but also by the effect of past experience. The sensory stimulus
separated from the effect of past experience is called sensation.

· Perception: If the sensory stimuli processed and interpreted by the brain such
process is called perception. Perception can never take place in the absence of
basic sensation. The sequence of events leading to perception. i.e., Sensation +
Meaning = Perception.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development refers to the physical changes in the size, structure and
proportion of the parts of the body that take place at the moment of conception. Directly
physical development determines what children can do at a particular age. Indirectly, it
influences their attitude toward self and others. As the child grows physically, the range
of his experiences increases. The increase in his experience contributes to the
developments in cognitive, emotional, social and moral areas. Studies show that growth
comes in cycles. The term ‘cycles’ means that physical growth does not occur at regular
rate rather in periods or phases, sometimes rapidly and sometimes slowly. During the
early childhood years, the growth in slow. Height and weight increase at the lower rate
during this period. During early childhood all the parts of the child's body grow, but at
different rates. During early childhood, the forehead area develops faster than the lower
part of the face. This is due to rapid growth of the brain. The trunk grows longer and
broader in the early years of childhood.

· Arms - grow much longer between babyhood and age 6. Arms are thin and
straight because the muscles grow at a very slow rate. Legs grow at a slower rate
than the arms.
· Teeth – most of the baby teeth have cut through the germs shortly after baby
hood ends. The baby teeth will be fall between 5 and 7. The process of loosing
baby teeth and replacing them with permanent teeth goes on until the child is 12
or 13 years.

29
 · Bones - bone development consists of growth in bore size, change in the number
of bones, and change in their composition. Bone development is most rapid
during the first years of life, then relatively slow up to the time of puberty and
one again more rapid.
· Muscles and Fat - Fatty tissues develop faster than muscle tissue during early
childhood. Children who eat too much carbohydrates and too little protein will
develop too many fat cells.
· Nervous System - At birth brain weight is one-eighth of total weight, at 10 years,
one-eighteenth, at 15 years, one-thirtieth, and a maturity one fortieth.

Sex Differences
· At birth girls tend to be shorten than boys.
· Boys are generally taller than girls at all ages except 10, 11 and 12 years as girls
tend to reach puberty earlier.
· Boys tend to be heavier than girl right through the first nine years. Between ten
to fourteen years the girls have a tending to shoot ahead.

Factors Affecting Physical Development : Heredity and environment are the two
main factors that affect physical development. The environment factors include pre-
natal and birth conditions, socio-economic status, nutrition, physical exercises etc.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Motor development means the development of control over bodily movements through
the co-ordinated activity of the nerve centres, the nerves and the muscles. Motor
development is of greater significance for the total development of the child.

· Good Health which is vital to the child’s development and happiness is

partly dependent on exercise.

30
 · Emotional maturity: Once the child develops his motor skills adequately
he starts participating in team games and sports and learn to control his
emotions, show sportsmanship etc.
· Independence: Motor development gives the child a sense of
independence and with it a feeling of security since he can learn to tackle
things on his own.
· Self-Entertainment: Motor control enables children to engage in activities
which give them enjoyment even in the absence of playmates.
· Socialization: Good motor development contributes to the child’s
acceptance and provides opportunities to learn social skills.
· Self-Concept: Motor control leads to feelings of physical security, which
are soon translated in to psychological security.

Gross and Finer Motor Skills: Motor skills can be roughly divided into two main types.
· The gross muscular skills like jumping, hopping, running, lifting and
climbing.
· The finer muscular skills like drawing, painting and writing.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

‘Emotional development’ refers to the emergence of emotions like anger, joy, delight,
happiness, fear, anxiety and sorrow and the socially acceptable ways of expressing
them. As the child grows up and becomes aware of acceptable ways of behaviour, a
variety of emotions also emerge. As an infant he expresses only discomfort and delight.
As he grows older expressions of joy, happiness, fear, anger and disappointment appear.
He learns to express these emotions in a healthy manner. From the simple emotional
states present at birth, new and more complex emotions develop. This development
comes partly from maturing but mostly trough learning. By the end of the first year, the
baby feels fear, anger, jealousy, envy, curiosity, joy and affection.

31
Common Emotions

· Affection: Anything that gives the young child pleasure a person, a pet or a toy-
becomes the object of the child’s affection.
· Anger: Anger has a very bad influence on the personality of the individual and
hence is called a negative emotion.
· Curiosity: Things that are new and different may make children want to explore
them. later, when children can ask questions, they add facts given the answers to
what they learned from exploring.
· Envy: The usual causes of envy in young children are the things other children
own or can do.
· Fear: Is a form of self protecting flight from any dangerous situations. The child
is frightened by loud noises, animals, strange persons, high places, darkness,
loneliness, pain and falling down.
· Grief: The loss of anything important to children a family member, a pet or a
loved toy-makes them cry and they refuse to do what they usually do.
· Jealousy: Jealousy is an attitude of resentment directed towards people.
Whenever a parent or other adult shows more interest in, and gives more time
and attention to another child, young children may resent it.
· Joy: Anything that makes a young child feel satisfied and important, such as
doing something well and winning praise for it, gives rise to an overall feeling of
happiness known as joy.

SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development is the ability to adjust the individual to his present social
circumstances and to behave in accordance with the wishes and desires of other people
i.e., Social development is a process of development by which a child acquires the
necessary attitudes, values and skills that makes him an acceptable member of the
group, which he belongs. According to Crow and Crow social development as the
acquisition of the ability to conform to group standard. In the words of Elizabeth

32
Hurlock, Social development means the attaining of maturity in social setting. In
defining social development, Sorenson has written, by social growth and development
we mean the increasing ability to get along well with one and others. In short
socialization is the process of the development of such qualities, which bring desirable
changes in social behaviour of the child. It is the process whereby the biological
individual is converted into a human person. An individual, mature from the social
stand point, is one who co-operate with all those with whom he come into contact, and
contradict them only when such a course of action becomes inevitable.

Factors influencing Social Development

Personal factors

§ Physical factor: Healthy child have the strength to make him adjusted in the
challenging social situations. He is able to mingle with people and maintain
proper relationship.
§ Mental factor: Mental factor or intelligence is very essential for adjustment and
sociability to the individual
§ Emotional factor: Those person express his emotion in a proper way at a proper
time, he have posses the health social personality.

Environmental factors

· Family
· School
· Peer group

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The term moral is derived from the Latin word Mores which means manners, custom or
folkways. Thus an individual’s moral notions and concept are determined by laws,
traditions, religious ideals, custom etc. Hence moral development considered as a part
of social development as well as emotional development. Moral development refers to
the development of moral concept and moral behaviour. Moral concepts starts
developing when the child learns what is good and what is bad, what are right and what

33
is wrong. The child categorizes any action that needs with his parent’s disapproval and
invites their criticism as bad or wrong and all actions sanctioned and welcomed by the
parents are accepted as good and correct. That is, punishment and the reward control
the children’s right and wrong action. Moreover the child’s moral development is
dependent upon his emotional development. Hence moral development is a complex
process in which the action and interaction of an individual and other people
surrounding him is of great importance.

CONCLUSION

Development in each area affects development in other. Development of physical skills

makes the infant mobile, increases, his range of activity and helps him to explore his
surroundings. This also helps in cognitive development. Language development helps
the child to communicate better. It also allows him to interact with more people. This
interaction has a significant influence on this social development. The child is a
complete person with the experiences and skills in one area influencing the
development in others. The effect of each area of development cannot be separated out
easily. Thus development is a holistic process.

MODEL QUESTIONS

1. “Cognitive development of an individual is the result of his successful

attempt for equilibration”. Explain the statement in terms of the key concept
formulated by Piaget.

2. “Language is a complex system and unique to Human Beings”. Substantiate.

3. Discus briefly the relative role of nature and nurture in growth and
development.

34
 4. Discuss the Emotional characteristics of different stages of development of an
individual with special emphasis on secondary school stage.
5. Sketch the social development of a child from birth to age two.

6. Suggest one curricular and one co-curricular activity that could help
adolescents society specific development needs. Give reasons why you think,
they would be helpful for the purpose.
7. What are the developmental tasks of Indian adolescents? How can a teacher
help the adolescents to overcome the difficulties of this stage.

8. What is the importance of Gang life in the social development of children?

REFERENCES

1. Aggarwal, J.C. (2002). Essentials of Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
2. Berk E. Laura (1997). Child development. London: Allyn and Bacon.
3. Bourne, L.E. & Russo, N.F. (----). Psychology Behaviour in Context. New York: NW
Norton.
4. Choudhury, B. Stages of Human Growth (Pre-natal development - Senescence)
retrieved on 14-09-2015 from [Link]
of-human-growth-prenatal-development-senescence
5. Dandapani, S. (2000). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi: Anmol
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
6. Doyle, D.A. Childhood Development., retrieved on 14-09-2015 from
[Link]
development/childhood-development
7. Grewal, J.S. (1984). Early Childhood Education. Agra: National Psychological
Corporation.
8. Guerra, N.G. [Link]. Normal Development Infancy, Childhood and Adolescence .,
retrieved on 14-09-2015 from [Link]
[Link]
9. How does a child grow and develop between the ages of 2 and 5? retrieved on 14-
09-2015 from [Link]
development-2-to-5-years-overview
10. Human Development: from Infancy through Adolescence., retrieved on 14-09-
2015 from [Link] files/Training%20materials/
Human%20 [Link]
11. Hurlock, E. (----). Child Development. New Delhi: McGraw. Hill International Book
Company

35
12. John, D.C. & William, C.R. (1988). The Psychology of Learning and Instruction. New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
13. Leod, S. A. (2007). Nature Nurture in Psychology. Retrieved from
[Link]/[Link]
14. Mangal, S.K. (2003). Advanced Educational Psychology. Prentice Hall of India Pvt.
Ltd. New Delhi.
15. Peter, S.K. [Link]. (1998). Understanding Children’s Development. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers.
16. Sakkeer, V., & Thamarasseri, Ismail. (2013). Educational Psychology. New Delhi:
APH Publishing Corp.
17. Stages of Growth Child Development - Early Childhood (Birth to Eight Years),
Middle Childhood (Eight to Twelve Years) retrieved on 14-09-2015 from
[Link]
[Link]
18. Thamarasseri, Ismail. (2008) Psychological Foundations of Education. New Delhi:
Kanishka Publishers.
19. Thamarasseri, Ismail. (2015). Adolescence Education. New Delhi: Dominant
Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd.
20. Thamarasseri, Ismail. (2015). Learner and Learning. New Delhi: Dominant
Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd.
21. Thamarasseri, Ismail. (2015). Psychology of Learning. New Delhi: Dominant
Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd.

36
Human Growth and Development-1 MSW (Previous)

Dimensions of Development:

 Physical Development

 Motor Development

 Cognitive development

 Emotional development

 Social development

 Moral development

Physical Development:
 Body growth(body size, teeth, bones)

 Change in body size, shape, appearance

 Functioning of body system & physical health

 Grasp objects & roll over

 Control over head, hands, draw lines on paper

 Kick a ball, turn single page in a book, use a spoon

 Ride a tricycle, then bicycle, feed himself, dress himself, etc.

Motor Development:

 Development of movement

 Many motor skills are necessary for everyday life activities e.g. sitting, walking, running, climbing stairs, picking up
objects, using keyboard, using pencils & pens etc.

1. Gross Motor Skills: large movement of body including sitting, walking, running and climbing stairs etc

2. Fine Motor Skills: involve the small movements of fingers & hands. E.g. using pencils and pens, using keyboard etc

 Motor Development seems to follow a pattern. Large muscles develop before smaller ones.

Cognitive Development:

 Cognitive development is the thought processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision making, from
childhood to adulthood.

 Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through
the interacting genetic and learned factors.

Emotional Development:

 Emotional development is the emergence of a child’s experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of
emotions from birth to late adolescence
  Parents & other caregivers play an important role in emotional development

 Crying, smile, laughter, anger

 Pride, shame, fear

Social development:

 Social development refers to how people develop social and emotional skills across the life span, with particular
attention to childhood and adolescence.

 Healthy social development leads to positive relationships with family, friends, teachers and other people in our lives

 Behavior, norms, human interaction

Moral Development:

 Moral is to know the difference between right and wrong.

 Moral development focuses on the emergence, change and understanding of morality from infancy through
adulthood.

 Morality is defined as principles for how individuals ought to treat one another, with respect to justice, other’s
welfare and rights

Measures:

 Beliefs

 Emotions

 Behavior

Role:

 Parents

 Peers

 Teachers

 Culture

 Societal influence

COMMUNICATION:
Concept, principles, process, elements and types.

Communication process & elements of communication:

 Exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium.

 Systematic = Step by Step = Process

 Communication as a Process:
Human communication is interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a process.
Elements of communication:

 Source/ sender

 Ideas/ message

 Encoding

 Medium/ channel

 Decoding

 Receiver/decoder

 Feedback

Principles of communication:

 Clarity

 Conciseness

 Concrete/ Objectivity

 Correct
  Coherent/ Relevant

 Complete

 Courteous

 Audience knowledge

Verbal communication:

 Oral communication:

In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video,
radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.

 Written communication:

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand
written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report etc. Message, in written communication,
is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style and clarity of the language used.

Nonverbal Communication

 Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other
than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.

Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:

 Appearance

 Body Language

 Sounds

Communication Based on Purpose and Style

  Formal Communication

 Informal Communication

Formal Communication:

Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences
undergoes in formal pattern. In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is
required.

Informal Communication:

It happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually,
informal communication is done orally and using gestures. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Effective Communication:

Communication is about more than just exchanging information. It is about understanding the emotions and intensions behind
the information.

More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of skills including non verbal communication,
engaged listening, managing stress in the moment, the ability to communicate assertively, and the capacity to recognize and
understand your own emotions and those of the person you are communicating with.

Conditions for Effective Communication:

 Become an engaged listener

 Pay attention to non-verbal signals

 Keep stress in check

 Assert yourself

 Emphasize your key points through repetition

 Keep a good sense of humor

 Respond in a timely manner

 Be present

 Put your audience at ease

 Ask before you speak

 Practice strong visual communication

 Feedback

Developing Communication Skills:

1. Understanding the basics of communication skills

2. Engaging your audience

 3. Using your words

Understanding the basics of communication skills:

 Know what communication really is

 Have courage to say what you think

 practice

Engaging your Audience:

 Make eye contact

 Use gestures (hand, face, make your whole body talk)

 Don’t send mixed messages (make your words, gestures, facial expressions & tone match)

 Be aware of what your body is saying

 Manifest constructive attitudes and beliefs

(honest, patient, sincere, respectful, accepting to others)

 Develop effective listening skills

Using your words:

 Speak clearly

 Pronounce your words correctly

 Use the right words

 Slow your speech down

 Develop your voice

 Animate your voice

 Use appropriate volume

Effective Use of Feedback

Feedback is one important aspect in constructive communication.

 Effective feedback, both positive and negative, is helpful to others.

 It is specific rather than general.

 It is focused on behavior rather than on the person

 Feedback should be time bounded

 Feedback should be given to help not to hurt

 It involves sharing of information rather than giving advice

 Receiving feedback effectively

 Listen to feedback given

  Be aware of your responses

 Be open

 Understand the message

 Use it or ignore it

 Feedback should be clear & easy to understand

UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN LIFE SPAN

Life span:

 The amount of time that a person or animal actually lives

 The duration of existence of an individual

 The term life span development refers to age- related changes that occur from birth, throughout a persons life, into
and during old age

Indian concept of life span: (Hindu ashram system)

According to Vedic philosophy the human life span is divided into 4 stages. These are called

“ashrams” and every man should ideally go through each of these stages.

 Brahmacharya

 Grihastha

 Vanaprastha

 Sannyasa

Brahmacharya-The celibate Student:

This is a period of formal education. It lasts until the age of 24, during which, the young male leaves home to stay with
a guru and attain both spiritual and practical knowledge. During this period, he is called a brahmachari, and is prepared for his
future profession, as well as for his family, and social and religious life ahead.

Grihastha - The Married Family Man:

This period begins when a man gets married, and undertakes the responsibility for earning a living and supporting his
family. At this stage, Hinduism supports the pursuit of wealth (artha) as a necessity, and indulgence in sexual pleasure (kama),
under certain defined social and cosmic norms. This ashrama lasts until around the age of 48. The householders have the
responsibility of bringing up their children in the same way that their parents brought them up. The householder needs to
perform his religious duties as well.

Vanaprastha - The retired life:

This stage of a man begins when his duty as a householder comes to an end. He has become a grandfather, his
children are grown up, and have established lives of their own. At this age, he retire from his social and professional life, leave
his home, and go to live in a forest hut, spending his time in prayers. He is allowed to take his wife along, but is supposed to
maintain little contact with the family. This kind of life is indeed very harsh and cruel for an aged person. No wonder, this third
ashrama is now nearly obsolete.
Sannyasa- Renounced life:

At this stage, a man is supposed to be totally devoted to God. He is a sannyasi, he has no home, no other attachment;
he has renounced all desires, fears and hopes, duties and responsibilities. He is virtually merged with God, all his worldly ties
are broken, and his sole concern becomes attaining moksha, or release from the circle of birth and death.

Psychoanalytic Theories
(Freud & Erikson)
Psychoanalysis:

 A method of explaining and treating mental and emotional problems by having the patient talk about dreams,
feelings, memories etc.

 A method of studying the mind and treating mental and emotional disorders based on revealing and investigating the
role of the unconscious mind.

 Sigmund Freud:

 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.

 Freud did not believe there is any supernatural force that affects the way we think or has pre-programmed us to
behave in a certain way. . The basis of Christian Theology states, “God Created Humanity in his image” but Freud
argued that Humanity created God in their image.

 Freud believed that religion is constructed by the mind.

 The idea that religion causes people to behave in a moral way is incorrect according to Freud because he believed
that no other force has the power to control the ways in which people act. Unconscious desires motivate people to
act accordingly.

Conscious and unconscious Mind:

Conscious mind:

 Part of your mind responsible for logic and reasoning.

 Communicates with outside world & inner self through speech, pictures, writing and physical movement.

 Voluntary action

 Aware of things you are doing.

Subconscious mind:

Part of your mind responsible for all of your involuntary actions.

 Your breathing rate and heart beats are controlled by your subconscious mind.

 Emotions are also controlled by your subconscious mind.

Unconscious mind:

 Unconscious mind are the storage place of all your memories, emotions and habits.

 Storehouse of all memories & past experiences, repressed ideas.

 Unconscious mind constantly communicates with the conscious mind via our subconscious mind.

 It communicates through feelings, emotions, imagination, sensations & dreams.

Psychoanalytic theory:

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that human behavior is the result of the interactions
among three component parts of mind: the id, ego & superego. The theory places great emphasis on the role of unconscious
psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality.

Id:

 The id according to Freud is the part of the unconscious that seeks pleasure.

 It is unconscious part of mind that is based on desire to seek immediate satisfaction.

 Freud explained id makes people engage in need- satisfying behavior without any accordance to what is right or
wrong.

 Id is like a child, e.g. (ice-cream)

Ego:

 The ego is responsible for creating balance between pleasure and pain.

 Ego is opposite of id, which focuses on morality & justice.

 The ego is judgment portion of the personality.

  ego is partly conscious and partly unconscious.

 Freud named it as ‘self’.

Superego:

 The superego, which develops around age four or five, incorporates the morals of society.

 superego has the ability to distinguish between reality as well as what is right and wrong.

 Freud believed people would act out with aggression and other immoral behaviors because the mind would have no
way of understanding the difference between right and wrong.

Freud separates the superego into two categories; ‘ideal self’ & ‘conscious’.

 The ‘conscious’ contains ideals and morals that exist within the society that prevent people from acting out based on
their internal desires.

 The ‘ideal self’ contains images of how people ought to behave according to societies ideals.

 The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the Unconscious
Conscious.

 Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders.

Freud’s
Psychosexual
Stages of Development
What is psychosexual development?

• Freud believed that adult personality problems were the result of early experiences in life.

• He believed that we go through five stages of psychosexual development and that at each stage of development
we experience pleasure in one part of the body than in others.

Stage Age Range Erogenous zone Consequences of psycho logic fixation

Orally aggressive: chewing gum and the ends of pencils, etc.

Oral Birth–1 and half year Mouth .
Orally Passive: smoking, eating, kissing, oral sexual practices

Anal retentive: Obsessively organized, or excessively neat

Anal 1 and ½ –3 years Bowel and bladder elimination
Anal expulsive: reckless, careless, defiant, disorganized,
Phallic 3–6 years Genitalia Oedipus complex (in boys and girls); according to Sigmund Freud.

Latency 6–puberty Dormant sexual feelings Sexual unfulfillment if fixation occurs in this stage.

Genital Puberty–death Sexual interests mature Frigidity, impotence, unsatisfactory relationships

I. Oral Stage

• It occurs during the first 18 months of life when the infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth.

• Chewing, sucking and biting are chief sources of pleasure and these actions reduces tension in the infant.

• The infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops
a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

• If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

• This stage lasts one and one-half years.

II. Anal Stage

• It is the second stage of oral development that occurs between 1 ½ until 3 years of age, in which the child’s greatest
pleasure involves the anus or the eliminative functions associated with it.

• In Freud’s view, the exercise of anal muscles reduces tension.

• During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
movements.

• According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training.

• Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

• Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and
help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the
basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

• However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents
instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

• This stage lasts from one and one-half to three years.

• Through toilet training, the child comes in contact with the rules of society.

III. Phallic Stage

• It occurs between the ages of 3-6.

• The word “phallic” comes the Latin word “phallus,” which means “penis.”

• During this stage, pleasure focuses on the genitals as the child discovers that self-stimulation is enjoyable.
 • During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover
the differences between males and females.

• Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.

• The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls

• Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.

Importance of Phallic Stage

• In Freud’s view, the phallic stage has a special importance in personality development because this period triggers the
Oedipus Complex.

• The Oedipus Complex is the young child’s development of an intense desire to replace the parent of the same sex and
enjoy the affection of the opposite-sex parent.

Resolving the Oedipus Complex

• At about 5-6 years of age, children recognize that their same-sex parent might punish them for their wishes.

• To reduce the conflict, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, striving to be like him/her.

• If the conflict is not resolved, the individual may become fixated at the phallic stage.

IV. Latency Stage

• It occurs at approximately between 6 years of age until puberty.

• At this stage, the child represses all interest in sexuality and develops social and intellectual skills.

• The pursuit of social and academic activities channels much of the child’s energy into emotionally safe areas and aids
the child in forgetting the highly stressful conflicts of the phallic stage

• During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego and superego contribute to
this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

• The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas
such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.

• This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

V. Genital Stage

• The final stage of psychosexual development occurs from puberty onwards.

• It is the time of sexual reawakening, but the source of sexual pleasure now becomes someone outside the family.

• Freud believed that unresolved conflicts with parents re-emerged during adolescence.

• Once resolved, Freud believed that the individual capable of developing a mature love relationship and functioning
independently as an adult.

• In the genital stage, as a child’s energy once again focuses on his genitals, interest turns to heterosexual relationships.

• During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
 • Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this
stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and
caring.

• The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994) has made a contribution to the field of psychology with his developmental theory. Erikson developed
eight psychosocial stages in which humans develop through throughout their entire life span.

Born in Germany. He starts teaching in Vienna when he was 25 years old.

Eight stages of development:

Trust vs. Mistrust

 Occurs in infancy. (birth-18 months).

 Babies must learn to trust there parents care and affection.

 If not done the babies could develop a distrust and view the world as inconsistent and unpredictable.

 Questions ones hope.

 For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will develop a
sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
  This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 Occurs in the toddler age. (18 months-3 years).

 Child learns to feed themselves and do things on there own.

 Or they could start feeling ashamed and doubt their abilities.

 Questions the child's willpower.

 For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to
try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

 So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the
child so that constant failure is avoided.

 A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails at
a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim
has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem”. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.

Initiative vs. Guilt

 Preschool age (3-5 years old).

 Using initiative in planning or carrying out plans.

 Or develop a sense of guilt over misbehavior regarding parents limits.

 Questions ones purpose and role in life.

 The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often
overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his
initiatives too much.

 Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of
course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self control or have a conscience.

 A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.

Industry vs. Inferiority

 School age (5-11 years of age).

 Learn to follow the rules imposed by schools or home.

 Or the child can start believing they are inferior to others.

 Questions competency.

 If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their
ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins
to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
  If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may develop
a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a
balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

 Adolescence (11-18 years of age).

 Acquire a sense of identity.

 Or can become confused about ones role in life.

 Questions who you are.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Young adulthood (18-40 years of age).

 Develop a relationship and joint identity with a partner.

 Or can become isolated and stay away from meaningful relationships.

 Questions if the person is ready for new relationships, or if there is a fear of rejection.

 Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We
explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.

 Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and
care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness,
and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

 Middle adulthood (40-65 years of age).

 Making use of time and having a concern with helping others and guiding the next generation.

 Or can become self-centered, and stagnant.

 Questions what the person will do with their extra time.

 During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our
own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.

 We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community
activities and organizations.

 By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the
virtue of care.

Integrity vs. Despair

 Late adulthood (60-and up).

 Understand and accept the meaning of temporary life.

  Or complains about regrets, not having enough time, and not finding a meaning throughout life.

 Questions ones overview of their entire life.

 Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish
our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense
of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

SOCIALIZATION
 Socialization: Active process, where human beings 

 Learn how to become members of society

 Develop a self or sense of individual identity, and

 Learn to participate in social relationships with others.

Socialization Agents

 Socialization agents are the sources from which we learn about society and ourselves.

 People and groups that influence our self- concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour are called agents of
socialization.

Factors influencing Socialization :

 Role of Family

 Peer group

 Neighbourhood

 School

 Mass Media and Technology

 Religion and Social Values

Role of Family

 Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an
extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects
(such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as “family,” others as
“friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or “neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what
is “imagined”).

 The family is well suited to socialization because its members are in intimate, face-to-face contact and parents are
usually highly motivated to socialize their children well.
  Families are not, however, always efficient agents of socialization.

 Parents may reproduce negative modeling they experienced as children.

 Through close interaction with parents and small number of others, child:

 Learns to think and speak

 Internalizes norms, beliefs, and values

 Learns gender roles

 Develops capacity for intimate and personal relationships

 Begins to develop a self image…

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
FAMILIES

 Socialization affected by:

 Social class of parents

 Parenting style

 Preparedness of parents for parenting role

 Psychological health of parents (e.g., neglect, abuse, or abandonment of child)

 Family type (e.g., single parent family, joint family)

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
SCHOOLS

• School is usually the first setting in which children are supervised by adults who are not relatives or friends of family.

• Schools serve as a model of much of adult world.

• Schools teach children the values and customs of the larger society.

 Teach children indirectly to be less emotionally dependent

 Adjust children to their social order

 Build character through formal curriculum and “hidden curriculum”: Informal teaching that helps ensure students’
integration into society

 Reinforce gender roles

Agents of Socialization: Peer Groups

 As children grow older, peer groups role increasing in our life.

 Peer groups can ease the transition to adult responsibilities.

 Peer groups can encourage children to honor or violate cultural norms and values.
  Peer groups can be a source of harassment as well as support.

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:
PEER GROUPS

 Allow children and young people:

 Opportunities to engage in experiences not provided in family, including examining feelings, beliefs and ideas not
acceptable to family

 Opportunities for self-direction and self-expression

 Can strongly shape individual’s aspirations and behaviours.

Agents of Socialization: Mass Media and Technology

 53 percent of all children ages 12 to 18 have their own televisions.

 Television permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex forms of learning.

 Technology is socializing families into multitasking as the social norm.

Agents of Socialization: Religion

 Religion still continues to exert considerable influence on our beliefs, values, and behaviours.

 In considering the effects of religion on socialization, we need to distinguish between religious preference and
religiosity.

 For example: issue of abortion

OTHER SOCIALIZING AGENTS

 Athletic teams: May teach young people about cooperation, competition, following rules, and establishing friendships

 Organizations

 Youth groups

 Job place (office)

 Other institutions

PERCEPTION

“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE, WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”

 Perception

“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process

through which we interpret and organize sensory information to

produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.”

“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which
information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.

“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.

Meaning : Perception refers to the way we try to understand the world around us.

Definition:

It is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.

 The ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses.

 Perception is the process of recognizing and interpreting sensory stimuli. (feeling cold, hot, horror seen)

 Think of all the ways in which you experience the world around you. For example, you recognize your favorite food by
its aroma and the way it looks. You recognize an orange by its round shape, citrus flavor, and its color. You recognize a
song by listening to its melody and the singer's voice. It is through these sensory experiences that we interact with
and interpret things in our world. Recognizing and interpreting sensory information, such as sound and smells, are all
a part of perception.

 Perception can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory information. Perception also includes how
we respond to the information. We can think of perception as a process where we take in sensory information from
our environment and use that information in order to interact with our environment. Perception allows us to take the
sensory information in and make it into something meaningful.

 Without sensory information, we would not be able to judge which food was too hot or when the appropriate time to
cross the street would be, which could put us and our children in danger.

The Nature and Importance of Perception

 Perception, is a unique interpretation of the situation, not an exact recording of it.

 It is a very complex cognitive process that yields a unique picture of the world, a picture that may be quite different
from reality.

Sensation Vs Perception

 Sensation deals chiefly with very elementary behaviour that is determined largely by physiological functioning.

 All the physical senses are vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste.

 Sensations are the first stages in the functioning of senses to represent stimuli from the environment, and perception
is a higher brain function about interpreting events and objects in the world.
  Perception is more complex and more broader than Sensation. It is a complicated interaction of selection,
organization and interpretation.

 Though perception largely depends upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify or
completely change these data. (E.g. Tree looked at from one side and then from the other).

 The Purchasing agent buys a part which she thinks best and not the part which the engineer says is best.

 A subordinates answer to a question is based on what he heard the boss say, not on what the boss actually said.

 The same worker may be good for one supervisor, and bad for another.

 The same item may be high quality for one inspector and low quality for a customer.

The Perceptual Process

1. Sensation

 An individual’s ability to detect stimuli in the immediate environment.

2. Selection

 The process a person uses to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others for
further processing.

3. Organization

 The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for “storage.”

4. Translation

 The stage of the perceptual process at which stimuli are interpreted and given meaning.

Perceptual organization

 It is the process by which we group outside stimuli into recognizable and identifiable patterns and whole objects.

 Perceptual organization is the ability to take in visual, auditory and sensory information and use that information
effectively to accomplish a task.

 Without perceptual organization, we would not be able to distinguish a circle from a square.

 Certain factors are considered to be important contributors on assembling, organizing and categorizing information in
the human brain.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

 Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused
on how people interpret the world.

 According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is different than the sum of its parts.

 Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how
smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the "laws of perceptual
organization."
 Perceptual organization & factors influencing perception
Perceptual organization

 It is the process by which we group outside stimuli into recognizable and identifiable patterns and whole objects.

 Perceptual organization is the ability to take in visual, auditory and sensory information and use that information
effectively to accomplish a task.

 Without perceptual organization, we would not be able to distinguish a circle from a square.

 Certain factors are considered to be important contributors on assembling, organizing and categorizing information in
the human brain.

Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization

 Gestalt psychology was founded by German thinkers Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka and focused
on how people interpret the world.

 According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is different than the sum of its parts.

 Based upon this belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set of principles to explain perceptual organization, or how
smaller objects are grouped to form larger ones. These principles are often referred to as the "laws of perceptual
organization."

Factors influencing Perception

 Characteristics of the perceiver.

 Characteristics of the target.

 Characteristics of the situation.

Factors That
Influence Perception

All these factors will be discussed in the subsequently

Factors in the perceiver

Attitude

 Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or value.

 Reflect how we feel about something.

Motives

 It reflects stimuli that cause to perform particular action.

 States goals, purpose perceived by perceiver from event, situation, etc

Interest

State that power, the force, which is reflected by persons behavior.

Expectations:

 State that anticipation of a particular behavior from a person .

 Affects what a person perceives.

Experience

 Experience and knowledge serve as basis for perception. While one’s successful experience enhance his/her
perceptive ability, failure erodes his/her self confidence. Successful experience also helps perceiver understand
stimuli with more accuracy.

 Factors in the situation

Time

 Time perception is a construction of the brain that can also be manipulated and studied through a variety of
experiments.

 What are the factors that affect your perception of how time passes?
  Level of fatigue

 Level of Concentration

 Depression & Happiness

Social setting(How an individual perceives other)

 “Social perception is that part of perception that allows people to understand the other people in their social world.”

 Social perceptions can obviously be flawed - even skilled observers can misperceive, misjudge, and reach the wrong
conclusions.

Factors in the target

 Try this exercise. Look at each umbrella image. Is the message of each image different? If so, what makes the message
different?

Novelty:-

Novel or something unique or a peculiar idea is likely to attract anyone’s attract attention. white person
or a black person in India catches attention faster.

Motion

 People gives more attention to moving objects than the stationery object.

Sounds

 Sound level or noise level is a physical quantity measured with measuring instruments.

 Furthermore, for speech, music, and many other sounds, the physical characteristics of the sound produce hearing
sensations in the listener. TV advertisement, Radio advertisement

Size

Larger object is more likely to be noticed than a smaller Object.

Example:

 Which you can read fast?

Social Adjustment
Adjustment

 The word adjustment derived from the biological term Adaptation. We often use the word adjustment in our daily
life, in a particular classroom having space for 35 students if there are 40 students, so the teacher asks to adjust them.
Even when a guest come to stay with us for a few days we have to adjust them.

 Adjustment is the psychological process by which an individual manages or cops with various demands.

 Adjustment is that process by which a living organisms maintain a balance between its needs & the circumstances
that influence these needs.

 Psychologists are interested in adjustment in a number of areas including:

 Emotional adjustment

 Occupational adjustment

 School adjustment

 Social adjustment

Social Adjustment

 Social adjustment can be defined as a psychological process. It frequently involves coping with new standards and
values. In the technical language of psychology, getting along with the members of the society as best as one can is
called adjustment.

 Social adjustment as an important indication of psychology health, is a topic attracting the attention of many
psychologists.

 Without adjustment, the person is not able to meet many of his/her basic needs. If one is incompatible with the
society properly, he will feel isolated.

Definition

 Adaptation of the person to the social environment. Adjustment may take place by adapting the self to the
environment or by changing the environment.

Meaning:

 : a small change that improves something or makes it work better

  : a change that makes it possible for a person to do better or work better in a new situation

 : the act or process of changing or adjusting something (such as a number)

Nature of Social Adjustment:

 As Plato says 'Man is a social animal.' We live in a society and form opinion about others and others have opinions
about us. We try to behave according to the norms of the society so that we can adjust with others. But it is not an
easy talk because the personality of each individual is a unique organization.

 This organization has to make special efforts to adjust with other unique organization which well society. Social
adjustment is the direction, we, the teacher try to instill adjustment skill in our students: Teacher should emphasize
on the adjustment of the student in the school.

 Psychologists use the term adjustment of varying conditions of social and interpersonal relation in the society. Thus
adjustment can be called the reaction to the demands and pressures of the social environment imposed upon the
individual.

Perception and Social Adjustment

 Impartial perception is needed for social adjustment. The processes of behavior e.g. learning, maturation, sensation,
perception and motivation are significant in our life because they contribute to the process of adjustment. The way
we interact with people depends to a great extent upon how we perceive them and how we interpret their behavior.

 If you perceive that a student is hostile, you are unlikely to interact or adjust with him/her. Your behavior in a group is
certainly different from the behavior when in alone. Group affects an individual‘s behavior. The mere presence of
others affects our performance

Impression Formation and Social Adjustment

 We shall first discuss 'impression' as a cognitive process. Impression formation is the process by which information
about others is converted into more or less enduring cognition or thoughts about them. When we first meet
someone, we usually have access to information how the person looks and where he/she works and what he/she
says.

Other Processes in Social Adjustment

1. Stress and adaptation The efforts to live and be satisfied is called adaptation: Environmental factors which make it hard for
an individual to live are called stress. At the most elementary level of life, stress is experienced as irritation and discomfort as a
slightly more advanced level, stress is explained as the anticipation of harm. In human beings certain kinds of stresses produce
anxiety. Anxiety sometimes produces defensive response which are mental efforts to reduce stresses. Defenses are generally
regarded as poor methods of adjustment. Actually adjustment means reduction of tension or satisfaction.

Social Influence:

 The process of social influence contains two critical elements. These are as under:

 (a) Someone's intervention

 (b) Inducing change in other person.

 The phenomena of influence, always contain an agent which has caused a change in the focal person (FP).

 Influence situations can be differentiated by noticing the different characteristics of agent and of the behaviour that
makes up the intervention.

 The following five concepts help us understand the process of social influence, better.

Social Facilitation:
  In a group situation the presence of others would always influence performance and thus the efforts to bring changes
in performance of an individual are called social facilitation. The presence of others increases an individual's arousal
level which in turn, enhances performance of well learned responses.

 r example, a well trained singer would, according to this theory i.e. social facilitation, performs better when others
are present and would make more mistakes when practicing at home.

Imitation:

 Imitation involves change in focal person's behaviour that matches as copies others' behaviour. Student imitates the
behaviour of social personalities for getting the recognition.

Compliance to Others:

 Human being as a social being has to adjust himself in the social environment in his daily life, he commands others
and works according to his one or other's rules and regulations.

 In a family every member is dependent 'on each other. Sometimes even parents obey the rules of their children. This
type of situation influences them to adjust in social environment.

Conformity to Norms:

 Conformity is the situation wherein individuals change their behaviour so that they may become more similar to
those of the other members of the group.

Obedience:

 Obedience is the situation wherein the agent has legitimate light to influence the focal person and the focal person
has the obligation to obey.
 A-1 ❐ Human Growth and Development

Unit - 1 : Approaches to Human Development

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Human developments as a discipline from infancy to adulthood.
1.4 Concepts & Principles of development
1.5 Developing Human Stages (Prenatal to Adulthood)
1.6 Nature vs. Nurture
1.7 Demains of Human Development
1.8 References

1.1 Introduction
This course exposes student teachers to the study of child and human development
in order to gain a better understanding about variations and the influence of socio-
cultural-political realities on development. A critical understanding of theoretical
perspectives of development would aid in their application in teaching learning process.
Through close observation of children in their natural environments the teacher trainee-
would be able to situate their theoretical knowledge within realistic frames. This course
would also be able to equip the trainees to reflect and critique the normative notions of
childhood and adolescence.

1.2 Objectives
After studying the Unit 1 the student-teacher will be able to -
• Explain the process of development from the pre-natal period to adulthood
• Analyze the typical development of children from birth to five years of age
• Comprehend the different domains of human development

1.3 Human Developments As A Discipline From Infancy To

Adulthood
Human development is a multifaceted process and involves different aspects. One aspect
involves biological and physical development. The size and complexity of the human

1
body change dramatically between conception and maturity.
Another aspect involves cognitive or intellectual abilities and processes. What children
know, learn and can remember changes greatly as they grow with the time.
A third aspect involves social behavior and relationships. A newborn has limited ability
to participate in social interactions but before reaching adulthood the child forms many
relationships and knows how to behave appropriately in a variety of social situations.
All the different facets of development are inter related.
Child development is the scientific study of how and why children change over time.
Although development is a continuous process it can be broadly divided into five periods
a. The prenatal period - Conception to birth
b. Infancy and toddlerhood -Birth to age 3
c. The preschool period -Ages 3 to 6
d. Middle childhood / the school years - Ages 6 to 12
e. Adolescence - Age 12 to adulthood

Influences on Development: What Makes Change Occur?

Each child inherits certain genetic potential from the parents. Although the gene set the
limits for particular behavior, it is the environment that determines where within those
limits the behavior will be expressed. Major environmental influences include :
i. Culture-the impact of Indian values
ii. Race
iii. Social class - the influence of wealth, poverty, middle-class status
iv. Ethnicity-the impact of common language, religion, or national origin
v. Key people in the child’s life - parents, peers, relatives, heroes and others who
exert a powerful influence,
vi. The media - information and attitudes conveyed to children on TV, over the radio,and
through books, magazines, newspapers, records, tapes and CDs
vii. Unpredictable life events - the unexpected turns ( sudden wealth or poverty, the
loss of a parent, sudden disability and other factors) in life can alter the course of
the child’s life
Stages of Prenatal Development
The word prenatal literally means ‘before birth’. It is now recognized that the prenatal
organism is vulnerable to a variety of factors that can influence the course of its
development. This period is extremely important as the periods of prenatal development

2
undergoes a systematic series of sequential changes to become increasingly complex
and differentiated.
Over the period of the ten lunar months (usually about 280 days) of prenatal development,
the new organism shows many varieties of change. Changes in the kinds, number,
position, size and shapes of cells, tissues, and somatic systems occur.
Prenatal development includes three periods and these periods are a continuous phase
of development:
The period of the zygote / period of ovum, which is sometimes called the germinal
period, includes approximately the first two weeks of life, extending from fertilization
until the fertilized ovum, or zygote, proceeds down the fallopian tube and becomes
implanted on the wall of the uterus.
The period of the embryo extends from the second gestational week to the end of the
eighth gestational week. After implantation, the developing baby is called an embryo.
Differentiation of the most important organs and physiological systems occurs at this
time, and by the end of this period, the embryo is recognizable as a partially functioning
tiny human being. The period of the embryo is the phase in which environmental
intrusions caused by such things as maternal disease, malnutrition and drugs, etc., may
result in deviations in development. In addition, in this period, three important supporting
structures develop - the amniotic sac, the placenta and the umbilical cord. By the end
of the period of embryo, the face and its features are delineated, and fingers, toes and
external genitalia are present. At 6 weeks the embryo can be recognized as a human
being, although a rather strangely proportioned one in that the head is almost as large
as the rest of the body. Primitive functioning of the heart and liver, as well as the
peristaltic movement of ingestion, has been reported late in this period. Most
miscarriages, or spontaneous abortions, occur during this period; the embryo becomes
detached from the wall of the uterus and is expelled. Research has shown that the rate
of spontaneous abortion is as high as 1 in 4 pregnancies. This high rate of abortion may
be advantageous to the species since the great majority of aborted embryos have gross
chromosomal and genetic disorders. The most severely affected embryos are
spontaneously eliminated.
The period of the fetus extends from the ninth gestational week to birth. During this
time the body systems developed within the first 8 weeks of life are improved and
perfected (O’Rahilly and Muller,1987). The central nervous system (CMS develops
rapidly in this period though the development of CNS is completed several years after
birth. By the end of the fourth month (usually between 14th and 20th week) mothers
usually report movement of the fetus, This event is called quickening (A. C Harris,
1993), it marks the first direct contact between the mother and the baby. At around 5
months reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and hiccoughing usually appear. After

3
the fifth month the fetus develops nails and sweat glands, a coarser, more adult like
skin, and a soft hair which covers the body. By 6 months the eyes develop, and opening
and closing of the eyes occur. If an infant is born prematurely at 6 months, the regulatory
processes and respiratory systems are usually not mature enough for survival without
intensive intervention.
Prenatal Influences on Development
During the period of prenatal development many agents may raise the incidence of
deviations or produce malformations in the fetus. These agents are called teratogens,
which derives from the Greek word ‘teras’, meaning ‘monster’ or ‘marvel’. Teratology
is the study of environmental factors that affect prenatal growth and cause birth defects
(Moore,1989).
Six classes of teratogens have been identified that account for 10% or fewer of all
congenital malformations {Brent & Beckman, 1990)
1. Disease or illness in the mother - hypertension (high blood pressure), diabetes,
eclampsia (a type of hypertension), Rubella, chicken pox, mumps and measles
(caused by viruses), toxoplasmosis (infected animals may pass the parasite, or it
may be present in the raw meat eaten by animals), Sexually transmitted diseases
(syphilis, AIDS,etc), Blood (Rh) incompatibility.
2. Prescription and social drugs :-laxatives, tranquilizers, diet pills, headache and
cold remedies, antacids and even aspirin can have complicating effects. Steroids
may have devastating consequences for fertility for both men and women. Illegal
drugs, e.g., cocaine, heroin, morphine and other addictive drugs, cigarette smoking,
alcohol use.
3. Nutritional deficits and inconsistencies
4. Stress and emotional factors
5. Radiation exposure
6. Chemicals, toxins, and pollutants

1.4 Concepts and Principles of Development

Development refers to change through time but not all changes are developmental.
Developmental changes are systematic rather than haphazard and successive rather
than independent of earlier conditions. Werner (1957) suggested that changes are
considered as developmental when they are from a global form of organization to a
more differentiated and complex form.
4
• Knowledge of the pattern of human development helps to know what to expect
from children, at (approximately) what ages to expect different patterns of behavior
to appear and when these patterns will normally be replaced by more mature
patterns. This understanding is important so that we can expect from a child
accordingly, in relation to the norms of her/his age group. If we expect too much
the child may develop a feeling of inadequacy or if we expect little then they are
deprived of incentives to develop their potentials.
• The pattern of development for all typically developed children is approximately
the same, so it is easy to evaluate each child in relation to the norms of her/his age
group. The typically developed children may make adjustments to social
expectations. But the children who deviate from the normal pattern may improve
with help, opportunities and motivation.
• Knowledge about the pattern of normal development may facilitate the parents and
teachers to guide, provide opportunities and encouragement for the delayed children.
Growth and Development
Many people use the terms ‘growth’ and ‘development’ interchangeably. In reality they
are inseparable and neither takes place alone.
Growth Development
• Growth refers to quantitative changes • Development refers to both qualitative
(physical) - increase in structure and size and quantitative changes
• Size and structure of the internal • Development involves both structure
and functions organs and the brain
increases
• Growth can be measured with some • Development may be defined as a
degree of reliability in terms of weight, progressive series of orderly, coherent
bone age , etc. changes
• The child grows mentally as well as • Progressive signifies that the changes
lead forward physically.
• Orderly and coherent indicates that
there is a definite relationship between
the changes that are taking place and
those that preceded or will follow them
• Development is a continuous process
that starts even before birth
• Numerous and simultaneous
progressions of development are
closely related and manifest many
individual variations i.e.

5
Principles of Growth
• Cephalocaudal Principal: growth directs the development from the head downward
• Proximodistal Principal: growth that proceeds from the spine to the extremities i.e.
encourages development from the central part of the body outward.

1.5 Developing Human–Stages (Prenatal to Adulthood)

Typical Major Developments in Eight Periods of Life Span

Age Period Physical Development Cognitive Development Psychosocial

Development
Prenatal Conception occurs Ø Abilities to learn and Ø Fetus responds to
Period Ø The genetic endowment remember, and to mother’s voice and
(conception to interacts with respond to sensory develops a prefer-
birth) environmental influences stimuli, are ence for it.
from the beginning. developing
Ø Basic body structures and
organs form.
Ø Brain growth spurt begins.
Ø Physical growth is the most
rapid in the life span.
Ø Vulnerability to
environmental influences is
great.

Infancy and Ø All senses and body Ø Ability to learn and Ø Attachments to
Toddlerhood systems operate at birth to remember are present, parents and others
(birth to age varying degrees. even in early weeks. form.
3)
Ø The brain grows in Ø Use of symbols and Ø Self-awareness
complexity and is highly ability to solve develops.
sensitive to environmental problems develop by
influence. end of second year. Ø Shift from depen-
dence to autonomy
occurs.
Ø Comprehension and
Ø Physical growth and use of language Ø Interest in other
development of motor skills develop rapidly. children increases.
are rapid.

6
Early Child- Ø Growth is steady: Ø Thinking is some Ø Self-concept and
hood (3 to 6 appearance becomes what egocentric, understanding of
years) more slender and but understanding emotions grow:
proportions more adult of other people’s self-esteem is
like. perspectives grows. global. Indepen-
Ø Appetite diminishes, and Ø Cognitive dence, initiative/
sleep problems are immaturity leads to self-control, and
common. some illogical ideas self-care increase.
Handedness appears; fine about the world. Ø Gender identity
and gross motor skills Ø Memory and develops.
and strength improve. language improve. Ø Play becomes more
Ø Intelligence imaginative, more
becomes more elaborate, and more
predictable. social.
Ø Attending Ø Altruism,
preschool is aggression, and
common, fearfulness are
kindergarten more common.
so. Ø Family is still focus
of social life, but
other children
become more
important.

Middle Child- Ø Growth Slows. Ø Egocentrism Ø Self concept

hood (6 to 11 Ø Strength and athletic diminishes. becomes more
years) skills improve. Children begin to complex, affecting
Ø Respiratory illnesses are think logically but self-esteem.
common, but health is concretely. Ø Co-regulation
generally better than at Ø Memory and reflects gradual
any other time in life Language skills shift in control
increase.
span. from parents to
Ø Cognitive gains
child.
permit children to
benefit from formal Ø Peers assume
schooling. central importance
Ø Some children
show special
educational needs
and strengths.

Adolescence (11 Ø Physical growth and Ø Ability to think Ø Search for identity,
to about 20 other changes are rapid abstractly and including sexual
years) and profound. scientific reasoning identity, becomes
Ø Reproductive maturity develops. central.
occurs. Ø Immature thinking Ø Relationships with
Ø Major health risks arise persists in some parents are

7
 from behavioral issues, attitudes and generally good.
such as eating disorders behaviors. Ø Peer groups help
and drug abuse. Ø Education focuses develop and test
on preparation for self-concept but
college or vocation. also may exert an
antisocial influence.

Young Adult- Ø Cognitive abilities Ø Personality trait

hood and moral judgments and styles become
(20 to 40 years) assume more relatively stable,
complexity. but changes in
Ø Educational and personality maybe
career choices are influenced by life
made. stages and events.
Ø Decision are made
about intimate
relationships and
personal lifestyles.
Ø Most people marry,
and most become
parents.
Middle Adult- Ø Physical condition Ø Most basic mental Ø Sense of identity
hood (40 to 65 peaks, then declines abilities peak; ex- continues to
years) slightly. pertise and practical develop; stressful
Ø Lifestyle choices problem solving skills midlife traction
influence health. are high. may occur.
Ø Some deterioration of Ø Creative output may Ø Double
sensory abilities, health, decline but improve responsibilities of
stamina, and skills may in quality. caring for children
take place. Ø For some, career and elderly parents
success and earning
Ø Women experience may cause stress.
powers peak; for
menopause. others, burnout or
career change may
occur.
Late Childhood Ø Most people are healthy Ø Most people are Ø Retirement from
(65 years and and active although mentally alert. workforce may
above) health and physical Ø Although offer new options
for use of time.
abilities decline intelligence and Ø People need to
somewhat. memory may cope with personal
Ø Slowing of reaction time deteriorate in some losses and
affects some aspects of areas, most people impending death.
Relationship with
functioning. find ways to family and close
compensate. friends can provide
important support.
Search for meaning
in life assumes
central importance.

8
1.6 Nature Vs Nurture
Psychologists considers that day to day behavior is affected by both biology and
environment and by past as well as by current experiences. People’s moods and thoughts
are often the result of genetic factors and biochemical processes interacting with
environment. There is a complex interplay between experience and biology, between
conscious voluntary decision making and inherited traits - between nurture and nature.
Nurture refers to the impact of learning, training, education or more generally the
individual’s environment.
Nature refers to the impact of an individual’s genetic inheritance or heredity. But inherited
traits do not become evident in behavior unless a person’s environment supports and
encourages them. Thus a child who has inherited some special talent must be given
opportunities
Some influences on development originate primarily with heredity: the genetic
endowment inherited from a person’s biological parents at conception. Other influences
come from the inner and outer environment: the world outside the self-beginning in the
womb, and the learning that comes from experience. Individual differences increase as
people grow older. Many typical changes of infancy and early childhood seem to be
tied to maturation of the body and brain - the unfolding of a natural sequence of physical
changes and behavior patterns, including readiness to master new abilities such as
walking and talking. As children grow into adolescents and then into adults, differences
in innate characteristics and life experience play a greater role.
Many controversies about children’s development rest upon differences in the emphasis
placed on nature and nurture as explanations for development. One of the controversies
concerns the relative importance of heredity and environment in determining the physical
and mental characteristics of the developing child. No completely accepted method
has been formed to isolate the influence of heredity from that of environment.
The evidence indicates that the development of physical and mental traits comes partly
from exercise and effort on the part of the individual. Which plays the more important
role is still a matter of conjecture.
Intrinsic maturation is the unfolding of characteristics potentially present in the individual
that come from the individual’s genetic endowment. The common development such
as creeping, crawling, sitting and walking comes through maturation.
The functions specific to the individual such as swimming, ball throwing, riding bicycles

9
or writing need training. Without training the said skills may not develop. No hereditary
endowment can mature fully without environmental support.
In the field of child development
• Both biological and environmental factors are influential
• Biological extremists argue that biology is destiny and development is maturation,
course of development is predestined and predetermined by genetic factors.
• Modern developmental psychologists are exploring, how biological and
environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences.

1.7 Domains of Human Development

To understand the similarities and differences in development we need to look at different
Domains of human development. The domains can be categorized under three major
directions such as-
• Physical Development (Organized as motor development and posture and large
movements)
• Cognitive Development
• Psycho-social Development
The following illustrations can provide a starting point for prompting age-appropriate
information for making observations and for obtaining a comparative view of the child’s
achievments against the average expected achievments: i.e. typical developmental
progress. These will provide information and sequence of development and key stages
within each domain.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (Organized as motor development and posture and

large movements)
The progress in motor development is the result of an on going bi-directional interaction
between maturation and experience, which results in a continuously self-organising
dynamic system. (Thelen,1995)
The influences of motor development:
Biologically dependent neural maturation consist of
i) Maturing muscle tone and muscle strength

10
ii) Improving balance and co-ordination
iii) Developing information processing abilities
Experience - ongoing action perception cycle consist of
i) Perceiving possibilities and self-capabilities
ii) Interaction with other domains such as motivation, social and cognitive development
iii) Specific and flexible learning

Conditions that influence the Rate of Motor Development

a) Genetic constitution which includes body build and intellectual level
b) Favourable pre-natal conditions, e.g. maternal nutrition
c) Intellectual level
d) Stimulation
e) First born ahead of others (parental encouragement)
f) Sex, race and socio-economic differences

Phases of Motor Development

Birth - 4 months • Primitive reflex movements

4 months- 1 year • Inhibition of primitive reflexes by 6 months
• Improving muscle tone with reducing flexor muscle tone in the
limbs and improving extensor tone in the trunk
• Improving postural control and balance
• Movements become differentiated and functional, such as
reaching, grasping, sitting, walking
1-2 years • Better differentiated and more precise movements
• Improving stability and power
2-7 years • Maturing functional movements such as running, jumping,
catching, throwing, writing, cutting
• Improved rhythm, sequences, integration and flow to achieve
efficient, co-ordinated and controlled performance in day to day
activities
7 years onwards • Applying motor skills to specialized activities of sports
and work

11
POSTURE AND LARGE MOVEMENTS (Major development)

AGE 1 MONTH
• Lying on back (supine) keeps head to one side
• Jerky movements of limbs and arms than legs
• At rest keeps hands closed and thumbs turned in
• Fingers and toes fan out in extension of limbs
• Pulled to sit - head lags till vertical , then momentarily erect, back is one complete
curve
• Held in supported sitting
• In ventral suspension- holds head in line with body and hips are semi-extended
• Placed on abdomen (prone)head immediately turns to side, arms and legs flexed,
elbows away from body, buttocks moderately high

AGE 3 MONTHS
• Lying on back (supine) - prefers to lie with head in midline, limbs more pliable,
movements smoother and more continuous
• Waves arms symmetrically, hands loosely open
• Brings hands together from sides to midline over chest and chin
• Kicks vigorously, legs alternate or occasionally together
• When pulled to sit - little or no head lag
• Held sitting - back is straight except in lumbar region
• Head held erect and steady for several seconds before bobbing forwards
• In ventral suspension - head held well above line of body, hips and shoulders
extended
• Needs support at shoulders when being bathed and dressed
• Lying on abdomen (prone) - lifts head and upper chest well up in midline, using
forearms to support with buttocks flat
• Held standing with feet on hard surface, sags at knees (negative support reflex)

12
AGE 6 MONTHS
• In supine - raises head up and moves arms up to be lifted
• When hand grasped - braces shoulders and pulls self to sitting
• Kicks strongly, legs alternating
• Sits with support and turns head from side to side to look around
• Can roll over from prone to supine at around 5-6 months and usually from supine
to prone at around 6-7 months (Bly, 1994)
• Held sitting - head firmly erected with back straight
• May sit alone momentarily
• In prone- lifts head and chest well up, supporting self on flattened palms and
extended arms
• In supported standing with feet touching hard surface - bears weight on feet and
bounces actively

AGE 9 MONTHS
• Sits unsupported 10-15 minutes on the floor
• Can lean forward and pick up toy without losing balance
• Can turn body to look sideways and grasps toy
• Very active movements of whole body
• Progresses on floor by rolling or squirming
• Attempts to crawl and sometimes succeeds
• Pulls to standing holding support for a few moments but cannot lower himself and
falls backwards with a bump
• Held in standing - steps purposefully on alternate feet
• When being carried by an adult, supports self in upright position and turns headto
look around
AGE 12 MONTHS
• Sits well on floor for indefinite time
• Can rise to sitting position from lying down with ease

13
• Crawls, shuffles on buttocks or ‘bear walks’ rapidly
• Pulls to standing and sits down again holding onto furniture
• Walks around furniture lifting one foot and stepping sideways
• Walks forwards and sideways with one or both hands held
• May stancj for a few moments, may walk
• May crawl upstairs (average 13-14 months)

AGE 15 MONTHS
• May walk alone usually with uneven steps: feet wide apart, arms slightly flexed
and held above head or shoulder level for balance.
• Let’s self-down from standing to sitting by collapsing backward with a bump Kneels
unaided or with support

AGE 18 MONTHS
• Walks well with feet only slightly apart
• Starts and stops safely
• No longer needs to hold up arms in extension to balance
• Runs carefully, head held erect in midline, eyes on the ground but finds difficulty
in negotiating obstacles
• Pushes or pulls toys or boxes
• Can carry a large doll or teddy bear while walking
• Backs into small chair or slides in sideways
• Climbs forward into adult’s chair, then turns around and sit
• Squats and rises with hands helping
• Walks upstairs with helping hand
• Creeps backwards down stairs or (occasionally) bumps down on buttocks
• Kneels upright on flat surface without support

14
AGE 2 YEARS
• Runs safely on whole foot, stopping and starting with ease and avoiding obstacles
• Squats and rises to feet without using hands
• Pushes and pulls toys easily
• Walks backwards pulling toys
• Pulls small toys by cord with obvious appreciation of direction
• Climbs on furniture to look out of window or to open doors and can get down
again
• Shows increasing understanding of self in relation to size and position of objects
in the environment and to enclosed spaces such as a cupboard or cardboard box
• Walks up and down stairs holding on to rail or wall, two feet on each stair
• Throws small ball overhand and forwards without falling
• Walks into large balls when trying to kick it
• Sits on small tricycle but cannot use pedals - propels with feet across floor

AGE 3 YEARS
• Walks alone up stairs using alternate feet, comes downtwo feet to a step
• Usually jumps from bottom step with two feet together
• Climbs nursery apparatus with agility
• Can turn around odstacles and corner while running and while pushing or pulling
toys
• Walks forwards, backwards sideways hauling large toys with complete confidence
• Obviously appreciates size and movements of own body in relation to external
spaces
• Rides tricycle using pedals and can steer round obstacles
• Can stand and walk on tiptoe
• Stands momentarily on one(preferred) foot when shown
• Sits with feet crossed at ankles
• Can throw ball overhead and can catch large ball on or between extended arms
• Kicks ball forcibly

15
AGE 4 YEARS
• Walks or runs alone up and down stairs, one foot to each step
• Navigates self-locomotion skillfully, turning sharp corners, running, pushing and
pulling
• Climbs ladders and trees
• Expert rider of tricycle, executing sharp U-turns easily
• Stands on one foot (preferred) for 3-5 seconds and hops on preferred foot
• Arranges and picks up objects from floor by bending from waist, with knees straight
• Sits with knees crossed
• Shows increasing skill in ball games, throwing, catching, bouncing, kicking, etc.,
including use of bat

AGE 5 YEARS
• Walks easily on narrow line
• Runs lightly on toes
• Active and skillful in climbing, sliding, swinging, digging, and various ‘stunts’
• Skips on alternate feet
• Moves rhythmically to music
• Grips strongly with either hand
• Can stand on one foot 8-10 seconds, right or left and also stand on preferred foot
with arms folded
• Can hop 2 or 3 yards forward on each foot separately
• Can bend and touch toes without flexing knees
• Plays all varieties of ball games with considerable ability, including those requiring
appropriate placement or scoring, according to accepted rules
Cognitive Development
All children can learn. Learning refers to adaptation to one’s environment through
the use of cognitive or intellectual development. Intellectual development can be

16
 defined as an individual’s ability to cope with the changing world through continuous
organization and re-organisation of experiences.
Cognitive development refers to the processes involved in -
• Attention - focuses on selection of sensory stimuli
• Perception - include detection, organization, interpretation of sensory information
• Memory - refers to retention and recall of perceived information
• Reasoning - using knowledge to make association between familiar and new
information, make inferences and draw conclusions
• Reflection - evaluation of the quality of ideas and solutions to problems
• Insight - recognition of new relationships between two segments of information
Learning is facilitated by both the Internal and External environment.
The Internal environment broadly comprises of
i) Sensory organs and sensory integration
ii) Smooth functioning of other bodily systems
iii) Mental health
The External environment consists of
i) People around us
ii) The air we breathe, the food we eat and the water we drink
iii) Flora and Fauna
iv) Our social and emotional experiences
v) Opportunities and Access

Stage Theory
Studies on children suggest that biological drive is not enough for children to
move from one stage to the other. Opportunities, access to facilitative adults and a
stimulating environment that promotes activity based learning and discovery
learning are required for children to move across the stages.
~ Each stage evolves from the previous stage
~ No sub-stage or stage is skipped

17
~ The sequence does not vary
~ Learning becomes more complex as the child moves from one stage to another
~ The transition from one stage to another is gradual

Sensori-motor Stage
During this period behavior is primarily motor. The child does not yet ‘think’
conceptually, though cognitive development is seen.
This stage -
• Involves use of sensory information and action patterns
• Develops knowledge based on physical and sensory experiences
Six Sub-stages of Sensori-motor stage
1. Random and reflex actions (Birth to 4-6 weeks)
2. Primary circular reaction phase (4-6 weeks to 3-4 months)
3. Secondary circular reactions phase (4 to 7/8 months)
4. Co-ordination of secondary circular reactions phase (7/8 to 12 months)
5. Tertiary circular reactions phase (12 to 18 months)
6. Inventions of new means through mental combinations (17/18 months to 24 months)

PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE ( 2 to 6/7 years) is divided into two periods

This period is characterized by the development of language and rapid conceptual
development. The development of concepts can be divided into two periods
(i) Pre-conceptual period (2 to 4 years)
Intuitive Thought period (4+ to 7 years)
CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE (7 to 11/12 years)
During this period there are mental operations in relation to recalled physical
experiences but without necessity of direct physical inputs
FORMAL OPERATIONS STAGE (11+ to 18 years)
During this period the child’s cognitive structures reach their greatest level of
development, and the child become able to apply logic to all classes of problems.

18
SPEECH, LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION (Major development)

Age in months

1 Stops whimpering; and usually turns towards sound of nearby soothing

human voice

2 Definite differentiation of cries, screaming (between hunger, need for

change, need for attention) Laughs out loud
3 Cries when uncomfortable or annoyed Often sucks or licks lips in
response to sounds of preparation for feeding Shows excitement at sound
of approaching voices, footsteps, etc Vocalises delightedly when spoken
to or pleased
Fixes eyes unblinkingly on parent’s or carer’s face
Begins to show reactions to familiar situations by smiling, cooing, and
excited movements
Responds with pleasure to friendly handling, especially when
accompanied by playful, tickling and singing
Babbles - beginning of repeated consonant sound
4 Smiles meaningfully
6 Perceives people and events in his /her environment
Responds to negative commands
Turns to mother’s voice
Begins negative expression - nah. nah sound
9 Recognizes names of familiar objects
Understands “no-no” and “bye-bye”
Uses gesture language - shakes head
Says ‘Da-da’, ‘Ba-ba’ without meaning
10 Knows and immediately turns to own name
Says and means ‘Mam-mam’, ‘Ba-ba’
12 Comprehends simple commands associated with gestures (Give it to
mama, clap hands)
Uses jargon speech

19
15 Makes many speech-like sounds
Says a few recognizable words
Comprehends simple questions
Points to familiar persons
18 Enjoys nursery rhymes
Identifies simple pictures
Attempts to sing
Imitates animal sounds
2 years Comprehends verbs - points to appropriate action pictures, e.g., eating,
running
Combines two or three words - ‘Bye papa’
Refers to self by using name
Joins in nursery rhymes and action songs
Indicates body parts
Carries out simple instructions
2+ to 3 years Uses 200 or more recognizable words
Knows full name
Imitates phrases (echolalia)
Asks questions beginning - what? who? Where?
Listens eagerly to stories and demands favourites over and over
Counts by rote up to ten or more but little appreciation of quantity beyond
two or three
3+ to 5 years Speech grammatically correct and completely intelligible
Understands some abstract concepts, e.g., ‘one of, ‘before’, ‘after’, ‘if
Listens to and tells long stories
Counts by rote and beginning to count objects by word and touch in
one-to-one correspondence up to four or five
Enjoys jokes
Can repeat nursery rhymes correctly
Speech fluent, grammatically conventional and usually phonetically
correct
Gives full name, age and usually birthday

20
 Gives home address
Defines concrete nouns by use
Understands time and sequence concepts and uses terms such as ‘first’
then ‘last’
Asks meaning of abstract words and uses them

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND PLAY (Major development)

AGE 1 MONTH
• Sucks well
• Sleeps most of the time when not being fed or handled
• Eye-to-eye contact is deliberately maintained or terminated by the infant during
social interaction
• Stops crying when picked up and spoken to

AGE 3 MONTHS
• Fixes eyes unblinkingly on parent’s or carer’s face when feeding
• Eager anticipation of breast or bottle feed
• Begins to show reactions to familiar situations by smiling, cooing and excited
movements
• Enjoys bathing and caring routines
• Responds with pleasure to friendly handling, e.g., playful tickling, singing

AGE 6 MONTHS
• Recognises familiar people
• Reacts enthusiastically to often-repeated games
• Differentiates between people and objects
• When offered a rattle, reaches for it and shakes it to make a sound
• Manipulates objects attentively, passing them from hand to hand
• Takes objects to mouth
• Touches, feels objects and explores environment

21
AGE 9 MONTHS
• Recognises his / her own mother
• Initially shy with strangers
• Throws body back and stiffens in annoyance or resistance
• Plays ‘peek-a-boo’ and imitates hand clapping
• Offers food to familiar people and animals
• Watches toy being partially hidden under a cover or cup and then finds it
• Sustained interest in looking at pictures named by adult
AGE 12 MONTHS
• Waves ‘Bye’ and claps hands
• Makes wants known by pushing, pulling and reaching
• Put objects in and out of cup or box when shown
• Demonstrates affection to familiars
• Enjoys joint play with adults
AGE 15 MONTHS
• Pushes large, wheeled toy with handle on level ground
• Explores toys
• Engages in functional play, e.g. pushing toy car, pretends to drink from empty
cup
• Casts objects to floor in play or rejection and watches where things fall. Looks
for hidden toy
• Enjoys ‘give and take’ games
• Looks to care-giver to monitor his/her reactions particularly in unfamiliar situations
• Is affectionate to familiar people

AGE 18 MONTHS
• Explores environment with understanding but no sense of danger
• Treats dolls and teddies as babies - hugging, feeding, etc.

22
• Remembers where objects belong
• Plays alone but likes to be near familiar adult or older sibling.
• Exchanges toy both cooperatively and in conflict with peers
• Holds spoon and gets food safely to mouth
• Assists with dressing and undressing
AGE 2 YEARS
• Follows parent around house and imitates domestic activities in simultaneous
play
• Shows tantrums when frustrated
• May take turns but has little idea of sharing tous
• Parallel play present
• Resentful of attention shown to other children, particularly by own familiars

AGE 2+to 3 YEARS

• Has little understanding to defer immediate wishes
• More sustained role play
• Acts out common activities using substituted materials, e.g. pretend tea parties
• Enjoys playing alone or with siblings
• Shows affection for younger siblings
• Shows little need to defer satisfaction of wishes to the future

AGE 3+to 5 YEARS

• Self-willed behaviours
• Quarrels with playmates when wishes crossed
• Shows sense of humour in talk and social activities
• Understands taking turns as well as sharing
• Shows concern for younger siblings and sympathy for play-mates in distress
• Develops self-regulation.

23
 • Follows tidiness routines but needs constant reminders
• Plays imaginatively, creating
• Choose own friends
• Understands need for rules and fair play
• Shows definite sense of humour
• Tender and protective towards younger children and pets

1.8 References (4 nos.)

Child Development : Thomas Berndt, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1992
Child Development: A. Christine Harris, West Publishing Company, 1993
Child Development: Elizabeth Hurlock, McGraw Hill, 1978
From Birth to Five Years: Mary D. Sheridan, NFER-Nelson Publishing Company Ltd,
1995

24
Unit 2 : Theoritical Approach to Development
Structure
2.1 Congnitive and Social Congnitive Theories
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Objective
2.1.3 Theory of Congitive Development—Piaget
2.1.4 Educational Implication
2.1.5 Check Your Progress-1
2.1.6 Lere Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
2.1.7 Educational Implications
2.1.8 Check Your Progress-2
2.1.8 Jerome S Bruner
2.1.10 Educational Implications
2.1.11 Check your Progress-3
2.1.12 Albert Bandura’s Theory of Congnitive Development
2.1.13 Educational Implications.
2.1.14 Check Your Progress
2.2.1 Asy-chosocial Theory of Erikson
2.2.2 Abrief Description of the Psychosocial Stages.
2.2.3 Educational Implications
2.2.4 Check Your Progress-1
2.3.1 Psychoanalytic Theory by Freud.
2.3.2 Structure of the Psych or mind
2.3.3 The Concept of ld Ego—Superego.
2.3.4 Stages of Development
2.3.5 Educational Implications
2.3.6 Check Your Progress

25
2.4.1 Ecological Theory of Bron-fenbrenner
2.4.2 Bronfenbrennerb Structure of Environments
2.4.3 Educational Implications
2.4.4 Check Your Progress
2.5.1 Holistic Theory of Development (Steiner)
2.5.2 Principles of Steiner Education
2.5.3 Educational Implications
2.5.4 Check Your Progress
2.5.5 Let us Sum up
2.5.6 Unit End Exercise
2.5.7 Answer to ‘Check Your Progress’
2.5.8 References

2.1 : Cognitive and Social – Cognitve Theories

2.1.1. Introduction :
Cognitive phsychology is a very important branch of pschology that focuses on the
way people processes information. It looks at how we process information, we receive
and how the treatment of this information laeds to our responces. In others words,
cognitive psychology is interested in what is happening within our minds that links
stimulus (input) and response (output). Basically cognitive psychologists share with
behaviorists ––
(i) a study of learning should be objective.
(ii) learning theories should be developed from the results of emperical research. They
differ in two respects from behaviorists such as (i) S-O-R paradigm in stead of S-R. (ii)
emphasis on information processing.
In their learning theories they advocate teacher as instructor or manager, but leaner is
the active planner. Actually cognitive psychology promotes and establishes
constructivism. Constructivism means individuals constructs their own cognitive
structures is they interprete their experiences in particular situetions. This constructiovism
follows Jhon Dewey's Philosophy.

26
Pioneer in the field are : Piaget, Vigostsky and Bruner.
Where as Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) refers to a psychological model of behaviour
that emerged primarily form the work of Albert Bandura (1977-1986). Initially developed
with an emphasis on the acquistion of social behaviours, Social cognitive theory (SCT)
continues to emphesize that learning occures in a social context and that much of what
is larned is gained through observation.
In this unit we will be able to understand the cognitive theory and social cognitive
theory in the context of develoment of learner cognition. You will also be able to know
the theories of Piaget, Vigotsky, Bruner and Bandura.

2.1.2. Objectives :
After going through this unit, we will be able to
❏ Know the cognitive theory given by Piaget, Vigotsky, Bruner and Bandura.
❏ Elucidate the theory of Erikson.
❏ Explain the theory of Freud and trace out its importance in personality development.
❏ Understand the ecological theory of Bronfren Brenner.
❏ Know the holistic theory of development by Steiner.

2.1.3. Cognitive Development—Theory of Piaget

Jean Paul Piaget (1896-1980) was a swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to
research in cognitive development and the study of how children think. No theory of
cognitive development has had more impact than the cognitive stages presented by
Jean Piaget.
Piaget suggested that children go through four seperate stages in a fixed order that is
universal in all children. Piaget declared that these stages differ not only in the quantity
of information acquired at each, but also in quality of knowledge and understanding at
that stage. Piaget suggested that movement from one stage to the next occured when
the child reached an appropirate level of maturation and was exposed to relevent types
of experiences. Without experiences, children were assumed incapable of reaching
their highest cognitive ability.
Therefore, the stagewise discussion is very important to understand way interpret and

27
experience. The situation and conshuet their cognitive structure. All the stages are
stated below.
Stage 1 : Sensorimotor (Birth–2 years) "Thinking with the senses." During this stage
children use touch, sound, sight, taste and smell to an object. Raach for a ball, they
move head and eyes to follow moving objects.
Stage 2 : Preoperational (2-7 years) "Use of language and symbols." General making
believe is developed in this stage. They play with telephone and pretend to drink. They
believe that everyone thinks the way that they do (called egocentrism). They also believe
that inanimate objects have feelings and thoughts like they do.
Stage 3 : Concrete Operational (7-11 years) children in the concrete operational stage
have a better understanding of time and space. Children at this stage have limits to
their abstract thinking, according to Piaget.
Stage 4 : Formal Operational (11-years) "logical and abstract thinking." The formal
stage begins in most people at age twelve and continues into adulthood. This stage
produces a new kind of thinking that is abstract, logical and formal. Thinking is no
longer tied to events that can be observed. A child in this stage can think hypothetically
and use logic to solve problems. It is thought that not all indeviduals reach this level of
thinking.

2.1.4. Educational Implication :

Most development theorists have agreed that Piaget has provided us with an accurate
account of age-related changes in cognitive development. Piaget suggests that cognitive
performance cannot be attained unless cognitive readiness is brought about by matuation
and environmental stimuli has been instrumental in determining the structure of
educational curricula.

2.1.5 'Check Your Progress'—1

(1) Define the meaning of cognitive development.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
28
(2) Object permanence is observed in which stages of development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(3) "Sucking Scheme" is developed in which stages of develpoment ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(4) Mention any one characteristic of formal operational stage.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(5) Mention any one characteristic of pre-operational stage.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.1.6 Lev Vygotsky's Social Developmental Theory

Lev Vygotsky's was born in the USSR in 1896. The social developmental theory of
learning is developed by him. He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences
cognitive development. Central to Vigotsky's theory is his belief that biological and
caltural development do not occur in isolation (Driscoll, 1944). To some extent he
differs from Piaget's approach of development. According to Piaget congnitive
development consists of four main periods of cognitive growth. Sensorimotor,
Preoperational, Concrete operational and formal operational. To him, development has
an end point in goal. Wher as Vygotsky believs that development is a process that
should be analyzed, instead of a product to be obtained. According to Vygolsky, the
development process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex to be
difined by stages (Driscoll, 1994; Hausfather, 1996), Vygotsky opines that this life
long process of development is dependent on sicoal interaction and that social learning

29
actually leads to cognitive development. This phenomena is called the Zone of Proximal
Development. He explains it as "the distance between the actual development level as
determined by in dependent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidence or in collaboration with
more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978).
Generally, a student can perform a task under adult guidence or with peer collaboration
that cannot be achieved alone. The Zone of proximal develpoment bridges that gap
between what is known and what can be known. Vygotsky Calims that learning occur
in this zone.
Therefore, Vygotsky focuses on the connections between people and the cultural context
in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to
him, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to
mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely
as social functions, ways to communicate needs. He believs that the insternalization of
these tools led to higher thinking skills. Piaget points out that young children participating
in egocentric speech in their prepoerational stage, but when children reaches in the
concrete stage this phare become disappear. In contrast, Vygotsky viewed this egocentric
speech as a transition from social speech to internalized thoughts (Driscoll, 1994).
Therefore, he believs that thought and language cannot exist without each other.

2.1.7. Educational Implications :

Vygotsky social development theory challanges traditional teaching methods. The
memorization and recitation way of teaching stretigies are opposed by this theory. Where
as social development theory facilitates cognitive development over other instructional
strategis. Such as, the introduction and integration of computer teachnology in society
has tremendously increased the opportunities for social interaction. Therefore, the social
context for learning is transforming as well. Collaboration and peer instruction was
once only possible in shared physical space, learning relationships can now be formed
from distance through Cyberspace. Computer teachnology is a cultural tool that students
can use to mediate and internalize their learning. Presently our society is also going
through a culture of change due to the infusion of computer technology. Perhaps this
lends some insight to why Vygotsky’s theory of social development is receiving in—
creasing attention, seventy years after it's conception.

30
2.1.8. Check Your Progress :
(6) Who is considered the originator of social development theory.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(7) What is zone of proximal development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.1.9. Jerome’s Bruner

Jerome S Bruner, a professor of Harvard University, USA was fascinated by the writings
of Piaget, the swiss educational thinker. Bruner came over to Geneva to get ot know
move from Pieget personally. Bruner's ideas of learning was shaped by Piaget's theory
of cognitive development. But in some respects, Bruner felt that the key for the promotion
of sound education depends on schooling at the grassroot leve. Hence all books used in
primary and secondary schools were critically reviewed and rewritten.
Let us study the Bruner's ideas of learning by 'Discovery'.

Structure :
Structure is important thing in Bruner's theory of learning. In this aspect he reflects the
views of Gestalt psychology. He finds that the structure of discipline veries in complaxity
from stage to stage. Learning become meaningful only when the learner Grasps the
structure of a discipline The same idea may be compared with Piaget's use of the term
'Schema' which means cognitive structrue.

DISCOVERY LEARNING :
Grasping the struture of a subject is understanding it in a way that permits many other
things, to be related to it meaningfully. According to Bruner, learning is not passive,
but an active process of discovery influenced by prior knowledge and ability of the
learner. These resources are very limited in the case of an infant. Teachr should provide

31
problem situations that stimulate student to "discovery" for themselves the "structure"
of the subject matter.
Therefore, from the above discussion of "structure" and "discovery learning" it way be
stated that ideas can be linked to those who propose information precessing models in
that he suggests development occures as mental structures become more elaborate and
sophisticated through interaction and experience, "learners construct new ideas or
concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The selects and transform information,
constructs hypothesis and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so"
(Kearsley, 2001). In addition, his work is considered interactional in a manner similar
to that proposed by Dewey and Vygotsky. He is concerned with the sequence of
representation (the stages), but he is eaually concerned with the role of culture on
cognitive development.
Besides these, Bruner recognizes three modes of representation that must be present at
all stages of development. These three modes of representation (enactive, iconic and
symbolic) are not necessarily hierarchical, but some learning can only be achieved by
passing through each thpe in a specefid development order.
Enactive representation can only demonestrate the past through appropirate motor
experiences. Iconic represatation employes the use of orgamizational structures, spatial
signifiers,or images to represent past experiences. The third one is symbolic. In this
mode, design features that can include remotenss or arbitrariness represent the past.
Language is the most common tool used for this type of representation, but the
characterizing feature of these type of representation is that the symobles being used
do not have to have a concrete corelations to what is being described. The representation
goes a concrete connection to th information.

2.1.10. Educational Implications :

Bruner's theory cognitive development has great educational significance because he
suggests the relevent proposition on the basis of practical utility. He suggests that children
need social and cultural experiences that prepare them to understand the meaningfulness
of their actions as well as those of others. Bruner distinguishes between behaviour
whether mental or physical and actions, which he defines as intentional behaviour
displayed within a specific cultural setting that includes the reciprocal actions of other
participants. Bruner therefore, advocates providing children with kinds of experiences
that would allow them to create meaning through their interaction during instructional
activities and to assist student in––creating that meanng. Therefore, he suggests that

32
students to go beyond the content or information provided and fill in the gaps in thier
knowledge through exploration and enquiry.

2.1.11. Check Your Progress :

(8) Who gave the ideas of learning by discovery ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

(9) How many modes of presentation were given by Bruner ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(10) What is enactive representation ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.1.12. Albert Bandura's Theory of Cognitive Development

Albert Bandura is a social learning theorist who is most concerned with social
development and porticularly with moral development. According to him reward and
punishment both are very important for shaping behaviour. Through the process of
conditioning and observational learning behaviour is learned. He observes, the positive
corelation between reward and punishment and their positive effect on the behaviour
of the child.
According to him, the child's behaviour is reflected by satisfaction and pleasure. In
early childhood parental approval and fear or anxiety associated with punishment
influence the moral and social development of the child. In the same way imitation is a
another process of machanism through which child learns social and moral development.
The child learns many things imitating the behaviours of the model through observation.

33
But imitation follows certain principles such as competency, prestige, power and
similarity of the model.
How does learning take place ? According to Bandura (1977), the following processes
or steps are usually involved in this kind of learning :
(1) Attending to and perceiving the behaviour : In this step the learner follows the
behaviour of the person acting as a model. Particular aspect or total behaviour of the
subject may grab close attention for analysis.
(2) Remembering the behaviour : In this step, what are the learner observes is field
away in his memory in the form of mental images.
(3) Converting the memory into action : It is transformed into action only afterwards
and then the observed relevent and accepted aspects of the model's bahaviour are imitated
by the learner.
(4) Reinforcement of the imitated behaviour : In this final step, the bahaviour of the
model imitated by the learner is reinforced for proper adoption and further continuance.

2.1.13. Educational Implecation :

Learnign through observation and modelling proves to be an effective means of learning
many things concerning one's behaviour. How one displays love ans anger, shows
sympathy and prefudices, speaks and writes, dresses and eats, takes initiated and
reinforced in context of the vicarious or model learning as propagated by the social
learning theory.
This theory is very important to understand the socialization process because it takes
place through the process of imitation and observation. It is very important for the
parents to act well behaved because their gestures are observed by their children otherwise
they may imitate wrong bahaviour. This theory can be applied in a planned way to
learn socially expected behaviour.

2.1.14. Check Your Progress :

(11) Who suggests that reward and punishment both are very important for shaping
development of personlality ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

34
(12) What is learning through observation ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.2.1. Psychosocial Theory of Erikson

Psychosocial theory on the stages of child development was proposed by Erikson. He
stresses upon Epigenetic principle, according to wchich the development of new
properties which are not contained in the original situation develop us result of
environmental influences and the interaction between the former (original situation)
and the latter (environment factors).
According to Erikson the stages of development are categorized into eight phases marked
by specific development characteristics. The stages are as follows.
S. No. Stage Psychosocial Crisis

1. Birth to 1st year Trust vs Mistrust

2. 1 to 2 years Automomy vs shame, doubt.

3. 3 to 5 years Initiative vs Guilt

4. 6 to 12 years Industry vs Inferiority

5. Adolescence Identity vs Identity diffusion or Role confusion

6. Early adult Intirnacy vs Isolation

7. Young and middle adult Generativity vs stagnation

8. Lacto adult Integrity vs Despair

2.2.2. A brief description of the psychosocial stages is given below

Stage I : A sense of trust vs mistrust.
This stage begins from birth and is continued to eighteen months of age. The first and
formal task of an infant is to develop the basic sense of trust in himself and his
environment. For the fulfilment of his basic needs he completely depends on others.
Due to disatisfaction of his needs he gradually loses his sense of faith in the world
around him. The sense of faith may laid down during this period.

35
Stage II : A sense of autonomy versus a sense of shame. In this stage, child develops a
sense of autonomy. He does not want help from others. He likes to do things in his own
way. Parents should be careful about their autonomy. There should have balance between
firmness and permissiveness to make a healthy sense of autonomy.
Stage III : A sense of initiative versus guilt. The third stage of psycho-social development
between three to six years of age is characterized by the crisis of initative versus guilt.
Equiped with the sense of trust and autonomy the child now begins to take initiative in
interacting with his environment. Therefore, these is need to resolve the crisis of initiative
vs guilt at this stage of psycho-social development and it can be property done if we
allow the child to experiment with his initative by properly supervising and guiding
him activites and encouraging him to develop a habit of self-evaluation of the results
of his iniliative.
Stage IV : Period of industry vs. inferiourity. Generally, by this age children begin
to attend to school where they are made to learn various skills and the teachers as well
as the school environment generate pressures on them to work hard in ordr to perform
well. Parents also now begin to make demands upon the children to lend their hand
with household duties or some cases put them with occupational resposnibilities.
Therefore, the teachers and the school environment thus play a very significant role in
helping the child out of the industry versus inferiority crisis.
Stage V : The period of indentity vs role confusion :
This stage, begining with the abvent of puberty, is marked with the crisis of identity vs
role confusion. Adolescents begin to search for their own personal identity equipped
with the sense of trust, initiative and indistry. The sudden changes in their bodies and
mental functioning and the altered demands of society compel them to ask questions of
themselves like, who am I ? What have I bacome? Am I the some person I used to be ?
What am I suppised to do and in which manner am I to behave. There is return of
leterosexual interests. Adolseents are concerned about their future role and status.
Stage VI : Intimacy vs isolation : This is the stage of easly adulthood. Erikson considers
social interaction has fundamental and unavoidable influence on personality
development. So, durng this stage the individual tends to develop a sense of intimacy
or commitment to another person.
The opposite of intimacy is isolation. When one fails to develop an adequate sense of
intimacy by using one's identity with that of another person or when relation deteriorates
for one reason or another, one tends to develop a sense of isolation––a pulling away
from relationships and breaking off of ties.

36
Stage VII : The period of crativity vs stagnation : This stage is called middle
adulthood. In this stage, he tries to establish in a professional career. He wants to satisfy
his needs for generativity, a concern to establish and guide the next generation. This is
realized through nurturing his own children, guiding and directing other young people
and by emgaging is some kind of creative, productive for fruitful activity that may
prove beneficial to society.
Opposed to the sense of generativity, there is a tendency on past of the individual to
become egoistic and selfish. This leads to stagnation and personal impoverishment.
Stage VIII : Integrity vs despair. This is old age. The person reflects upon the life
lived and sometimes integrates even death into the pattern. During this last stage of
psycho-social development one is confronted with the final cirsis of one's life span,
termed ego-integrity vs despair. Ego-integrity refers to he integration or culmination of
the successful resolution of all seven previous crisis in the course of one's life.

2.2.3. Educational Implication

The theory of Erikson's psychosoical development is very important to know the
personality pattern of a child. If we want to reshape the behaviours of a child it is
important to know the personality pattern which may be understood from this theory. It
also helps as to deal with our learner and to understand their immediate behaviour.
Psycho-social development theory gives us information about the entire life span of an
individual and negative aspects of life may a trace. These negative aspects of life can
be channalized through education.

2.2.4 Check Your Progress :

(13) How many stages were given by Erikson in the theory of psycho-social
development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

37
(14) What are the stages in this theory of Psycho-social developments put formal by
Erikson ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(14) What is duration of 1st phase of development of Erikson ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(15) Puberty begins in which stage according to Erikson ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(16) In which stage Puberty begins according to Erikson ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.3.1. Psychoanalytic Theory by Freud :

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology which did not originate in psychology itself.
It remains a corner theme of modern psychiatry because Sigmund Freud who was a
pioneer of psychoanalysis was actually a neurophysiologist (from the domain of
psychiatry).

2.3.2. Structure of the Psyche or Mind :

According to Freud structure of human mind is divided into two different parts. The
first by arranging it into three layers as stated by him, the conscious, the subconscious
and the unconscious and second by postulating three other components––id, ego and
super ego.

38
Let us try to understand these terms.
Conscious : This structure of mind may be compared with the upper surface layer of a
river. It occupies only one thenth of our total mental life. The ideas, thoughts and
image that we are aware of any moment of our mental life is the concious part of mind.
Pre-consecious : The preconsecious mind is the part of the mind that represents ordinary
memory. When we are not conseciously aware of this information at any given time,
we can retrieve it and pull it into conseciousness when needed.
Unconscious : Below the preconscious mind lies the unconscious. It is most important
of part of our mind. It contains all the repressed wishes, desires, feelings, drives and
motives many of which even relate to sex aggression.

2.3.3. The Concept of Id. Ego & Superego :

• Id. The Id represents the animal in man and it remains in the unconscious. It is the
source of mental energy and of all insitnctive forces of the individual. It is quite
selfish and unethical. It operates according to the pleasure principle.
• Super Ego. It is opposite of Id. It represents ethical and moral aspects of mind. It
remains with conscious mind. it is idealistic in nature rather then pleasure-seeking
or destruction.
• Ego. It acts as intermediary between three stes of forces. It plays balancing role i.e.,
to control the Id in terms of reality and to appease the Superego. In other way it
may be termed as the executive of personality.

2.3.4. Stages of Development :

According to him, a child passes through five major stages of psychosexual development.
Each stage is characterized by certain behavioural changes. The stages are given below :
1. The oral stage : The focus of pleasure at the oral stage is mouth. The child's love
object is his mother's breast which he sucks to satisfy his hunger. The child's development
starts with the act of nursing by his mother.
2. The anal stage : It refers to the stages when the focus of pleasure shifts from mouth
to the anus. The child takes interest in the activites pertaining to known and pleasure is
drawn from activities like urinating and defecating.

39
3. Phallic stage : This stage is confined with the ages between three to six years. The
sexual pleasure shifts from anus to sexual organ. Oedipus complex is developed during
this period. The male child desires his mother and wants to destroy his rival, the father
but perceives his father as a powerful rival and is afraid of being hermed by castrating
him. The primitive fear of physical herm is called "castration anxiety." Gradually this
conflict is resolved by repressing his desire for his mother and identifying with his
father. The female child likes her father, and hates her mother. This is called ‘‘Electra
Complex’’.
About the oedipus and Electra phases, Freud says that these are the results of the sexual
attraction or pleasure of that children experience in the company of the parent of the
opposite sex.
4. The latency stage : This is the fourth developmental stage where in girls starts from
6 years and boys 7 to 8 years. They like to play with there own sex and neglect or hate
members of the opposite sex.
5. The genital stage : Puberty is the onset of the genital stage. The children at this
stage have very strange feeling, as they have strong sensation in their genitals and
gets attracted towards the opposite sex. At this stage they may fall in love with
themself, takes interest in beautifying themselves and even go to the extent of sexual
relation.

2.3.5 Educational Implication :

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis is very important in the aspect of human psyche and
the study of human behaviour and also as a therapy for treating the mentally ill. Children's
development of personality may be treated through the understanding of defferent stages
of personality as was developed by Frued like oral stage to genital stage.
The psychological counselling is suggested as required on the basis of analysis of the
structure of mind. Therefore, Frued's contribution is understanding development of
personality is revolutionary.

2.3.6. Check Your Progress.

(16) What is psycho-analysis ?
.......................................................................................................................................

40
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(17) Differentiate between 'Anal' and 'Oral' stages.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(18) Who is the author of psychoanalysis theory ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.4.1. Ecological Theory of Bronfenbrenner :

In the process of child's socialzation the Bronfenbrenner Theory of ecological
development is very important. In the perspective of davelopment and education of
human being this theory is very effective.
Urie Bronfenbrenner was an American psychologist. He was the son of Doctor Alexander
Bronfenbrenner and Eugenia Kamenetskaja, born of April 29, 1917 in Moscow, Russia.
He come to the United States at the age of six. He left his last breath on September 25,
2005.
He is admired greatly in the field of developmental psychology. His most important
brainchild was the ecological systems theory. In this theory, he defines four concentric
systems which are the micro, the meso, the exo and the macro systems. He later added
a time-related fifth system, the chorono system. The Bronfenbrenner ecological systems
theory lays stress on the quality and content of the child's surroundings. He maintains
that because the child develops, the interaction with the environments acquires a complex
nature. The chance for complexity appears since the physical and cognitive structure
of a child grow and nature. (Paquette & Ryan 2001)

2.4.2. Bronfenbrenner's Structure of Environment

The microsystem : This layer is very closest to the child and contains the structures

41
with which the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships
and enteractions a child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structure
in the microsystem in clude family, school neighbourhood, or child care environments.
The mesosystem : This layer provides the connection between the structures of the
child's micorsystem (Berk 2000). Examples : the connection between the child's teacher
and his parents, between his church and his neighbourhood, etc.
The exosystem : It describes the larger social system in which the child does not function
directly. The structures in this layer impact the child's development by interacting with
some structure in her microsystem (Berk 2000). Parent workplace schedules or
community based family resources are example. The child may not be directly involved
at this level, but he does feel the positive or negative forces involved with the interaction
with his own system.
The macrosystem : It is the outer most layer in the child's environment. While not
being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and
laws (Brek 2000).
The chronosystem : This system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a
child's environment. Elements within this system can be either extermal, such as the
timing of a parent's death, or internal such as the psychological changes that occur with
the aging of child. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental
changes and may be more able to determine more how that changes will influence
them.

2.4.3. Educational Implications :

This theory has dire implications for the practice of teaching. If there is any breakdown
being occurring within children's home, is it possible for ous educational system to
make up for these deficiencies ? It seems now that it is necessary for schools and
teachers to provide stable, long-term relationships. It is in the best interest of our entire
society to lobby for political and economic policies that support the importance of
parent's roles in their children's development. Bronfenbrenner would also agree that
we should fostor societal atlitudes that value work done on behalf of children at all
levels : parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

42
2.4.4 Check your progress :
(19) Why ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner is very important in the aspect of
socialzation process of a child ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(20) Differentive between microsystem and mesosystem.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.5.1 Holistic Theory of Development (Steiner)

Steiner schools have a pioneer approach to educate children, aiming to enable each
stage of growth to be fully and vividly enjoyed and experienced.

Holistic Learning Theory by Steainer

In the field of human learning theories Rudolph Steiner is a famous personality. He is
from Austria. He was born on 25th February year, and he took his last breath on 30th
March 1925. He is not only theorist of holistic development but mathematician linguistic,
philosopher, educator, artist, playaright, social thinker and esotericist. He is the founder
of Anthroposophy or spiritual science, Waldorf educator.
His theory of learning plays very important role for language learing. Waldorf schools,
all based on the theories and principles of Rudolph Steiner's work are all spread across
the world and all of them have extraordinary innovations in the teaching world.

2.5.2 Principles of Steiner Education

❏ Up to the age of seven encourage play, drawing, stroy telling, nature study and natural
things.
❏ Do not teach children younger than seven to read.

43
❏ Teach a child to write before you teach them to read.

❏ Find links between art and science.

❏ Engage with the child and make sure that they are enthusiastic about the material
being covered.
❏ Give a moral lead but do not teach a particular set of beliefs.

❏ Encourage learning for its own sake. Do not just work for exams.

Three Holistic Learning Ideas :

Through out this course teacher educatiors will see holistic learning ideas related to
making three kinds of connections.
1. Intrapersonal connections.
In this area social studies and other curriculur areas should be used to understand oneself.
❏ Narture and give to self.

❏ Develop intrapersonal intelligence.

❏ Self-actualization.

❏ Align actions with values/philosophies.

❏ Understand emotions, pursure interests, develop strengths.

❏ Imagine and create.

2. Interpersonal connections.
Social studies and other curriculum areas should be used
❏ Empathize and understant others.

❏ Narture and give to others.

❏ Understand humans and humanity.

❏ Develop interpersonal intelligence and social skills.

❏ Perceive interpersonal connections.

3. Interconnectedness.
Social studies and other curriculum areas should be used to understand the whole, to
see the world interms of inter-related and interconnected experience.

44
❏ Nurture and to give to all (enviornment, humans, other)

❏ Develop transpersonal intelligence : use logic, knowledge, intution, emotion to solve

problems.
❏ Understand interconnectedness.

❏ Perceive multi dimessionality of all things.

❏ See systems not parts.

❏ Embrace seemingly paradoxical ways of thinking (things are not either/or; rather
they are)
Three Views of Teaching :
There are three views of teaching as stated below.
1. Teaching as transmission.
The first and foremost task of teaching is to transmit knowledge. This is a teacher-
centric approach in which the teacher is the transmitter of knowledge. A teacher's job
from this perspective is to supply students with a designated body of knowledge in a
predetermined order. The main focus of this approach is to develop the academic
achievement of students.
2. Teaching as transaction.
This view perceives teaching as creating situations whereby students are able to transact
with the material. The philosophy of construetivism consistent with this view. A common
constructisist learning strategy is to help students generate what they know about a
topic before a lesson. This helps them to strengthen the connection between known
and new.
3. Teaching as a transformation.
Transformational teaching and learning invite both students and teachers to discover
their full potential as learness, as members of society, and as human beings. The ultimate
transformational goal is to become more nurturing human beings who are better able to
perceive the interconnectedness of all human, plant and animal life (Narve, 2001) Holistic
education is an educational philosophy consistent with the transformative view.
Academic achievement from this perspective is seen as discovering and developing
your unique talents and capbilities to the fullest extent possible.

45
2.5.3. Educational Implication :
Steiner believed that education should be disigned to meet the changing needs of a
child as they develop physically, mentally and emotionaly. So, in the aspect of allround
development Steiner's theory of holistic approach is very important in to day's world. It
helps a child to fulfil his full potential.

2.5.4. Check Your Progress :

(21) Mention some basic principles of Steainer's education.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
(22) What is interpersonal connection ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2.5.5. Let Us Sum Up :

The development means the process that result in changes in an organism right from
the beginning of its life. The term development is related to the overall changes, structural
as well functional, in all aspects of one's personality namely, physical, mental, emotional,
social and moral taking place contineously right-from conception till death.
The course of one's life from conception till death is devided into certain sepecific
stages referred to as the stages of growth and development namely, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood and old age. Each of these stages chronologically extent over a
rather definite period in years and is characterized by typical norms of behavioural
characteristics which are specific to the particular stages in all the different divenssions
of the make-up of one's personality.
Various theories have been put forward by different psychologists from time to time
for tracing the developmental processes in one or the other dimension of one's personality.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development idnetifies four distanct stages of children's
intellectual development sensory-motor, pre-operational concerete operational and
46
formal operational stress. A child's cognitive abilities develop as he progresses from
stage to stage.
Freud's theory of psycho-sexual development points out five stages of development.
Such as––oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. These stages are seperated from each
other on the basis of the shift in the areas of a sex gratification known as erogenous
zones. Failure to be appropriately greatified at a partricular stage may result in a fixation
at that stage.
Erikson's theory of psycho-social development brings out eight stages spread over the
whole span of human life. These ae trust vs mistrust (birth to 1 year) to ego-integrity vs
dispair (65 years onwards). Each of these stages is associated with a distinctive cirsis
of life faced by the individual at that particular stage. How well one will be developed
and acquire positive or negative aspects of behaviour depends upon the manner in
which those crisis of life are resolved by him.
Bandura's social learing theory emphasizes the power of observational learning. It
advocates that most of what we learn is acquirea through simply observing and imitating
the behaviour of others who are taken as models.
Bruner identifies three "modes of representation", namely Enactive, Iconic and Symbolic,
corresponding to the chronological and mental development.

2.5.6. UNIT END EXERCISE :

(i) Define and explain the meaning of cognitive development.
(ii) Why Piaget's theory of cognitive development and its stages are very important in
the context of child learning ?
(iii) Why Vygotsky's theory of social development is relevent in present social context ?
(iv) Compare the Vygotsky's theory of social development with the theory of Piaget's
cognitive development. Which one do you think is more relevent in today's context ?
(v) Explain Bruner's theory of cognitive development.
(vi) Write educational implicatioon of Bruner's cognitive theory of development.
(vii) Why Bandura's theory of social learning is very important in the aspect of child
development ?
(viii) What are the educational implication of Bandura's theory of social learning ?

47
(ix) Why psycho-socical theory of development is very important in learning ?
(x) How many stages are there in the psycho-social theory of development discuss the
characteristics of each stages.
(xi) Discuss the various stages f personality development of Freud according to psycho-
analysis theory with their characteristics.
(xii) Discuss the structure of 'psyche' or mind of the theory of psycho-analysis of Sigmund
Freud.
(xiii) Why ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner is very important in the aspect of
socialization process of a child ?
(xiv) Discuss the importance of principles of Steaine's education.

2.5.7. Answer to 'Check Your Progress'

(1) The cognitive development means the development of thinking process. It look,
at how we process informution, we receive and how the treatment of this
informations leads to our responses.
(2) Object permanence is observed in the sensory motor stage.
(3) Scuking schemes is reach in the sensor of motor stage.
(4) Inductive reasoning.
(5) Use of language and symbols.
(6) Lev Vygotsky's Social learning Theory.
(7) The distance between the actual developmental level and independent problem
solving ability.
(8) Jerome Bruner.
(9) Three modes of presentation.
(10) Inactive representation can only deomonestrate the part through Appropriate motor
experiences.
(11) According to Bandura reward and punishement both are very important for sheping
of behaviour. He opined that child's behaviour is reflected by satisfaction and
pleasure.

48
(12) This theory is very important to understand the socialization process because it
takes place through the process of imitation and observation. It is very important
for the parents to act well behaved because their gestures are observed by their
children otherwise they may imitate worng behaviour.
(13) According the Erikson, the stages of development are categorized into eight phases
marked by specific developmental charateristics.
(14) The duration of 1st phrase of development is birth to 1st year.
(15) Puberty begins in the 5th stages, the period of identity vs role confusion.
(16) Psychoanalysis is a shcool of psychology which did not originate in psychology
itself. It remians a concersn for modern psychiatry becaue Sigmund Freud who
was a pioneer of psychoanalysis was actually a neurophysiologist (from the domen's
of Psychiatry).
(17) In the oral stage, the focus of pleasure is in the mouth. The child's love object is
his anoher's breast which he sucks to satisfy his hunger. Where as the anal stage
refers to the stages when the focus of pleasure shifts from mouth to the anus.
(18) Sinmund Freud
(19) According to Bronfenbrenner sociatal attitudes should foster that value work
done on behalf of children at all levels parents, teachers, extended family, mentors
work supervisors and legislators.
(20) In the micro system the layer is very closest to the child and contains the structures
with which the child had direct contact.
Where as in the meso system, this layer provides the connections between the
structures of the child's microsystem.
(21) According to Steainer, up to the age of seven learner should encourage with play,
drawing, storgletting, nature study etc. the also suggests that teach a child to
write before you teach them to read.
(22) Interpersonal connections mean encouragement of developing the interpersonal
intelligence and social skills and to perceive interpersonal connections.

2.5.8. References
(i) Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J., The Growth of logical Thinking from childhood to
Adolescence (Trans. by Anne Parson and stanley Milgram), New York : Basic Books,

49
1958.
(ii) Papalia, D. E. and Olds. S.W., Psychology, New York : Mc Grow Hill. 1987.
(iii) Erickson, E., Childhood and Society, New York : Norton, 1950.
(iv) Hurlock, E. B., Child Psychology, Tokyo : Mc Grow Hill, 1959.
(v) Mangal, S. K. Educational Psychology, Ludhiana : Prakash Brothers. 1989.
(vi) Rudolph Steiner : Education : An Introductory Reader (Christropher Clouder, ed),
Sophia books (March 2004)
(vii) Wilkinson, R. (1996) : The Spiritual Basis of Steiner Education. London : Sophia
Books.
(viii) Miller. J. (1996). The holistic curriculum, Toron to : OISE Press.
(ix) Santrock. J. W. (2007). Adolescence, Tata Mc. Grow Hill Publishing Company,
New Delhi.
(x) Brisbane. E. H. (2004). The developing child, Mc. Grow Hill. USA.

50
Unit - 3 p The Early Years (Birth To Eight Years)

Structure
3.1.1. Introduction
3.1.2 Objectives
3.1.3 Conception of Pre-natal Development
3.1.4 Stages of Pre-natal Development
3.1.5 Stages and influences of Prenatal Development
3.1.6 Check Your Progress
3.1.3 Milestones and variations in Development
3.3.4 Signifance of these milestones
3.3.5 Check Your Progress
3.2.1 Birth and Meonatal Development
3.2.3 Screeing the newborn
3.2.4 Check Your Progress
3.2.5 The Newborn (APGAR) Scoring System
3.2.6 Check Your Progress
3.2.7 Reflexes and responses of Newborn
3.2.8 Normal Newborn Reflexes and Behaviour
3.2.9 Check Your Progress
3.2.10 Neuro-perceptual Development
3.2.11 Objective
3.2.12 Introduction
3.2.13 Importance of perceptual development
3.2.14 Development of auditory-visual perception
3.2.15 Check Your Progress
3.4 Environmental factors inflencing early childhood development
3.4.1 Objective
3.4.2 Introduction :
3.4.3 Environment availble after birth

51
3.4.5 Check Your Progress
3.5.1 Role of play in enhancing development
3.5.2 Objective :
3.5.6 Reference :
3.5.5 Check Your Progress
3.5.4 The importance of play in promoting healthy child development :
3.5.3. Introduction :
3.5.7 Let us Sum-up
3.5.8 Unit End Exercises
3.5.9 Answer to check progress

3.1.1. Introduction
As for as the human being is concerned, life starts with the conception in the mother's
wrmb as a result of the process of fertilization of the ovem (egg cell) of the mother by
the sperm cell of the father. The mother's womb then becomes the site and the means
for the growth and development of the new life and it is only after about nine months
that the baby is able to come into the world as a newborn. The period spent in the
mother's womb is termed as pre-natal period and is useully not includes in the
computation of unis chronological age.

3.1.2 : Objectives
❏ to know the conception of Prenatal development.
❏ to understand various stages of Prenatal development.
❏ to know the influences of Prenatal development.

3.1.3 : Conception of Pre-natal Development

The pre-natal development means the growth and development of a new life in the
mother's womb. In all animals, including human beings, the pre-natal period lusembles
the time taken by a germinating seed to come out of the social, which them grows and
develops into a full-fladged plant or tree. The processes by which a germinating seed
or conceived organism is turned into the nature plant or full-fledged being are collectively
terned as grwoth and development.

52
3.1.4 : Stages of Pre-natal Development
In duration of pregnancy is divided into three wqual segments called trimesters. The
first trimester (month-3) is essential to the proper development of the infant and
encompasses both the ovum and embriynic period of pre-natal development. This is
when all organs, nerve cells, and brain cells develop. This when most spontaneous
abortions (miscarriages) occur. They generally are caused by abnormal development
of the fetus and are nature's way of eliminating a chromosomal abnormality. It is vital
that all necessary nutrients be avaiable to the fetus in order to develop properly. This
period is also called the period of the zygote. This stage begins at conception and lasts
until the zygote is implanted in the mother's uterus.
The second trimester (month 4-6) is often reffered to as the "golden trimester." This is
wehn the mother generally feels the best. Morning sickness and nausea have generally
disappeared, and the mother in quite comfortable. In this period, the umbilical cord is
connected to the placenta. The placenta is un organ that serve as a medium ofr the
exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and the fetus. During
this period, all the organs that will remain present at birth are formed. The third trimester
compirses month 7-9. There are important months for the baby as its organs and body
systems mature and prepare to function on their own. The fat accumulated during this
time will give the baby a "hadd start" on life. The third development period is also
called the period of the fetus. The fetus will begin to resemble a human being, and
features will increase in clasity. During the fetal period the baby may8 increase in
length by as much as 12 inches.

3.1.5 : Stages and influences of Prenatal Development

Since the prenatal environment is the mother's body, virtually everything that impinges
on herwell-being, from her diet to her moods, may alter her unborn child's environment
and affects its growth.
Not all environmental hazards are equally risky for all fetures. So me factors that are
teratogenic (birth defeet-producing) is some cases have little or no effect in other. The
timing of expouser to a teratoges,its intensity, and its interaction with other factors may
be important.
The dubaping organism can be greatly affected by its prenatal environment. The
likelihood of a birth defect may depend on the timing and intensity of an enviromental
event and its interaction with genetic factors.

53
Important environmental influeces involving the mother include nutrition, physical
activity, smoking, intake of alcholo or other drugs, transmission of maternal illness or
infections, maternal age, incompatibility of blood type, and external environmental
hazards, such as chemicals, and radiation. External influences may also affect the father's
sperm, such as teratogemic, fetal alchol syndrome (FAS) and AIDS.

3.1.6 Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by prenatal development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

2. What are the stages in prenatal development ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3. What is fetus ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

4. What is FAS ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

5. What is AIDS ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

54
3.1.3 Milestones and variations in Development
3.3.2 Objective
to know the developmental milestones and variation.
3.3.4 : Infants go through many changes during their first 12 months and so two
infants develop at the same pace One infant may reach a milestone early, another later.
Infants born prematurely tend to reach miles stones a little later. It is also not unusual
for infants toregress in one skill or another from time to time. Many infants, for example,
develop sleep problems when their teeth begin to come in.
The following is a general guide to some basic milestone for physical, cognitive, language
and social and emotional development from birth to 12 months.

Newborn to 1 months
Physical development milestones
❏ Infants develop basic reflexes needed to survive, such as sueking swallowing, coughing,
gagging, elimination, graasping, blinking and starling.
❏ Their eyes are not coordinated and may appear to corss.
❏ They cannot organize their hands and eyes to work together
Cognitive developmental molestones
❏ Infant will watch an object about 12-15 inches away, especially if it is moving slowly
from one side of their field of vision to the other.
❏ They can distinguish smells and taste. They may prefer sweet-testing liquids and wil
recoil from unpleasant smells.
Language developmental milestone
❏ Infants communicate mostly by crying but sometines by making other noises.
❏ They will turn in direction of a familiar voice.
Social and emotional development milestones
❏ Infants will sleep, on average, between 17 and 19 hours a day. But they do it in a
series of short sleeping periods.
❏ They enjoy being held and rocked.

55
1–4 months
Physical development milestones
❏Infants when face down, should be able to lift their head and chest and look both
ways.
❏ The move their arms and legs in a squirming fashion and kick their legs out.
Cognitive development milestones
❏ Infants move their heads toward different colours and changes in lighting.
❏ They are attracted to people' voices.
Language developmental milestones
❏ Infants make cooing and gurgling noises, especially when a coregiver talks to or
smiles at them.
❏ They cry when they need someting.
Social and emotional milestones
❏ Infants respond with a smile when somone smiles at them.
❏A familier voice can soothe them when they are upset.
4–8 months
Physical development milestones
❏ Their first teeth may come in, causing gum swelling and irritation.
❏ They can support a bottle on their own during a feeding.
Cognitive development milestones
❏ Infant anticipate being fed and may open their mouth when food is in sight.
❏ They will focus on an objects and reach for it.
Langaage development milestones
❏ Infants will recognize their own name.
❏ They repeat the same sounds over and over.
Social and emotional milestones
❏ Infants have a strong attachment to, and preference for, their primary caregivers.
❏ They may start to show stranger anxiety around unknown adults.
56
8–12 months
Physical development milestones
❏ They manage to drink from a cup with a little help.
❏ They can sit up by themselves.
Cognitive development milestones
❏ Infants imitate the movements of their caregivers.
❏ They start to understand how to use common objects.
Language development milestones
❏ Infants will imitate spoken words or sound made by their caregivers.
❏ Infants begin to interact verbully with their caregivers.
Social and emotional development milestones
❏ Infants will try to keep their primary caregivers in sight.
❏ They may share belongings with other infants.

3.3.4 : Signifance of these milestones

All these milestones are the paraments of the dvelopment and we can say general guide.
Some infants will reach them early, some lates, not all infants will show all of the
behaviours on the list.
Therefore, doctors consultancy is very impertant things if it is observed that infant
does not achieve a majority of the milestones within a resonable period of time after
the end of stage and it may be seen that infant sudenly stips making consistent prigress
over several weeks. It is important to intervene early to improve the outcomes of infants
who donot have development delays.

3.3.5 : Check Your Progress

23. Sueking is the basic criteria of which milestones ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

57
24. Mention anyone basic criteria of cognitive development in the month of 1– 4.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

25. In which duration of month infants will recognize their own name.
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

26. Speaking word is the criteria of which milestones.

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.2.1 Birth and Meonatal Development

3.2.2 : Objectives
● to know how to screening the newborn
● to know APGAR Score
● to understand reflexes and responses,
● to know neuro-perceptual development.

3.2.3 Screeing the newborn

Newbron screeing aims at the earliest possible recognition of disorders to prevent the
most serious consequences by timely intervention. Screeing is not a confirmatory
diagnosis and requires further investigations. But this screeing is very important before
discharze a newborn from their respective clinic. We can take some guidelines from
developed countries such as high prevalence of certain endocrinopatheies, metabolic
errors and herming loss which, if recognized later, constribute to significant morbidity,
It we see the Indian seenario them we will see that neonates are not screened in India

58
becau9se the health policies have typically targeted mortality and infections morbities
but not disabilityes.
These policies have been successful in lowering infant mortality rates,but the net effect
of these gains has been somewhat offset by an increase in disability.
One of the basis requistics for a screeing programme is the availability of the
epidemiolegical data regarding disease burden. But in our country like Inida the diagnosis
is delayed due to lack of awarness among the professionals and of easily accesible
teachnices expertire.
Therefore priorities have been given across the country for inclusion ini the first phase
such as-congenital Hypothyroidism.
It has been included in newborn screeing programme and serves as a tmeplate for both
introductions, fulfilment of all cirteria and cost efectiveness of the newborn screening.
This is because of availability of smiple therapentic measures and the good response
that follow early detection and treatment.
Deafness –– The importance of screeing for deafness can clearly be understood from
the fact that if hearing aid can be provided in the prelingeual phare it can minimize the
negative impact 17 sensorinerved hearing loss on speach and language acquisition.
Hemoglobin Disorders : It is considered to be a serious problem by who. In India, the
career frequency of beta thalassema varies from 1–17% (mean 3.3%). It is estimated
that about 10,000 babies affected with beta thalassema are born every year.
G6PD Deficiency : G6PD screeing should be given importance. It should also be
included in the first phase but in regionalized manners. Both ELISA and
flouroimmunoassay based tastecan be done.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperploasia (CAH) : The incidents of CAH in India has been
found to be 1 : 2575 from a small sample survey. In a study from ALLMS, NewDelhi,
CAH was diagnosed in about 38% of children presenting with ambiguous genitalia.
What was most striking was that only one child out of the 53 cases studied was brought
immediately after with 14 presenting after the age of one year.

3.2.4 : Check Your Progress

6. What you mean by Newborn Screeing ?
.......................................................................................................................................

59
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

7. What is meant by congenital hypothyroidism ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

8. What is Deafness ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

9. What is Hemoglobin Disorder ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

10. What is G 6PD ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.2.5 : The Newborn (APGAR) Scoring System

Almost two decades ago the need was felt for a way to judge the codition of a newborn
baby quickly and accurately shortly after birth.
The original intention of establishing a scoring system was th predict survival, to compare
methods of resuscitation which were is use at the time, of through the infant's
responsiveness after delivery to compae prenatal experience in difefernt hospital. The
influence of various obstetrical practices such as induction of labor, eleetive cesarean
section and matirnal anesthosia and aualgesia might well be reflected in the score. It

60
was further more hoped that the scoring system would ensure closer observation of the
infant during the 1st minute of life.
Therfore, mostly we can say, the APGAR scroing system is used to asses newborn
infants for depression of cardiopulmonary and neurological function. Scroing is done
at 1 and 5 minuts after birth.

The scoring system is given below for better understanding the topic.
Sign 0points 1 points 2 points
Heart Rate Absent <100 >100
Respiratory Effort Absent Weak cry Strong cry
Muscle Tone Flaccid Some flexion Active motion
Reflex Irritability No response Grimace Cough, sneeze, or cry
Colour Blue, pale Body-pink; extremities blue Fully pink

Introduction :
Minimum Score : 0
Maximum Score : 10
The lower the score the more profoundly affected the infant is with score 5 considered
serious. A low initial scores with no improvement in 5 minute score is associated with
neonatal problems including denth.

3.2.6 Check Your Progress

11. What do you mean by APGAR Scoring system ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

12. What is minimum score ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
61
13. What is maximum score ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

14. How mucm points should get for fully pink ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

15. Scorinjg is done within the time of ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.2.7 : Reflexes and responses of Newborn

Neonnatal reflexes are inborn reflexes which are present at birth and occur in predictalle
fashion. A normally developing newborn should respond to certain stimuli with these
reflexes. Which eventually become inhibited as the child matures.
Newborn depend on their inherent refelexes for survival. Absence or extended duration
of these reflexes could indicate a problem with the baby's central nerbous system. Just
after birth, the newborn will be assesed for the following reflexes.
Rooting Reflexes : When a finger or nipple is placed into the baby's mouth, the baby
begings to suck. Also, if you lightly stroke the check, the newborn will turn towards
the stroking and open her mouth to accept the nipple. This reflex usually lasts for up to
seven months.
Plamar and Plamter Grasp Reflexes : The baby will graspan object placed in his
hands or carl his toes around finges placed near his toes. The palmar reflex usually
lastss three to four months and the plantas can last upto a year.
Moro's Reflex : This startle reflex appears with a sudden loud noise or any intense
stimulation. The arms and legs extend and the fingers fan outward, with the thumb and
forefinger forning a e-shape. This reflex usually disappears within there to four months.

62
Toxic Neck Reflex : The baby appear like a "fencer" when lying flat on her back and
fauing to the side. Whichefver direction her face is turned, that arm will extend and the
other will be flexed. Babies may sleep in this position for a couple of years; however,
an awake baby should not display this reflex beyond four months of age. Prolonged
display of this reflex in an awalke state could be an indication of cerebral palsy.
Doll's Eye Reflex : As with a doll eyes, when an baby is lying on her back, if you turn
her head from side to side, her eyes remian fixed. This reflex lasts up to two months of
age.
Babinski's Reflex : The baby toes will hyperextend when the bottom of his foot is
stroked upward from the sole to the ball of his foot. This reflex disapperes within a
year.
Stepping Refelex : When the bewborn is held upright with the fect on a flat surface,
the baby will make stepping motions. This reflex diminishess by the fourth month and
does not return until the baby begins to standard walk.
Baues' Reflex : When pressure is applied to the soles of the feet of a newborn lying
face-down, the baby will making crauling movements. This disappears by sik weeks of
age and returns when the baby is learning to crawl.
Traction Reflex : When a newborn is pulled up by the wirsts to a sitting position, hee
hand will first fall back, than life upright and held before it falls forward onto the chest.
This is a sign of maturity and musels tone.
Arm Recoil : The baby's are will flex rapidly after extending them.

3.2.8 : Normal Newborn Reflexes and Behaviour

Some newborn behaviour that concern parents are not signs of illness. Most of the
following harmless reflex are due to an immature nervous system and will disappear in
3 or 4 montsh :
• Chin trembling
• Lower lip quivering
• Hiccps
• Irregular breathing (This is normal if your baby is content, the rate is less than 60
breath per minue, any pauses are less than 10 seconds long, and your baby doesnot turn
black. Occasionally infants take repid, progressibly deeper, stepwise breaths to complete

63
expand their langs.
• Passing gas (not a temporary behaviour)
• Sleep noise from breathing and moving
• Sneezing
• Spitting up or belching
• Brie stiffening of the body after a noise or sudden movement (also called that startle
reflex), the more reflex or hte embrace eyevlex.
• Staraining with bowel movements.
• Throat clearing (or gurgling sounds of secrctions in the throat.
Trembling or jitteriness of arms and legs are comon during crying (Jittery babies are
common. Convulsions are rare. During suck with theirs months, and don't cry.) If your
baby is trembling and not crying. Give her something to suck on. If the tremblings
doesn't stop when your baby is sucking, call your physican's office immediately.

3.2.9 Check Your Progress

16. What is neonatal reflex ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

17. What does indicate in the absence or extended duration of these reflexes ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

18. What do you mean be stepping reflex ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

64
19. What is Arm Recoil ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.2.10 : Neuro-perceptual Development

3.2.11 Objective
(i) to know about neuro-preceptual development.

3.2.12 : Introduction
Neuro-preceptual development refers to perception of information from objects or events
avaiable to multiple senses stimulation. Because most objects and events can be seen'
heard, and touched, everyday perception is primarily intermodal. Despite the feet that
information about the world is carried through different sensory channels that each
provide distinct form of stimulation, we are able to perceive a stabel world of uniturg
objects and events (people speaking, cars hanking), rather thans seperate sights, sounds,
and tectile impressions. The seems work together as a coordinated perceptual system,
even in newborns, and intermodal perception develop rapidly and with increasing
specificity across infancy.

3.2.13 : Importance of perceptual development

How do infants lear is to defeet unified multimodal events suck as person speaking.
Evidence indicates that amodal information, particularly temporal synchrony between
sights and sound provide the gule that bins information across the senses and thus
serves as a solution to the age-old binding problem. Thus, amodal information plays a
significant role in guiding and constraining which aspects of events we selectively
attend, particularly in early development when attention is least flexible and capacity
is most limited. Later, when altention is more flexible and efficient, we can attend to
amodal properties as well as more specific properties of the same events in a shorter
time. Furthermore, because selective attentions provides the basis for what is perceived,
learned, and later remembered interssessory redundancy has a powerful organizing
influence on early perceptanl, cognitive, social and emotional development.

65
3.2.14 : Development of auditory-visual perception
Scientist have discovered that even young infants are skilled at perceiving amodal
information, that intermodal perception improves across the first year of life, and that
it develops in order of increasing specificity, with global information detected
developmentally prior to more specific leaves of stimulation. Consistent with the pattern
of differentiation and "increasing specificity" proposed by Gibson.
Audiovisual Space : As early as the first weeks of life, infants reliably move their eyes
in the direction of a sound. This early coordination of auditory and visual space in
important because it enables infants to discover visual information at the source of the
sound and thus promotes detection of intersensory redundancy.
Object and event perception :In the first month following birth, infants can detect the
temporal synchrony and spatial colocation uniting the sights and sounds of an object
moving and striking a surface. By two to five monts, infants match soundtracks with
object motions on the basis of fires levels of amodal information, such as substance
(elastic vs rigid), composition, tempo, and rhythem. These remarkable abolities illustrate
the principle of increasing specificity and how processing of global information such
as intersensory redundancey8 seafolds the development of more sepcific processing.
Social development : People provide a great deal of multimodal stimulation for infants,
including talking, laughing, singing and touching. Adults and infants also engage in
richly struetured multimodal interactions, called protoconversation.
Speech perception and language : Speech is interently multimodal, involving
coordinated falial, vocal and gestural information, and audiovisual redundancy promotes
learning in this domains as well.
Development of visual-tactile and visual motor perception : Amodal information
also guides and constrains perception across vision and touch. For example, when we
feel as object with our hands, we can perceive the same shape, size, texture, and substance
that we see.
Odor and vision : Young infants show recognition of their mother on the basis of her
smell, and breastfed infants prefer the order of their mother over that of another lactating
women, illustrating their sensifivity to object odor combinations.

66
3.2.15 Check Your Progress
20. What is neruo-perceptual development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

21. When infants can detect the temporal synchrony ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

22. What is scafolding ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.4 Environmental factors inflencing early childhood development

3.4.1 : Objective
(i) to know how environmental factors influence early childhood development.

3.4.2 Introduction :
The factors lying outside the individual in his environment are said to be the external
factors influencing development. The principle intention of this. S. M is to highlighted
the factors which extemally influence the development of the early childhood. Early
childhood is an extremely sensitive period in human development, during which the
brain, especially the circuitry governing emotion, attention, self-control and stress, is
shaped by a chil's environment. As children grow, the biological and environmental
factors that determine their development become intertained. When the environment is
a secure, positive one, these factors join forces to help maximize childrne's potential.

67
But when children face enduring obstreles tohealthy development, such as poverty,
inapprepriate care, or violence, environment and biology may route them on "course to
emotional, physical and mental health problems.

3.4.3 Environment availble after birth

The children are influenced in various ways from their immediate environment. These
may be described as follows.
(i) Accidents and incidents in life : The growth and development of a child is greatly
influenced by the good and bad incidents and accidents which he heppens to meet in
his life time. Sometimes, a small injury or an incident may change the entire development
course of his life. For example, if a child's nervous system is damaged in an accident,
it will hamper his mental development and in turn it will affect his development in
other spheres––social, emotional, moral and physical.
(ii) The Quality of Physical environment, medical care and nourshment : A child's
grwoth and development is greatyly influenced by the qulaity of his physical environment
and medical care and nourishment available to him for his living and working. Those
include open space, balaced diet, good living and working condition and proper cadical
care. The proper development depends on above mentioned proper condition.
(iii) The Quality of the ficilities and opportunities provided by the social and cultural
forces :
Social and cultural environment of a child are crucial factors for his proper development.
Because a child gets huge potential from his social and cultural environment which
influence he entire course of his development.
A few of such conditions are pointed out below :
(i) Economic and social status of the parents and the family.
(ii) The quality of the neighbourhood and surrounding environment.
(iii) The quality of schooling received by a child.
(iv) The quality of peer group relationships and company of a child.
(v) The quality of treatment mode available to a child and his family with regard to his
caste, religion, nationality or citizenship.

68
3.4.5 Check Your Progress
27. What is environment ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

28. What is medical care ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

29. Who are the peer group ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

30. What is quality schooling ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

31. What do you mean by economics status of a family ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.5.1 Role of play in enhancing development

3.5.2 Objective :
(i) to know the role of play in enhancing development.

69
3.5.3. Introduction :
In the childhood development play has a unique role to play. This issue is very important
because of the recent impetus for a more academic focus in early childhood classrooms
and questions about the development benefits of play. This concern is not only important
for academic excellency but emotional and social developemental. In this aspect, the
role teachers and parents could play in making play a developmental and educational
purpose.

3.5.4 The importance of play in promoting healthy child

development :
Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical, social
and emotional well-being of children and youth, play also offers an ideal opportunity
for parcents to engage fully with theri children. Despite the benefits derived from play
for both children and parents, time for free play has been markedy reduced for some
children. In modern times, the variety of factors that have reduced play, including a
hurried lifestyle, changes in family structure, and increased attention to academics and
enrichment activities at the expenses of recessor free child centred play.
Therefore, the childentric education offers guidelines on how pediatricians can advocate
for children by helping families, shcool system,s and communities consider how best
to ensure that play is protected as they seek the balance in children's lives to create the
optimal developmental milieu.

3.5.5 Check Your Progress

32. What is child centric education ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

33. What do you mean by academic excellency ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

70
34. What does it mean by alround development ?
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

35. What do you mean by optional development ?

.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................

3.5.6 Reference :
(i) Loeber G. Webster D, Aznarez A. Quality evaluation of neonatal screeing programs.
Acta Paediatrsuppl 1999, 88 : 3.6
(ii) Shetty T. K. Metabolomics : Impact on diagnosis and monitoring of inborn/aequired
metabolic disorders. Indian J Clin Biochem 2007, 22 : 3–5.
(iii) Devi AR, Naujhad SM. Newborn screening in India. Indian J Pediatr 2004; 71:
157–160.
(iv) Berkow R Fletcher Aj et al. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy 16
editin. 1992. Pages 1978–1979.
(v) Graef JW. Manual of Pediatric Therapeutics 5 edition. Little Brown and Co. 1994.
(vi) Ahvenainen, E. K, and Verstola, T : Evaluation of the Newborn Infant. Ann, Paed.
Fenn, 5:27, Fasc. 1.1959.
(vii) Gibson, E.J, & Pick, A.D. (2000). An ecological approach to perceptual learning
and development.
New York : Oxford University Press.
(viii) Rosenblum, L. D. (2005) Primacy of multimodal speach perception. In D. Pisoni
& R. Ramez (Eds), Handbook of speech perception (pp. 51–78). Melden, M. A :
Blackwell.
(ix) Mittal. S. (2006) child development––Experimental Psychology, Isha books, Delhi.
(x) Cobb. N. J. (2001). The child infants, children and adolescents, May field publishing
company, California.

71
3.5.7 Let us Sum-up
Early childhood is the most rapid period of development in a human life. Althoug
individual childhood develop at their own pace, all children progress through and
identifiable sequence of physical, cognitive, and entronal growth and change.
Because of identifiable sequences of physical cognitive, and emotional growth, it always
go through a stages from pre-natal to old age. The prenatal means the growth and
development of a new life in the moters wombs. It extences up to old age and passes
various stages like infance early childhood, childhood, adolescence and adulthood.
The early child development approach is based on the porcess fact that young children
respond best when casegives use spceific techniques disigned to encourage and stimulate
progress to the next level of development. In this aspect the newborn screeing is the
best thing at the earliest possible of recognition of disorders to prevent the most serious
consequences by timely intervention.
The another thing of newbron caring is APGAR scoring system.
The APGAR scoring system is used to asses newborn infants for depression of
cardiopulmonery and neurological function. The scoring is done at 1 and 5 minute
after birth.
In the same way, newborn reflexes are also an important thing to judge the baby's
condition at the time of birth. Newborn depend on their inherent of these reflexes
could indicate a problem with the baby's central nervous system.
In the total developmental processes, neuro-perceptual development perception is vital
things because without proper development the infant may face permanent disability.
Hence, neuro-perceptual development refers to perception of information from objects
or events availble to multiple senses stimulation. Becuae most objects and events can
be seen, heard, and touched everyday perception is primarily intermodal.
It is also an important task to detect the variations in development. The process of
knowing the variations in development is called developmental molestones. Through
this milestones we can asses the physical, cognitive, language, social and emotional
development from birth to 12 months.
As a conscious and mature caregivers, we should be more aware about the environment
of early childhood as an external factors of development. Early childhood is an extremely
sesitive period in human development, during which the brain, especially the circuitory
governing emotion, attention, self-control and stress, is shaped by a child's environmental.

72
Within this environmental factors, play is essential to development, because it contributes
to the cognitive, physical, social and emotional well-being of childhood and youth.

3.5.8 Unit End Exercises

(1) What do you mean by prental development ? Explain briefly the stage of prenatal
development.
(2) What is newborn screeing ? Why newborn screeing is very important after birth of
a newborn ?
(3) What is APGAR scoring system ? Briefly explains the importance of APGAR
scoring.
(4) What do you mean bey neonatal reflexes ? Discuss any two reflexes.
(5) Ehat do you mean by neuro-perceplual development ? Write an essay about neuro-
perceptual development.
(6) What care milestones of development ? Write necessity and importance of milestones
in development.
(7) Briefly outline how does the environmental factors influence early childhood
development.
(8) Write note on the role of play in enhancing development.

3.5.9 Answer to check progress

(1) The prenatal development means the growth and development of a newlife in the
mother's womb.
(2) There are three stages in the prenatal development.
(3) Fetus means the development of infant within 3 month's in the mother ovum womb.
(4) FAS means, Fetal Alcoholic Syndorme.
(5) AIDS is one kind of sexually transmitted disease.
(6) Newborn screeing is the earliest possible recognitions of disorders to pervent the
most serious consequences by timely intervention.
(7) Congenital Hypothyriodism is the first phase intervention of screeing.
(8) Deafness refers to hearing impairement.

73
(9) Hoemoglobin, Disorders––It is considered to be a serious health problem by WHO.
(10) G 6PD Deficiency is one knid of disorder is observed in the newborn.
(11) APGAR scoring means a way to judge the condition of a newborn baby quickly
and accurately.
(12) Minimum Score in 'O'.
(13) Maximum Score is '10'.
(14) Atleast 2 points.
(15) Scoring is done within 1 and 5 minutes.
(16) Neonatal reflexes are inborn reflexes which are present at birth and occur in
predictable fashion.
(17) Absence or extenced duration of these reflexes could indicate a problem with the
baby's central nervous system.
(18) Steeping reflex means the baby will make steeping motions.
(19) Arem Recoil means the baby's are willflex repidly after extending them.
(20) Neuro-preceptual development reflex to perception of information from objects
or events available to multiple sensus stimulation.
(21) In the first month following birth, infants can detect the temporal synchrony.
(22) Scafolding means support based development.
(23) Sucking indicates physical development milistones.
(24) Criteria of cognitive development as like a baby can distinguish smells and taste.
(25) Infants can recognite their own name in the duration of 4–8 months.
(26) Speaking word is the criteira of language mulistones.
(27) The environment means the atmosphere where we born and stay up to our last
breath.
(28) Medical care refers to medicalo support with medium and treatment if there is any
kind of disease or other things.
(29) The peer group may be classmate or same age someone.
(30) Qulity schooling refers to school environment which essens quality education in
this school ....

74
(31) Economic status means financial strength of a family.
(32) Child centric education means children are the ultimatum of education.
(33) Academic excellency means good academic performance.
(34) Al record development refers to the development of physical, mental and second
development.
(35) Optimal development means height level of development.

75
Unti - 4 ❐ Middle Childhood to Adolescence
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Middle childhood to adolescence
4.3.1 Physical, Social, Emotional capabilities emerging –during Middle
Childhood to Adolescence(From nine years to eighteen years)
4.3.2 Emerging capabilities across domains of cognition, metacognition,
creativity, ethics.
4.3.3 Issues related to Puberty
4.3.4 Gender and development.
4.3.5 Influence of the environment (social, cultural, political) on the growing
child
4.4 Let us sum up
4.5 Check your progress
4.6 References / Select reading.

4.1 Introduction
In times and places children are valued because of the reason that by studying children
we can unlock the mysteries of human species in general. The child became the best
natural laboratory for the study of evolution and the idea of development dominated
the science of man Thus was born developmental psychology a field devoted to the
study of development of child from conception through childhood, adolescence and
beyond. The period of life span from conception till birth is the prenatal stage which
is followed by the neonatal stage; the first 4 weeks after birth. This is a time of transition
from the total dependency of prenatal life to a more independent existence. Next comes
the period of Infancy, a period that lasts about 4 weeks to about 18 months, when
language appears. From the age of 18 months through the age of 6 is the age of early

76
childhood characterised by ‘play’. The actions that children make to switch over from
sensory motor thinking to thinking that involves internal manipulation of symbols. The
elementary school years the years 6 through 12 in a child’s life, is the most important
period. It is the period of middle childhood and late childhood which are filled with
both motion and emotion as the child confronts the diverse demands of school and
society. It is a period when children acquire intellectual tools, a capacity for intimate
peer relationships and socialization. The most life dramatic life transitions is that of
childhood to adolescence. Adolescence is the period ranging from 12 years to 18 years
during which a child takes one an adult like physique and intellect.
In order to achieve a detailed study of the developmental tasks that a child need to
master in the years of childhood and adolescence certain issues need to be discussed. In
this regard, the aforesaid issues related to development in middle childhood to
adolescence, the most significant developmental span, must address the followings :
a) What are the emerging physical, social and emotional capabilities during middle
childhood and later childhood?
b) What are the physical, social and emotional capabilities emerging during
adolescence?
c) What are the emerging capabilities across domains related to cognition,
metacognition, creativity , ethics.
d) What are the issues related to puberty?
e) What is the relation between gender and development?
f) What is the influence of the social, cultural and political environment on the
growing Child.
The content of this unit shall reflect the issues related to the aforesaid questions.

4.2 Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to :
• Enlist the different emerging capabilities across domains of physical, social and
emotional.
• State the emerging capabilities across domains related to cognition and
metacognition, creativity, ethics

77
• Explain the issues related to puberty
• Describe the relation between gender and development
• Highlight the role of the environment (social, cultural, political) on the growing
child.

4.3 Middle childhood to adolescence (from nine years to eighteen

years)
The middle childhood, especially the years nine to twelve, is regarded as a critical
period by both the Educators and Psychologists. Educators call this age Elementary
School Age, to the psychologist it is the Gang age while to many parents it is the
Troublesome Age. This period is a period of slow and relatively uniform growth until
the changes of puberty begins. Puberty, a critical period serves as a bridge between
childhood and adolescence. Puberty is a short period that overlaps the end of childhood
and the beginning of adolescence and is characterised by rapid growth and change.
Adolescence extends from the time the individual becomes sexually mature until eighteen
– the age of legal maturity.

4.3.1 Physical, Social, Emotional capabilities–during Middle Childhood to

Adolescence :
The emerging capabilities specific to a particular age is usually referred to as the
developmental tasks. There are specific physical, social emotional capabilities emerging
in middle childhood. There are :
• Due to increase in height and weight accompanied by influences of health, nutrition,
immunization and sex. The child moves toward sexual maturity or puberty.
• Middle childhood to adolescence is a period marked by emergence of four types of
skills : self help skills, social help skills, school skills and play skills. Children of this
age should be able to eat, dress, bathe and groom. Themselves with almost as much as
adults, this is the self help skill. The social help skill enables them to help others be at
home, school or among friends. School skills, enable then to develop the skills, needed
in writing, drawing, painting, clay modeling, dancing, cooking, crayoning etc. Play
skills such as throwing and catching balls, riding a bicycle, skating, swimming in
connection with play teach them to be cooperative. All the above discussed skills help
the children to make better adjustments.

78
 • Children belonging to this age group soon discover that expression of emotions,
especially of the unpleasant emotions is socially unacceptable to their age-mates. As a
result they acquire the capabilities to control the outward expressions of their emotions.
In the course of learning to curb the external expressions of emotions, they discover
that in doing so, they become nervous, tense and temper outburst and slightest
provocateur. After by trial and error or guidance, the older children discover that. They
can clear their systems of suppressed emotions by play, cry or laugh. Thus they acquire
the ability to handle emotions to conform to social expectations called emotional
catharsis.
• Social behaviour in middle childhood is popularly referred to as the “Gang age”
because they are interested in activities with their peers and often reject parental standards,
develop an antagonistic attitude toward members of the opposite sex and become
prejudiced against all who are non-gang members.
Purety
Puberty is caused by hormonal changes characterised by growth spurt, changes in body
sizes changes in body proportions, development of the primary sex characteristics and
development of the secondary sex characteristic. It affects physical well being as well
as attitudes and behaviours. The two major concerns characteristic of puberty relate to
normalcy and sex appropriateness. The psychological hazards of this age are tendency
to develop unfavourable self concepts; to become under achievers; unwillingness to
accept changed bodies or socially approved sex roles and deviant sexual maturing.
Adolescence
Adolescence is an important period in life span, a transitional period, a true of change,
a problem age, a time when individual searches for identity and the threshold of
adulthood. It is characterised by :
→ The physical growth is far from complete when puberty ends, its rate slackens in
adolescence and much of the age occurs is internal than external. During the later years
of adolescence, when physical growth will be complete, it is characterised by concerns
of sexual development.
→ Traditionally adolescence is a period of heightened emotionality, a time of “storm
and stress” and is characterised by temper outbursts, anger, sulking, refusing to speak
or loudly criticising those who angered them. Towards the end of adolescence, they do

79
achieve emotional maturity and learn to use emotional catharsis to release peat-up
emotional energy
→ The most important social changes in adolescence include increased peer-group
influence, more mature patterns of social behavior, new social groupings, and new values
in the selection of friends and leaders and in social acceptance.

4.3.2 merging capabilities across domains related to cognition, metacognition,

creativity, ethics :
The emerging capabilities across domains related to cognition – metacognition has
been well explained by J. Piaget (1970). The years of middle childhood to adolescence
encompass two significant stages of cognitive development namely Concrete
operational stage (7 to 12 years) and Formal operational stage (12 years onward).
The “way of knowing” or scheme development during this period ushers in the specific
cognitive changes which are as follows :
• Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)
The cognitive development of this stage is characterised by systematic reasoning.
logical thinking, concept of conservation of number, space, volume, mass along with
reversibility, ability to coordinate part-whole, hierarchical classifications, inventions of
alternative strategies but the thinking process is limited to a child’s area of concrete
experience.
• Formal operational stage (12 years onwards)
The cognitive development during this period that is extending through adolescence
is characterised by logic, reasoning from hypothetical propositions, ability of evaluating
hypotheses through testing all possible conclusions and emergence of capability of
perceiving present reality as well as possibilities and abstract experiences. Adolescents
at this stage acquire the capability of abstract thinking and reflective thinking which
make the adolescents a powerful experimenter and problem solver.

METACOGNITION
Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the
cognitive processes engaged in learning. It involves activities such as planning,
comprehension, monitoring, evaluation and completion of a task which is problem
solving in nature. Metacognition is said to be “cognition about cognition” or “knowing
80
about knowing”. The term was comed by John Flavell (1979) an American
developmental psychologist, who defined metacognition as knowledge about cognition
and control of cognition.
COGNITION – METACOGNITION
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap in that the same strategy, such as,
questioning could be regarded as either a cognitive or metacognitive strategy depending
upon the purpose, self questioning while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge is
cognitive while monitoring what you have read is metacognitive the distinction between
cognition and metacognition is vain effort, since they operates simultaneously of times.
The period middle childhood, later childhood, puberty and adolescence are the periods
of development and consolidation of metacognition
CREATIVITY
The psychologists label later childhood (from puberty) as the creative age, in the sense
that it is the time in life span when it will be determined whether children will become
conformists or producers of new and original work. While the foundations for original
activities is general not well developed before children reach the late childhood year,
Adolescents who have been encouraged to be creative in their play and academic work
as children develop a feeling of individuality and identity that has a favorable effect on
their self concepts. By contrast, adolescents who have been forced to conform to an
approved pattern since earliest childhood lack a feeling of identity and of individuality.
ETHICS
In recent days, there is a growing trend to take into account the ethical aspects of research.
It involves considering the rights of the subjects, emphasis being placed on asking their
consent to participate in experiments or for the very young, the consent of parents or
guardians. Shuch an attitude made it more difficult to get subjects for scientific research.

4.3.3 Issues related to puberty :

Puberty is caused by hormonal changes, which, because they are not controllable to
date, come at variable times. The average age for girls in thirteen years, and for boys,
fourteen the fourteen and a half years. It is a time of rapid growth and change characterised
by changes in boys size, changes in body proportions, development of the primary sex
characteristics and development of the secondary sex characteristics. These changes

81
are most rapid during the ages between 8.5 and 11.5 years with a peak coming, on the
average at 12.5 years for girls while for boys it is between 10.5 and 14.5 years reaching
a peak between 14.5 and 15.5 years.
The major areas of concern or the issues related to puberty are :
• Puberty affect physical wellbeing as well as attitudes and behavior since these
effects tend to be unfavourable especially during the early part of puberty
• Two major concerns characteristic of puberty relate to normalcy and sex
appropriateness.
• There are certain psychological issues related to puberty, the most common being
the tendency to develop unfavourable self-concepts; to become underachievers;
unwillingness to accept changed bodies or socially approved sex roles and deviant sexual
maturing.
• The three A’s of happiness – acceptance, affection and achievement are often violated
during these years and hence puberty tends to be one of the most unhappy periods of
the life span, called ‘negative phase’ by charlotte Buhler.

4.3.4 Gender and development :

The gender and development (GAD) perspective emerged in the late 1980’s as response
to the prevailing Women in Development (WID) approach of the World Bank. It focuses
on the different approaches in addressing gender and development issues, society
constructed basis of differences between men and women and emphasizes the need to
challenge existing gender roles and relations the major issues related to gender and
development highlights upon.
• Sex and gender : How do they differ?
• Gender socialization
• Gender socialization in classroom/learning situation gender fair education.
Sex and gender implies the idea that sex is aboligical characteristics, gender is a
social characteristics.
Gender socialization is the process by which norms and expectations in relation to
gender are learned by women and men.

82
 Gender socialization in classroom (learning situation encompass the use of gender
(he/she; his/her) in instructional language, classroom, management and instructional
materials like text books etc.
Gender Fair Education implies that boys and girls play, learn and grow together.
Teachers play a major role in creating school environments that are free of gender bias.

4.3.5 Influence of Environment (social, cultural, political) on the Growing Child :

The environment plays a deciding role in the development of a growing child, be it
social, cultural, political or so on.

• Social Environment
The social environment and its forces help to nurture the development of a growing
child. The influence exerted by the social environment is manifested through the social
expectations about the stage of development. Every society or social group expects its
member to master certain skills and acquire certain approved patterns of growth and
behavior at various ages of life span. In the middle childhood, later childhood and
adolescence, there are certain developmental tasks which the society expects of them
(Havighurst). The sociometric status of a growing child, the peer group influence,
attitudes of peers, family treatment, interactions with the relatives, members of
neighbourhood and community shape the personality of a growing child.
• Cultural Changes
The development of a growing child is affected by cultural changes because it is molded
to conform to cultural standards and ideals, changes children brought up in western
culture differ in developmental aspects (language, personality, attitude, values etc.) than
those reared eastern/oriental culture.
• Political Environment
The influence on political environment is pronounced during the adolescence to shape
the ideals, moral standards, ethics and political values of them.

4.4 Let us sum up :

Developmental psychology study the changes that occur during all or part of life span

83
in all aspects of human behavior. The age span nine to eighteen years course middle
childhood to adolescence. The middle childhood to later childhood is the gang age
marked by strong interest in peers, play and the ability of emotional catharsis.
Adolescence is the period of marked physical and psychological changes, the foundation
of which are being laid in puberty. The period of puberty extending upto adolescence is
characterised by heightened emotionality, social changes, cognition and metacognition
along with creative interests. The social, cultural and political environment influence
the growing child especially in the manifestation of developmental patterns.

4.5 Check your progress :

I.a) The middle childhood is referred to as by the psychologists
due to intense peer influence.
b) The adolescence is the stage of according to Piaget.
c) The term metacognition was coined by
d) is the term used to denote the ability of the teens to handle
emotions.
II. Mention two cognitive operations that develop in the concrete operational stage.
III. Enlist two emerging capabilities of adolescence in the domain of emotional
development.
IV. State one influence of culture on development.
Sample questions :
1) Long answer type
a) Briefly explain the cognitive developments that take place during the concrete
operational stage.
b) Adolescence is the age of stress and storm – justify.
c) Explain your own experiences with respect to the emotional catharsis.
2) Short answer type
a) State two influences of social environment on the development of an adolescent.
b) Mention two characteristics of the formal operational stage

84
 3) Objective type
Choose the correct answer :
a) Puberty is character by
(i)Growth spurt (ii) babbling (iii) object permanence
b) Gender and development was initiated by
(i) WHO (ii) UNESCO (III) WORLD BANK
Answers to check your progress:
I. (a) Gang Age, (b) Formal Operations, (c) John Flaxell, (d) Emotional Catharsis.
II. Two cognitive operations that develop in the concrete operational stage are the
concept of conservation and reversibility.
III. Two emerging capabilities of adolescence in the domain of emotional development
are heightened emotionably and temper outbursts.
IV. A significant influence of culture on development is that the personality pattern
of the child is catered to the cultural norms, standards or ideals.

4.6 References / Select reading :

1. Hurlock, E.B. (2007), Developmental Psychology – A life-span approach (Fifth
Edition), Tata MC Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
2. Morgan, C.T, King, R.A. etal (1996), Introduction to Psychology, (Seventh Edition),
Tata MC Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
3. Mangal. S.K. (1997), Advanced Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of India
(Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi.
4. Papalia, D. E. (2007), Human Development (Ninth Edition), Tata MC Graw Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.

85
Growth and development are similar words but different from each other
though it is not possible to separate them totally.

It is a whole process which includes growth of the body as well as growth

of various aspects of child's personality, e.g., the physical, emotional, social
and cognitive development.

Development is a progressive change the child undergoes which

increases the physical, social, mental and emotional capacities of the child.
Difference between growth and development
 Growth and development are similar words but different from each
other though it is not possible to separate them totally.
It is a whole process which includes growth of the body as well as
growth of various aspects of child's personality, e.g., the physical,
emotional, social and cognitive development.

 Development is a progressive change the child undergoes which

increases the physical, social, mental and emotional capacities of the
child.
 Growth
[Link] is quantitative.
2. Growth comprises of height, weight, size and shape
of body organs like brain, etc.
3. It is due to cell division.
4. Growth is for limited period.
5. Growth can be measured.
6. Growth tells about one aspect of personality but in
limited scope.
 Development

1. Development is quantitative as well as qualitative.

2. In this with the physical changes cognitive social and
emotional change are also included.
3. It happen due to motor and adjust mental processes and
their interplay.
4. Development takes place till death.
5. It can be observed by matured behavior.
6. Development deals with all the aspect of personality and
has a vast scope.
 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES CHANGE- The
human being is never static. From the moment of
conception to the time of death, the person
undergoes continued and progressive changes. At
every age, some of the developmental changes are
just beginning, some are at the peak and others are
in the process of decline.
2. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTINUOUS -
One stage of development lays the foundation for
the next stage of development. Infants can move
their limbs (arms and legs) before grasping an
object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves
increasing skills from holding on to walking alone
 3. EARLY DEVELOPMENT IS MORE CRITICAL
THAN LATER DEVELOPMENT
The environment in which children live during early
formative years of life has a strong impact on their
hereditary potentials. Favorable relationships with
members of the family, liberal child training methods,
a stimulating environment result in the development
of better adjusted individual in the later life.
 [Link] IS PRODUCT OF
MATURATION AND LEARNING
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of
biological growth and development. The biological
changes occur in sequential order and give children
new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous
system account largely for maturation. These changes
in the brain and nervous system help children to
improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical)
skills.
5. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERN IS PREDICTABLE
1. Development proceeds from the head downward.
This is called the cephalocaudal principle. This principle
describes the direction of growth and development. According to
this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms,
and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face
movements within the first two months after birth.
2. Development proceeds from the center of the body
outward.
This is the principle of proximodistal development that also
describes the direction of development. This means that the spinal
cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms
develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the
fingers and toes.
6. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM GENERAL
TO SPECIFIC
In motor development, the infant will be able to
grasp an object with the whole hand before using
only the thumb and forefinger. The infant’s first
motor movements are very generalized,
undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking
before being able to reach or creep toward an
object.
7. THERE ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN
DEVELOPMENT
Although the patterns and sequences for growth
and development are usually the same for all
children, the rates at which individual children
reach developmental stages will be different.
Some children are more active while others are
more passive
8. THE CHILD DEVELOPS AS A UNIFIED WHOLE
His intellect is related to his physical well-being.
Physical well-being is affected by his emotions
and emotions are affected by his successes and
failures in school and by the environment in the
family. The children who are physically weak are
slow in the development of mental processes also.
9. DEVELOPMENT FOLLOWS AN ODERLY
PROCESS
The development of the child takes place in an
orderly sequence. A child learns to stand before
he walks, he babbles before he speaks clearly and
he learns to sit before he stands.
10. EACH DEVELOPENT TAKES PLACE IN
STAGES
The development of the child takes place in
stages. Each stage has certain unique
characteristics and in each stage, certain types of
behaviour or traits are more conspicuous than
others. The entire period of development is
divided into following five stages:
1. PRENATAL-PERIOD- It is mainly physiological
and consists of growth of all body parts.
[Link]- This is a period of newborn. Growth is
temporarily at a standstill.
2. BABYHOOD- At this stage, the babies are completely
helpless during the early part. Gradually they learn to
control the muscles so that they can become independent.
3. CHILDHOOD- This period lasts from two to thirteen years
of age. It is subdivided into two parts:
. EARLY CHILDHOOD- The child learns to gain control over
the environment and starts learning to make social
adjustments.
. LATE CHILDHOOD- It is the period when sexual maturity
occurs and adolescence begins. The major development is
socialization and is referred as ‘gang age’.
5. ADOLESCENCE- It is twelve years onwards till the
individual assumes adulthood. It is again divided into two
stages:
. EARLY ADOLESCENCE- Physical growth is rapid in
both boys and girls. There is enhanced mental activity in
general.
. LATER ADOLECENCE- it is characterized by tapering
off of physical growth but the psychological development
continues in many complex ways preparing him to adjust
to the demands of society as an adult.
[Link]- By this time, physical changes
are nearly complete but the psychological
adjustments continue throughout the entire stage.
11. EACH DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE HAS
CERTAIN CHARACTERISTIC TRAIT- There
are some peculiar traits that are observed in
children at a particular developmental stage and
go away after some time. The child’s behaviour
should be understood against the expected
behaviour of his age.
12. THERE ARE PERIODS OF ACCELERATED
GROWTH AND DECELERATED GROWTH
During babyhood and the early pre-school years the
growth is rapid. During the school years, the growth
rate decreases. Growth is again rapid during
adolescence but physical growth tapers off during the
later part of adolescence and by the time, an
individual touches adulthood.
 [Link] IS INFLUENCED BY
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
A child’s genetic inheritance (i.e., heredity) provides
the basic foundation for many physical and
personality attributes, but the influences of social,
cultural, and familial variables (i.e., environment)
also contribute to development.
14. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS AT DIFFERENT
RATES FOR DIFFERENT BEHAVIOUR
Development of mental and physical traits is
continuous but is never uniform for the entire
individual. Development of memory and
understanding is fast during childhood while abstract
thinking, reasoning and capability to take decisions is
at its peak during adolescence.