UNIT 2

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF INDIA

Structure______________________________________________
2.1 Introduction 2.5 Activity
Expected Learning Outcomes 2.6 Summary
2.2 Basic Geomorphic Terminologies 2.7 Terminal Questions
Commonly Used Terms 2.8 References
Terms Associated with Branches of 2.9 Further/Suggested Readings
Geomorphology
2.10 Answers
2.3 Geomorphology of India
2.4 Geomorphic Divisions of India
Himalayan Mountain System

Indian Peninsula

Indo-Gangetic Plains

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We have learnt in Unit-1 that geomorphology deals with the study of landforms, landscapes and
processes that shape the Earth’s surface. The landforms and landscapes are of various scales
ranging from mountain ranges, plains, plateaus, beaches, mountain ridges, river valleys, river
channels, sand bars, and many more. We have also learnt that there are two types of geomorphic
processes, namely internal (geological) and external (including climatic) that create landforms and
landscapes over a long period of geological time. The geomorphic processes develop relief
followed by erosion and deposition of the material. The geomorphic processes are not restricted to
a particular location, rather they operate at global scale including land surface and ocean floor. The
internal geomorphic processes play a significant role in shaping the land’s relief and controlling the
evolution of landforms and landscapes. These internal processes also generate enormous forces,
which break the solid lithosphere and divide it into numerous tectonic plates. The deformation
occurs at varying scales for creating, merging, or colliding tectonic plates, producing both positive
and negative relief features on the surface. It clearly indicates that geomorphic processes are
closely associated with movements of the tectonic plates.
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The external geomorphic processes operate on the Earth’s surface and reduce
the relief contrast of the landforms. Therefore, geomorphic features of any
region or country are a product of geomorphic processes that are operating
over a longer period of geological time.
You have read definition, fundamental concepts, tools, techniques and
applications of geomorphology in the previous unit (i.e. Unit 1). In this unit, we
will discuss basic geomorphic terminologies, branches of geomorphology,
geomorphology of India including major landforms and geomorphic divisions of
India.

Expected Learning
Outcomes___________________________
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define basic geomorphic terminologies;
 discuss geomorphological divisions of India;
 describe main geomorphic features of each division; and
 define palaeogeomorphology

2.2 BASIC GEOMORPHIC TERMINOLOGIES

We now understand that geomorphology s a branch of geology dealing with the
study of landforms and landscapes including the processes of their formation
and evolution through time. While getting introduced to geomorphology, we
have come across several terms in Unit 1 and earlier also in the course
BGYCT-131. In this section, we will reintroduce the terms along with some
associated terms for our convenience.
2.2.1 Commonly Used Terms
Let us first recall the terms commonly used in the context of geomorphology.
We know that landform is a fundamental geomorphic unit in the landscape of
an area while the landscape is a surface comprising an assemblage of all
landforms occurring in the area. Landforms are defined as three dimensional
geomorphic features (i) having specific physical characteristics, (ii) of varying
sizes, and (iii) formed as a result of interactions of various geological agents.
Landscape of a region depends on its geological history, which displays rocks
that are exposed at the surface due to tectonic activities, structural deformation,
igneous activities, erosion, etc. We have learnt this with the example of fluvial
and coastal landscapes. In a fluvial landscape, we can see individual landforms
such as channel, floodplain, point bars, etc. Similarly, in a coastal landscape,
we can find landforms such as beach, spit, hook, lagoon, etc. In a glacial
landscape, we can see a glacier, cirque, arête, hanging valleys, moraines, etc.
In a desert landscape, we can see individual landforms such as a dune, playa,
etc. developed by geological actions of wind. So, landform is an element of
landscape that can be observed in its entirety and has consistence in form and
its changing pattern.
Landscape is described in terms of topography. Topography of an area is
geometrical shape created by varying heights. While elevation is vertical
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distance or altitude above the mean sea level, relief is the difference between
maximum and minimum elevations in a given area. In common parlance, we
generally use the terms ‘low’ and ‘high’ relief to denote areas with plain and
undulation. It is the measure of roughness of a terrain.
Another commonly used term is ‘terrain’: Hoffman (1988) defines terrain as a
tract or region on the Earth’s surface considered as a physical feature, an
ecologic environment or a site of some human activities.
Let us now learn about topographic map and related terminologies.
A topographic map is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional
surface of the Earth. Topographic maps are based on precise topographical
surveys and are published in series of maps by the national mapping agencies.
These maps are drawn at different scales, like 1:250,000; 1:50,000; 1:25,000,
etc. A topographic map shows quantitative and precise representation of
physical and cultural features of the Earth’s surface through a standard system
of symbols, signs, contours, and colours. Hence, these maps serve as
indispensable tool for city and regional planners, natural resource managers,
and for engineering, environmental and geological studies. Three dimensional
features of the Earth such as height of mountains, depths of ocean bottom,
steepness of slopes, etc. are represented in two dimensions in these maps
through contours. Contours are imaginary lines that join points of equal
elevation on the surface above or below a reference point. Mean sea level is
the most common reference point. Elevation difference between two adjacent
contour lines is called contour interval.
Earth’s rugged, irregular surface is difficult to be explained by mathematics for
calculating the positions of its features. To effectively represent the shape and
size of the Earth in scientific and real-life applications, a calculable, formula-
driven model is required. The closer a model comes to the actual surface of the
Earth, the better it is for positioning. It is clear that the Earth is not a perfect
sphere, but rather slightly ellipsoidal in shape. For small scale mapping, shape
of the Earth may be considered as spherical instead of an ellipsoid. The
spherical model of Earth is called Authalic Sphere, which may be defined as a
sphere of the same surface area as that of ellipsoid. Cartographers use authalic
sphere for mapping on a small scale, i.e. 1:1 million or smaller.
Topographic maps are based on a framework developed by geodetic survey,
and the ground observations are referred to as a spheroid as it involves a large
area. A spheroid is a mathematical model that describes the shape of the
Earth. It is defined by equatorial radius and the relationship between equatorial
and polar radii. Since topographic maps need to accurately portray the surface
features, ellipsoidal model is generally used to prepare them. There are many
reference ellipsoids, which are in use by different countries and agencies.
Ellipsoid is a three dimensional figure defined by two axes (i.e. semi-major axis
and semi-minor axis), used as an Earth model in geodesy. The authalic
sphere is the reference surface for small-scale maps of countries, continents
and larger areas because the difference between sphere and ellipsoid is
negligible while mapping large areas on page size maps. A sphere proves
adequate along the equator (equatorial plane) but fails at locations closer to the

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poles. With large scale (1:10,000) maps, however, the difference between
spherical and ellipsoidal approximations can be significant, and hence we need
to take the Earth’s oblateness into account. The ellipsoid is a much better
approximation for the shape of the Earth than the sphere; the poles are slightly
flattened and the equator bulges. Unlike sphere, an ellipsoid can handle
dissimilar dimensions.
Datum is a set of control points whose geometric relationships are known either
through measurement or calculation. We can refer to datum as a known and
constant surface which can be used to describe the location of unknown points
on Earth. Datum helps to define the position and orientation of the ellipsoid in
relation to the Earth surface, and also the origin of the coordinate system.
Geoid is a representation of the Earth as an equigravitational surface. Geoid
(meaning earthlike) is an approximated figure of the Earth. It is a three
dimensional shape approximated by mean sea level, on which the gravity force
is constant and equal to its strength at mean sea level. However, it is not a
smooth surface. The gravitational pull is not uniform throughout the Earth
surface. This is mainly because of density variation inside the Earth. For
example, gravitational is stronger in areas rich in iron and other dense
materials. This results in undulating geoid surface which is not smooth and
regular. Due to variations in gravity, the geoid does not follow the ellipsoid
exactly. The difference between the geoid and the ellipsoid is known as geoidal
height.
The three approximations i.e. Geoid, Sphere and Ellipsoid are used to define
Earth’s true shape in different ways. The geoid is considered as a reference
surface for ground survey from which elevations or heights can be measured.
The horizontal and vertical positions are mapped with reference to the geoid
surface. Horizontal positions are later adjusted to the ellipsoid surface, because
the irregularities on the geoid surface would make projection and other
mathematical computations extremely complex. On the other hand, elevations
are determined with reference to the geoid surface.
2.2.2 Terms Associated with Branches of Geomorphology
We will now discuss some terms associated with branches of geomorphology.
Tectonic geomorphology – It is the branch of geomorphology that deals with
the study of interactions between tectonic and geomorphic processes. Areas
such as Himalaya are the regions of interest from tectonic geomorphology point
of view. It involves mathematical modelling and computer simulation of
landscape evolution and testing the simulations with topographic responses
from the data obtained using quantitative geochronology of geomorphic
surfaces and drawing inferences based on the understanding of tectonic and
geomorphic processes, structural geology, geodesy, quaternary geology, etc.
Climatic geomorphology – We know that landforms and climate are linked to
different types of landforms developed under different climatic settings. Climatic
geomorphology is the branch that deals with the study of landforms with an aim
to explain their nature, processes and distribution in terms of climate. Study of
tropical landscapes i.e. tropical geomorphology is considered as a part of
climatic geomorphology.
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Megageomorphology – We know that scale is an important component in
geomorphology. Many of the recent studies involve extensive use of satellite
based remote sensing data for local scale to regional to global scale studies.
This branch seeks to study landforms at the global scale in the context of
continental or regional evolution through geological times scale.
Applied Geomorphology – It is the branch that focuses on applied aspects of
geomorphology in finding solutions to various problems. We have learnt in Unit-
1 that geomorphology has applications in various fields such in natural hazards,
natural resources management, regional planning, mineral exploration,
engineering projects, and military science. According to Goudie (2004), some of
the roles of an applied geomorphologist are to map landforms, resources and
hazards, establishing rates of change and their causes, assessing management
options, post-construction assessment of engineering projects, post-event
evaluation and prediction of future events and changes.
Palaeogeomorphology – It is the branch that deals with the study of buried
landforms which include both land and submarine features such as fossil reefs.
It is useful for mineral exploration such as that of oil, gas and some ores which
are related to buried features.
Anthropogeomorphlogy – We are now aware that besides the natural
geomorphic processes, human can also affect or modify landscapes. The role
of human in creating and modifying geomorphological processes and the
landforms produced by direct and indirect anthropogenic processes are the
subject matter of anthropogeomorphology.
Planetary geomorphology - There are planets and their moons which have
their own landscapes. Study of surface processes and landforms of other
planets and their moons (Fig. 2.1) is the subject matter of planetary
geomorphology.

2.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF INDIA

India is a vast land consisting of unique geomorphic diversity and beautiful
landscapes. The three sides of India are bounded by sea waters and the young
Himalayan mountain system separates it from Asia on its fourth (northern) side.
As a result, it becomes an independent geographic entity, which is broadly
known as the Indian subcontinent. India contains almost all geomorphic
features present on the surface of the Earth like snow-clad folded mountains in
the north, plateaus and uplands in the peninsular India together with plains in
between them and narrow coastal plains along the coastal lines. These
geomorphic features consisting of distinct landforms and landscapes, are
formed by various internal (for example volcanic) and external (glacial, fluvial,
aeolian, coastal, lacustrine and karst) geomorphic activities. These activities are
variedly operating in different parts of the country. For example, glacial
geomorphic processes are active in higher parts of the Himalaya, aeolian
geomorphic agents are dominant in the great Thar Desert of the western India,
fluvial processes are operating in almost all parts of the country and marine
processes are active in the eastern and western coastal regions.

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(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 2.1: a) A view of an impact crater on Moon; b) Dunes as observed in North
polar region of Mars at location 74.98°N 300.02°E; Image taken by High
Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera on board
NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) spacecraft; (c) Layered
rocks within Schiaparelli Crater in Mars at location near 0.96°S 13.86°E;
Image taken by High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment
(HiRISE) camera on board NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO).

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You may note that the landforms of India as we see today have developed over
a long span of geological time. It has been well established that the two main
tectonic events namely, break-up of India from Gondwana during the Jurassic
about 170 million years ago and collision of India with Asia during the Eocene
around 55 million years ago, greatly shaped the geomorphic diversity of the
country (Kale, 2014; Valdiya, 2016). The volcanic eruptions of the Reunion
mantle plumes during the Upper Cretaceous produced Deccan plateau in
peninsular India whereas India-Asia collision produced the world’s youngest
and highest fold mountains belt on the Earth, known as Himalaya. The extent
and height of the Himalaya is so huge that it changed global climate system
and established a distinctive monsoon system for the Indian subcontinent
(Chatterjee and others, 2013; Verma and others, 2016).
The major geomorphic divisions of India would be discussed in the next
section. However, let us now get a glimpse of major landforms of India. The
country is bestowed with spectacular landforms developed by various
geomorphological processes and also by tectonic and volcanic activities under
different climatic conditions and rock types. Geomorphic diversity i.e.
occurrence of a large variety of landforms and associated features make India
a very interesting country to study diverse landforms. Many of the landforms
are also the major tourist attractions.
Some of the notable landforms of India developed by various processes are:
 the Deccan Traps, one of the largest igneous provinces,
 Barren island, the only active volcano, A & N,
 the Great Rann of Kachchh, a very large saline playa,
 sand dunes of various types in the Thar desert,
 estuaries and extensive deltas in the eastern coast,
 highly braided Brahmaputra river in the plains of Assam and the large
riverine island, Majuli,
 vast alluvial plains of Ganga and Brahmaputra in the Indo-Gangetic plain
 the Lonar Crater, a meteoritic impact crater,
 one of the great escarpments of the world i.e. the Western Ghats, the
Kaimur scarp of the Vindhyan,
 megafans of Kosi and Gandak,
 glacial valleys and lakes at numerous places in the Himalaya
 large tidal mudflats in the Gulf of Kachchh and Khambhat,
 granite landforms of Hampi, Karnataka
 volcanic plug in Mount Girnar, Gujarat,
 lagoons such as Chilika, Odisha; Pulicat, A.P.,
 typical atoll type coral reefs with their central lagoons in Lakshadweep,
 backwaters of the Malabar Coast,
 mangrove swamps at several locations across India,
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 rift valleys of Narmada and Tapi,
 picturesque gorges in Himalaya; canyons on the Narmada River near
Jabalpur; Kaveri Canyon, etc.
 numerous waterfalls across India,
 gullies, ravines and badland topography in Siwalik Foothills; Yamuna-
Chambal; Chotanagpur zone;
 typical karst landforms such as the Borra and Belum caves in eastern India;
Kutumsar caves in Chhattisgarh; Mawmluh (and others) in Meghalaya;
Pachmarhi in M.P., Tapkeshwar in Dehradun, Baratang and Middle
Andaman in Andaman and Nicobar, etc.
After getting an idea of numerous kinds of landforms of India, let us study about
the geomorphic divisions of India. However, let us check what we have learnt in
this Unit till now.

SAQ 1
a) What is the difference between landscape and landform?
b) Define relief.
c) List some of the landforms of India which are major tourist attractions.
d) Define applied geomorphology.

2.4 GEOMORPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA

As we have discussed in the previous section, India is characterised by a great
diversity in its geomorphic features. On the basis of geologic, tectonic,
structural and geomorphic attributes, India is divided into following three main
geomorphic divisions (see Fig. 2.2):
 Himalayan Mountains System
 Indian Peninsula
 Indo-Gangetic Plains
Apart from the above main geomorphic divisions, the other subdivisions include
Thar (Indian) desert, coastal regions and Islands as you can see in the Fig. 2.2.
2.4.1 Himalayan Mountain System
The Himalayan range is one of the longest systems of mountain chains in the
world. It is situated in the northern margin of India and also known as extra-
peninsular region. It extends for over 2500 km from Pamir in the west to Mishmi
Hills in the east (Fig. 2.3). It bears some of the loftiest mountain peaks,
including the famous world’s highest peak the Mount Everest (height 8848 m
above the mean sea level) and other peaks rising more than 7500 m above the
mean sea level such as Kanchenjunga, Dhaulagiri and Naga Parbat). It is an
arcuate range with convexity to the south and its width ranges from 150 to 400
km. The northern margin of the Himalaya is marked by a lineament known as
Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (Fig. 2.3). While the bulk of the Himalayan range
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is in India, it also extends into Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet. The Himalaya
comprises a chain of parallel mountain ranges (as shown in the Fig. 2.2) that
started developing around 55 million years ago when the Indian plate collided
with the Eurasian plate.

Fig. 2.2: Map of India showing geomorphic divisions of India.

The Himalaya is linearly divided in five sub divisions from north to south. The
subdivisions are separated by prominent thrusts (i.e. faults showing maximum
compression in horizontal direction) (Fig. 2.3). These subdivisions are
described below:
(i) Trans Himalaya: It consists of southern region of Eurasian plate and
northernmost part of the India plate. It is located north of the Tethys
Himalaya and mainly developed in northern Ladakh and the northernmost
Pakistan. Its height ranges from 3000 to 6000 m and consists of Kohistan,
Shyok, and Karakoram regions. The Trans Himalaya is also known as the
Tibetan Himalaya because its major part occurs in Tibet.

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Fig. 2.3: Map showing major subdivisions of Himalaya. (Source: simplified after
Kumar, 1988)

(ii) Tethys Himalaya: It is the northernmost region extending partly into

Tibetan plateau. It is given the popular geological name “Tethys domain” or
“Tethys Himalayan Zone” for want of any other suitable topographic
nomenclature. The region is over 3000 m in height sloping gently
northwards. It consists of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks of all
different ages. The contact of the Tethyan and Greater Himalaya is termed
as Tethyan Thrust.
(iii) Greater Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Tethys Himalaya and is the
higher part of Himalaya. It bears some of the highest mountain peaks
(ranging from 6000 to 8000 m). This part is almost perpetually snow
covered and constitutes the watershed for all Himalayan rivers, except
Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra which cut across this region. Greater
Himalaya is made up mainly of deformed (crystalline) metamorphic rocks.
The Main Central Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Greater
and Lesser Himalaya.
(iv) Lesser Himalaya: It lies to the south of the Greater Himalaya. Its height
ranges from 1000 to 2500 m. The Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, Nag Tibba and
Mahabharat are common high ranges of the Lesser Himalaya. The terrain is
consisting of thrust sheets and Precambrian metamorphic rocks. However,
sedimentary and igneous rocks of other ages are also present. The Main
Boundary Thrust demarcates the boundary between the Lesser and Outer
Himalaya.
(v) Outer Himalaya: The southern-most part of the Himalaya is called Outer
Himalaya or Sub-Himalaya. It comprises low hills less than 1000 m in height
that merge finally with the Indo-Gangetic plain. Siwalik is one of the
predominant ranges of this part of the Himalaya. It is composed mainly of

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sedimentary rocks of Cenozoic age. The boundary between the Outer
Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plain is marked by the Himalayan Frontal
thrust.
In the Himalayan region, geomorphic processes associated with glacial, fluvial,
fluvio-glacial, orographic and monsoonal rainfall are dominantly operating.
Additionally, aeolian processes are operating in a few parts of Himalaya
particularly in Ladakh (e.g. Shyok valley) where they have developed sand
dunes. The Himalayas reveal rugged relief, which is formed by tectonic
upliftment, followed by valley incision, glacial erosion and landslide movements
(Kale, 2014). The Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra are the main three river
systems of the Himalayan region. The majority of rivers of these river systems
are antecedent and flow across mountain. These rivers do extensive river
erosion and form deeply incised valleys at various places. The Himalayan
Mountains bear continental and maritime glaciers, which largely occur at high
altitude regions, dominantly in the western Himalaya. The Himalayan
landscapes reveal numerous geomorphic features such as cirques, glacial
troughs, U-shaped valleys, valley fills, moraines, erratic boulders, kettles,
glacial melt water streams, etc.
2.4.2 Indian Peninsula
The Indian Peninsula is more or less a triangular area enclosed within the low
mountain ranges as you see in Fig. 2.1. To the north, it is bounded by the
Vindhyan hills and the Satpura chain (2.1). The Vindhyan hills comprise low
mountains and plateaus that extend from Gujarat in the west to Bihar in the
east. The average elevation is between 500 and 600 m though some peaks
may go as high as 900 m. The Satpura range is a short chain, but higher than
the Vindhyan chain, with some of its peaks higher than 1000 m, for example
Pachmarhi (~1335 m).
The Indian Peninsula is also termed as ‘Indian shield’ because it represents
ancient and stable blocks of the Earth’s crust. It is the oldest and broadest
geomorphic division of India. It is a mixture of many Precambrian stable blocks
such as cratons and mobile belts (Fig. 2.4). The cratons are largely made up of
granite (igneous) as well as gneisses and migmatites (metamorphic rocks). The
mobile belts consist of metamorphosed Proterozoic rocks, in which gneiss,
amphibolites and migmatites are dominant rock types. The Indian Peninsula
largely shows erosional landforms and landscapes. These landforms are
granitic, gnesissic, basaltic, sandstone and limestone terrains. The fluvial
geomorphic processes are dominantly active in the region. The block
mountains, open and wide valleys, gorges, pediments, plateaus, residual hills,
inselbergs, mesas, cuestas, and steep escarpments are the main geomorphic
features of the Peninsula (Kale, 2014).
The Deccan Plateau region of the Indian Peninsula forms a major geomorphic
unit (Fig. 2.4). Its western margin running parallel to the Western Ghat, reveals
a 1500 km long escarpment, which is known as Sahyadri. The basaltic rocks of
the Deccan Plateau have been experiencing fluvial erosion and tropical
weathering for a very long time. This has resulted in development of flat-topped
plateau-like topography with step-like terraces. The weathering of Deccan trap
basalts forms black soil. This soil is suitable for growth of cotton. The coastal
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lowlands surround the Deccan traps on the western and eastern sides. The
Western coastal lowlands are narrow and consisting of hills and plateaus
whereas Eastern coastal lowlands are mainly aggradational and consisting of
deltas and deltaic plains (Vaidyanadhan, 2002; Kale, 2014). The eastern side of
Indian Peninsula is bounded by the Eastern Ghat consisting of discontinuous
and isolated hills.

Fig. 2.4: Map showing cratons, mobile belts and rifts of peninsular India. (Source:
simplified after Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).

Western Ghats represent a continuous chain of hills extending from South

Gujarat to Kerala. They constitute low hills of an average height of less than
1000 m though the highest peak called Anaimudi is 2693 m high. The height of
the Western Ghats increases from north to south. Western Ghats constitute the
watershed for most peninsular rivers, notably, the Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery. The Eastern Ghats comprise a chain of detached hills extending from
Odisha to Tamil Nadu. They constitute low hills with a maximum elevation of
about 1500 m at Mahendragiri in Odisha. The Western and Eastern Ghats join
together at Nilgiri hills.
All rivers of Indian Peninsula are ephemeral, monsoon-fed, and active during
the monsoon season and develop broad and shallow valleys by incising
bedrock. The Krishna, Cauvery, Godavari and Mahanadi flow from west to east
and drain into the Bay of Bengal where they form large deltas. The Narmada
and Tapti rivers flow from east to west along the Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament
and drain into the Arabian Sea. A majority of peninsular rivers are in the stage
of incision. The badlands are developed along the banks of the Chambal, Mahi,
Narmada and Tapti rivers due to incision and gully erosion.
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2.4.3 Indo-Gangetic Plain
The major part of northern and eastern India, lies to the south of the Himalayan
arc and comprises the Indo-Gangetic plain (see Fig. 2.2). The plain comprise
sediments brought down and deposited by the two Himalayan river systems,
namely, the Ganga and Brahmaputra along with their tributaries during the
Recent (Holocene) times. The plain covers the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam and part of
Rajasthan. They extend from west to east through which the rivers of the
Ganga system flow. The rivers of the Indus system flow towards the south west
into the Arabian Sea, while the rivers of the Ganga system flow towards the
south east into the Bay of Bengal. The Aravalli mountain chain lies in the middle
in a north northeast – south southwest direction. The Aravalli mountain chain
extends from Gujarat through Rajasthan upto Delhi. The highest point
Gurushikhar (1722 m high) is in Mount Abu. However, the main range
comprises low hills that project out from the desert sand. Aravalli mountain
chain acts as a water divide between the Indus and Ganga river systems.
The Indo-Gangetic plain is a flat country comprising mainly the alluvial
sediments, which are not more than 2000 m deep. It is the most fertile region of
the country. It is bounded to the south by the Vindhyan sedimentary rocks. The
plain bears many geomorphic features such as alluvial fans, floodplains,
channels, deltas, palaeochennels, meandering, natural levees and ox-bow
lakes (Kale, 2014). The river channels are unstable and frequently change their
route. The channel shifting is more common in the Kosi river. Meandering
channel is a distinctive geomorphic feature of the Yamuna river where as
braided river pattern occur along the Ganga, Satluj, Kosi and Brahmaputra
rivers. These plains have two types of alluvial deposits. The older ones
consisting of clay and calcareous alluvium are known as Bhangar and the
younger ones consisting of fine silt and clay are termed as Khadar.
The Thar or the Great Indian Desert is located in northwestern margin of the
Indo-Gangetic plain and spreads in the states of Rajasthan, partly in Gujarat,
Haryana, and Punjab. It represents an interfluve region between the Indus and
Ganga rivers (Kale, 2014). The Thar Desert is largely a dry land area of arid
region and here aeolian activity strongly prevails. Numerous geomorphic
features formed by aeolian activity such as hilly and rocky uplands, pediments,
alluvial plains, colluvial plains, dunes, desert pavements and playas (saline
lakes) frequently occur in the Thar Desert.

SAQ 2
a) Write names of the geomorphic divisions of India.
b) List the main geomorphic features of the Himalayan region.
c) List the common geomorphic features of the Thar Desert.

2.5 ACTIVITY
Given here is a blank map of India (Fig. 2.5). Perform the following activities:
i. Demarcate geomorphic divisions of India and label them.

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 Block 1 Basic Concepts of Geomorphology
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ii. Mark the area covered by the Deccan plateau.

Fig. 2.5: Map of India with administrative boundaries.

2.6 SUMMARY
Let us summarise what we have learnt in this unit:
 We have learnt several terms such as landform, landscape, terrain,
topography, topographic map and also terminologies associated with
branches of geomorphology.
 We have become familiar with the major landforms of India.
 Two tectonic events namely breaking of India from Gondwana and collision
of Indian plate with the Tibetan plate played important role in shaping the
geomorphology of India.
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Unit 2 Geomorphology of India
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 Almost all types of geomorphic processes including glacial, fluvial, aeolian,
coastal, lacustrine and karst have been operating in India.
 Himalayan Mountain System, Indian Peninsula and Indo-Gangetic Plain are
the main geomorphic divisions of India.
 The Thar (Indian) Desert, coastal regions and Islands are minor geomorphic
subdivions of India.
 Glacial landforms are dominantly present in the Himalayan region and
fluvial geomorphic processes are dominantly active in Indian Peninsula.
 The Indo-Gangetic plain comprises of alluvial sediments brought by the
Himalayan rivers.

2.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the main geomorphic divisions of India.
2. Name and briefly describe the five tectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya
from north to south. Also draw them on a map.
3. Discus main geomorphic features of Indian Peninsular region.
4. Mark the extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain on a map.

2.8 REFERENCES
 Chatterjee, S., Goswami, A. Scotese, C. (2013) The longest voyage:
tectonic, magmatic, and paleoclimatic evolution of the Indian plate during its
northward flight from Gondwana to Asia, Gondwana Research, 23: 238–
267.
 Goudie. A.S. (2004) Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Volume 1,
Routledge, London, 1156p.
 Hoffman, M. (1988) Dictionary of Geology, GOYLsaaB, New Delhi, 572p.
 Kale, V.S. (2014) Landscapes and Landforms of India. Springer, Dordrecht.
 Kumar, R. (1988) Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy of
India, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.
 Ramakrishnan, M. and Vaidyanadhan, R. (2008) Geology of India, Volume
1, Geological Society of India, Bangalore.
 Vaidyanadhan, R. (2002) Geomorphology of the Indian subcontinent.
Monograph of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Dehra Dun.
 Valdiya, K.S. (2016) The Making of India: Geodynamic Evolution, Society of
Earth Scientists Series, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.
 Verma, O., Khosla, A., Goin, F.J., Kour, J. (2016) Historical biogeography of
the Late Cretaceous vertebrates of India: comparison of geophysical and
paleontological data, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science
Bulletin 71: 317–330.

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 Block 1 Basic Concepts of Geomorphology
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 Panigrahy, R.K. (2012) Unit-8 Datums, Map Projections and Coordinate
Systems, in MGY-001 Introduction to Geoinformatics, Block-3 Basics of
Mapping, [Link]

2.9 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READINGS

 Biyani, A.K. (2007) Dimensions of Himalayan Geology, Satish Serial
Publishing House, Delhi.
 Dubey, A.K. (2014) Understanding an Orogeny: Structural Evolution of the
Himalaya, Springer, Germany.
 Valdiya, K.S. (1984) Aspects of Tectonics: Focus on South-Central Asia,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.

2.10 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions
1. a) Landforms are defined as three dimensional geomorphic features (i)
having specific physical characteristics, (ii) of varying sizes, (iii) formed
as a result of interactions of various geological agents. Landscape is a
surface comprising an assemblage of all the landforms occurring in an
area. Landscape of a region depends on its geological history, which
determines the rocks that are exposed due to tectonic activities,
structural deformation, igneous activities, and erosion, etc.
b) Relief is the difference between the maximum and minimum elevations in
a given area. It is a measure of roughness of a terrain.
c) List some of the Indian landforms which are of major tourist attraction.
d) Applied geomorphology is the branch of geomorphology that focuses on
applied aspects of geomorphology. This helps in finding solution to
various problems in different fields such in natural hazards, natural
resource management, regional planning, mineral exploration,
engineering projects, and military science.
2. a) The Himalayan Mountain system, Indian Peninsula and Indo-Gangetic
plains are the main geomorphic divisions of India.
b) The main geomorphic features of the Himalayan region are cirques,
glacial troughs, U-shaped valleys, valley fills, moraines, erratic boulders,
kettles, glacial melt water streams.
c) The hilly and rocky uplands, pediments, alluvial plains, colluvial plains,
dunes, desert pavements and playas (saline lakes) are common
geomorphic features of Thar Desert.
Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to Section 2.4.
2. Please refer to Subsection 2.4.1.
3. Please refer to Subsection 2.4.2
4. Please refer to the Fig. 2.2.

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